March 26-29

The Successful Design and Construction of Solar/Electric Boats Nusrat and Muavenet: An Overview
M. Cansin Ozden Istanbul Technical University, Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering BSc1 E-mail: ozden@itu.edu.tr Ersin Demir Istanbul Technical University, Mechanical Engineering BSc Istanbul Technical University, Industrial Product Design MSc1 E-mail: demirers@itu.edu.tr Abstract: Nusrat and Muavenet are solar/electric boats designed and constructed by Istanbul Technical University Solar/Electric Boat Team, for Solar Splash - Intercollegiate World Championship of Solar/ Electric Boating. This paper illustrates the practical new technologies (naval architecture small craft design, mechanical and electrical design), rational design and engineering approach, safety and reliability methods used in solar boats Nusrat and Muavenet which have succeeded in Solar Splash 2007 and Solar Splash 2008 winning a total of 16 awards. A detailed overview about the design, construction, test and application processes of these two solar boats are given. Keywords: Solar boat, electric boat, electric drive, surface piercing propulsion, forward facing propulsion, full-scale model test, MPPT, maximum power point tracker, telemetry, safety, reliability,
survivability

1. Introduction Marine solar vehicles are boats propelled by direct solar energy. These vehicles use solar cells that transform the usable solar energy into electrical energy, which is then stored temporarily in accumulator batteries to be used in propelling the boat through an electric motor and a drive system. Power values vary from a few hundred watts to a few kilowatts. Solar power started to be used in boats in around 1985, and the first commercial solar boats are introduced in 1995 [1]. Nowadays, one of the most intensive research, design and application processes about solar boats is being carried out by Solar Splash Event - Intercollegiate World Championship of Solar/Electric Boating, being held by ASME and IEEE for 15 years - and its organizers and contestants. During these 15 years of competitive process, around 80 different

universities from various countries, more than 1500 students and teachers are involved in the production of more than 100 different solar boats. These design and research works created by the teams are published as technical reports, helping the teams to learn from their rivals works and improve [2], [3]. Istanbul Technical University Solar/Electric Boat Team, founded in 2004 by the authors of this paper, is an interdisciplinary student team consisting of both undergraduate and graduate students from different programs, namely; naval architecture, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, control engineering and industrial design. The aim of the team is to design and build solar race boats as well as to develop and apply innovative sub-systems for solar boats. In the wake of the knowledge supplied by Solar Splash Organization, the team has designed, tested and built two different solar boats named

Ongoing

as Nusrat and Muavenet, and competed in Solar Splash 2007 and Solar Splash 2008 (Intercollegiate World Championship of Solar/Electric Boating). With the help of innovative systems (Naval architecture, small craft design, mechanical & electrical design and communication subjects) designed and used in these two solar boats, the team managed to win a total of 16 awards concerning their speed, maneuverability and efficiency in race events and their mechanical, electrical and aesthetic designs. These two boats represent the state of art considering the functionality, aesthetics, reliability and cost criterions. This paper constitutes a base for the future solar/electric boat studies as it covers new technologies, rational engineering approach, safety and reliability methods used in the design and production of two successful solar-electric boats.

presents the design and production processes and the specific attributes of the solar boat, Visual Display (40 points); The aim is to prepare visual data, such as videos, posters, models and samples which illustrates your work, Workmanship (20 points). In addition to major and auxiliary stages, there are design prizes which are awarded by experts and panel of judges by evaluation of the boats design attributes [4].

Figure 1: A view of endurance race

2. Race Overview And Summary Solar Splash is the intercollegiate World Championship of Solar/Electric Boating, being held every year since 1994 in United States of America. The contestants are student teams representing their universities which are from different countries such as Japan, U.S.A., Canada, United Kingdom, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Turkey [3]. Solar Splash has two major attributes that separate it from other similar organizations; the longevity of the organization and knowledge created in this process, and the hybrid structure of the competition. Within the competition history, around 80 different universities from various countries, more than 1500 students and teachers are involved in the production of more than 100 different solar boats [2], [3]. Today, Solar Splash is a reference organization that contains the knowledge, rules and safety precautions to build a solar boat. The event is composed of 4 major race stages and 3 auxiliary technical stages, in which the teams have to compete and earn points. The major race stages are: Qualification Race (100 points); The aim is to be successful at speed and maneuverability tests, Endurance Race (400 points) as shown in fig. 1; The aim is to cover the most laps around a closed loop course in 2 hours, Sprint Race (250 points) as shown in fig. 2; The aim is to cover a 300m straight course in smallest amount of time, Slalom Race (100 points); The aim is to cover a 300m winding course in smallest amount of time. The auxiliary stages are: Technical Report (90 points); The aim is to prepare a technical report that clearly

Figure 2: A view of sprint race

The limitations of Solar Splash that directly affect the solar boat design are: Dimensional limits of 6m length, 2.4m width, 1.5m freeboard, 1m draft, electrical limits of 36V source voltage, 52V system voltage, power limits of 480W solar cells, 1000W (30.5kg) endurance batteries, 1500W (45kg) sprint and slalom batteries. The competition allows a maximum of 3 different configurations (systems and parts) provided that the hull is not changed [4]. The team managed to win a total of 16 awards (A record in the competitions history) in these two competitions including; world #3 award, outstanding solar system design, outstanding electrical system design (2007 by solar boat Nusrat), world #2 award, outstanding overall system design, best boat design, slalom #1 award, most commercially viable hull design (2008 by solar boat Muavenet) [2]. 3. Design Considerations Design of a solar boat requires a somewhat different method when compared to those used in conventional boats. The first step on designing a solar boat is determining the total solar panel area required for specific resistance and speed values. Necessity to use waterresistant materials, electricity-oriented drive

train and power systems are additional differences of a solar boat design. In addition, design of a marine solar vehicle is different than design of a terrestrial solar vehicle. The vehicle is exposed to two different fluids, namely water and air. This increases the complexity of the design process. After the hydrodynamic design, arrangement plan, calculations and analysis are finished; a model must be built and tested to obtain the resistance values for different speeds. The battery pack and solar array must be designed together to achieve the energy goals. MPPT, and motor controller circuit systems must be designed, tested and calibrated for the specific boat design as well as the drive train systems. The preparations started with the selection of hull type that can give the optimum performances in sprint, slalom and endurance competitions. Hull types like hovercraft, SWATH (small water plane area twin hull), hydrofoil, catamaran and ACS (air cavity ship) were examined and concept designs were made. A form having low stern separation angles at low speeds (5 to 7 knots) and planning hull specialties at and above 20 knots was designed for the optimum performance. In the guidance of Solar Splash rules (a maximum of 480W solar array power and 36V current voltage) equipment selections were made. For the endurance competition where efficiency is primary objective, Perm Motor Gmbh model PMG-132 permanent magnet brushed DC motor was chosen which has the highest efficiency at 1 HP power input from solar panels and batteries. Battery selection was made within the limitation of 30.5kg and 1000W/h from Optima Red Top Batteries. In addition to motor driver circuit and MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) circuit, battery and solar panel by-pass circuit for emergencies were designed and produced by the team. Also a telemetry system was constructed to monitor the parameters while the boat is operating. As power transmission, an outboard drive was modified for Nusrat and a two-bladed propeller was manufactured [5]. Speed of the new craft was dramatically increased when this outboard drive and the propeller were redesigned and manufactured [6]. In the sprint configuration as shown in fig. 3, where boats are supposed to race in a straight 300 meters track, within the limitation of battery weight and capacity, and for maximum velocity, two PMG-132 brushed DC motors were selected to operate at 15 HP [5].

Figure 3: Muavenet sprint configuration

For Nusrat, a surface drive system with a surface piercing propeller run by these motors was designed and produced. This system was an articulated design that does not need additional rudder system [5]. For Muavenet, this surface drive system was redesigned and a significant improvement in performance was acquired [6]. Solar slalom configuration combines the surface drive system of the sprint configuration with an interceptor system that was designed and applied by ITU Solar/Electric Boat Team. These two systems together meet the high maneuverability requirement of slalom competition [5]. The design of the new solar boat eliminated the need for the interceptor system as it has a more capable surface drive system, thus having a better maneuverability [6].

4. Hull Design, Construction And Tests Design Because of the unique race structure of Solar Splash, a solar boat must have a hybrid design enabling it to have a high speed, good maneuverability and high efficiency at low speeds. This is only possible by an optimization of the hull geometry [1]. In displacement vessels, improving the speed performance up to a specific value is possible. In the situations where Froude number [7] is higher than 0.4, wave resistance increases dramatically in proportion to hull speed, increasing the power needed to propel the ship. To achieve high speeds on water, the displacement volume must either be lifted above the water surface or submerged under the water [7]. This reduction in wetted surface can be accomplished by decreasing the draft of the boat via dynamic lift. There are several types of watercraft that produce dynamic lift, including planing hulls, hydrofoil-assisted hulls, air-cavity and aircushion hulls [8]. SWATH (Small water-plane area twin hull) ships are examples of underwater displacement ships. The hull forms that are effective in high speeds are mostly inefficient in low speeds due to the

fact that enough dynamic lift is not obtained. For low speeds, a slender mono-hull or generally a multi-hull vessel with a fine bow and fine stern is preferable. This is because there is a small bow wave and little separation at the stern [1]. The use of an air-cushion hull was ruled out early in the design process since it either requires a large amount of power at zero forward speed, or it requires very high forward speeds in order to produce dynamic lift. The use of a hydrofoil hull was also ruled out as it requires precise blade angle control, additional material reinforcement and it is also inefficient at low speeds [8]. After the initial researches and designs of a SWATH hull, it was understood that the wetted surface area is too much. A catamaran hull was also evaluated as inappropriate because of high mold costs, weight and low maneuverability properties. After a final research on air cavity boats, the team decided to design a straightstemmed mono-hull boat, as it was the optimal hull form. Availability of planing technology at the ITU Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department and Yonca-ONUK JV Shipyard, the main sponsor of the project, led the team to design and construct a planing hull. The optimum length of hull is when there is a wave crest at the stern [1]. If there is a wave trough at the stern, the ship is perpetually climbing up the back of a wave. The climbing corresponds to humps in the residuary resistance curve [9]. At seven knots per hour, the wavelength is 8,38m

These problems were figured out by trimming the boat to stern. The widening structure towards stern of the boat gives the planning craft characteristic when the boat is floating trimmed to stern. Boats have planning craft characteristics when [9] Fn = V / ( gL) where V is velocity of the boat, g is the gravitational acceleration and L is the length of the boat, is greater than 0.5-0.6. For a speed of 25 nautical miles, ITU Solar Boat Nusrat has 1.8 Froude value with its 5.5 m length [5]. Hull design was carried out with MaxSurf software. After technical drawings of form and general arrangements were completed with Solidworks and Autocad softwares, stability and resistance calculations were made to control boat's stability. Savitsky formulations were used in initial resistance calculations. In accurate design stage, CFD analyses with ANSYS CFX software were used to simulate the flow around the boat as shown in fig. 4. The constructions began after the positive results were obtained [5].

2 V 2 ). Since the maximum ( Wavelength = g

overall length allowed in the competition is 6m and this is less than the optimum length, the hull should have been brought to the maximum length (including the drive train) allowed by the competition. Advantage of low bow separation angle is decrease in wave resistance at low speeds and increase in efficiency, and also with the advantage of low deadrise angle, chinny geometry and transom stern, the hull is able to perform in a planing hull characteristic with optimum trim angle minimizing the resistance. Adjustable locations of ballasts inside the hull provide a variable trim angle which allows the bow to leave the water mark completely and this increases the maneuverability. Thus, in the endurance configuration, it is expected that the mono-hull form reaches its highest speed in displacement mode. In the sprint and slalom races, this slight bow form resulted in some steering problems and increased the resistance.

Figure 4: Dynamic analysis of hull geometry Construction In addition to being the main sponsor, YoncaONUK JV Shipyard also participated in and supervised the construction of both hulls. Male mold was fabricated by marine plywood cover on square cross-sectioned battens of 20mm X 20mm holding 10 poplar plywood frames of 20mm in thickness and 550mm offset as shown in fig. 5.

Figure 5: Male mold construction

layer 600 g / m 2 carbon fiber sandwich construction. At the bow bilge where the bearings are mounted, a plate of AISI 316 stainless steel was laminated into the carbon and bearing was screwed on this plate [6] At the sprint configuration the length of the drive train shaft was required to be longer and to stay in the length constraints of Solar Splash, the new boats length was decided as 5.22 m. The 38 cm-long freeboard of 2007 boat was shortened about 15 cm. After these design modifications on the mold and construction method, the hull weight of the 2008 boat was acquired to be 41.5 kg whereas the hull weight of 2007 boat was 81 kg. Transparent gel coat was used to be able to see the grid appearance and the beauty grey color of carbon fiber [6]. Calm Water Full-Scale Model Tests As soon as the male mold was produced, model tests which affect the design of the drive train were made. These full scale tests have vital importance on observing the hulls performance on water. A new method was developed and used to realize a full scale test. In this new test system, male mold was used as a full scale model and it was connected to a towing boat through the direction of the virtual shaft line of the drive train. To avoid disturbances created by the waves of the towing boat, an aluminum profile was used to offset the model away from these waves. To obtain the resistance values of the hull at different speeds, a load cell was added between the model and the aluminum profile which are connected by a steel wire. Resistance data was collected for 1 second intervals by a strain indicator connected to the load cell. Speed values were measured by a GPS while the trim angle was measured by an electronic spirit level. The water movements on the bow and stern of the model were observed using a camera recorder. The tests as shown in fig. 6 were repeated for different centers of gravity and trim angles.

After the mold was strengthened by using one layer of 225 gr / m 2 woven roving glass-fiber and Derakane 8084 vinyl ester resin. The mold was then applied Sicomin1610 resin, finishsanded, primed and painted [10]. Because of sharp geometry in the bow of the boat, the female mold was designed as 3 pieces. In the body of the mold, 80 GSW foam, Rovimat 300 g / m 2 & 600 g / m 2 and as bonding agent Derakane 8084 vinyl ester resin were used. After the preparation of female mold, the hull was ready to be constructed from carbon fiber. It was decided that whole body would be produced using sandwich construction method as the boat is transported to US in a container with ocean freight inside a container and thus must be protected from any damage resulting from loading / unloading processes. Firstly one layer of 600 gr / m 2 carbon fiber wetted with Derakane Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resin was applied on the mold. 20mm GSW foam was placed in the mold and another layer of 600 gr / m 2 carbon fiber was applied. (5) After it is cured, the hull of Nusrat (550cm LOA, 50cm Breadth) was removed from the mold. The 2008 boat was manufactured from the combination of one layer of 385 g / m 2 and another layer of 600 g / m 2 as a single skin. The essential strength conditions were provided by three differently located bulkheads, three longitudinal at the bottom and the extra coat of a layer of 385 g / m2 carbon fiber at sheer and chine. The transom stern that sprint and endurance drive trains were mounted on was manufactured from one layer of 385 g / m2 carbon fiber, 15mm GSW foam and again one

Figure 6: Full-Scale model tests

During the test process, thrust values needed for designing the propeller were obtained, water behavior (Separation on the front and rooster tail on transom stern) was observed and data

needed to design the drive train was collected [11].

5. Mechanical Systems Sprint & Slalom Configurations Propeller Design and Fabrication As the objective of sprint and slalom races are high acceleration and high speed, it was decided to use a surface piercing propeller. Surface piercing propellers are known as the most efficient way of propelling high-speed craft [12], [13]. This is mainly because of their large propeller diameters, reduced parasitic drags, elimination of cavitation and advantages of surface drive systems. SPPs (also known as partially-submerged propellers) are designed to operate roughly half in and half out of the water [14]. A design process was cooperated by YoncaONUK JV Shipyard, Rolla SP Propellers SA (Switzerland) and ITU Solar Boat Team. A 3 bladed, fully cavitating surface piercing propeller with a diameter of 37 cm was designed. In this process, data from calm water resistance tests were used as well as data from motor and battery tests.
Table 1: Propeller data Diameter Revolution Torque Design Speed Thrust 37 cm 1911 rpm 106 Nm 29 knots 700 N

especially for surface piercing operation of the propeller. Its joint system allows it to move horizontal for maneuver the boat and has a manual adjusting mechanism for vertical movement to control depth of the propeller [6].

Figure 7: 2007 Sprint surface drive system

Surface drive systems are generally constructed as twin propeller and twin shaft. These propellers have reverse rotation directions which avoid the boat from yawning (crabbing) and increase maneuverability [15], [16]. However due to extreme weight of twin shaft, Nusrats drive train was designed as single shaft. Surface drive system was designed in SolidWorks and strength analyses of mechanical parts were done in ANSYS Workbench. Main parts of this drive train were fabricated from carbon fiber which has low weight and high strength values. Other parts like rotating elements that require high precision and surface quality were manufactured from aluminum and stainless steel. General system is illustrated in fig. 8.

The propeller was manufactured by 5-axis CNC milling machine from a single duplex stainless steel block. Surface Drive System A surface drive system was decided to be used with the surface piercing propeller. Surface drives, also known as surface piercing drives, designed for race boats in which speed and load are fairly constant, the surface drive uses a propeller, as well as struts and rudders, that runs half in, half out of the water. The operating principle here is that air offers less resistance than water [6]. Surface drive systems provide an increase of 10 - 12% in speed as they have low appendage drag values. In addition to speed increase, surface drive systems increase the maneuverability, as the entire system is capable of performing a side-to-side movement [15]. The surface drive of the 2007 boat as shown in fig. 7 was designed and manufactured

Figure 8: 2007 Sprint drive train

Skeg And Maneuvering Flaps The surface drive was initially designed without a skeg, however after doing sea trials the yawing of the boat was noticed and this problem was tried to be eliminated with a skeg. Since the propeller is a left turning propeller, the boat was yawing to the starboard side. This yawing problem leads to have a good

maneuvering to starboard side but a poor maneuvering to the port side. Thus, ITU Solar/Electric Boat Team designed maneuvering flaps mechanism (Patent Pending) as shown in fig. 9.

With the flap mechanism, the surface drive system used in Solar Splash 07 was suitable and effective. The system remained trustworthy during the competition. But despite the advantages of this system, it could still be developed to a better design. When further inspections were made about the tests and competition results, it was concluded that there were some facts that can be used to design a better system. These can be listed as [17]: Insufficient side-to-side turning angle Too much weight and strength Complex assembly process Complex overall mechanism After these inspections, a design criterion for the new system was formed. Basic power transmission mechanism was preserved, and the design was built upon that mechanism. The goals for new design were: Wider turning angle Simple assembly process Simpler mechanism Weight reduction Ease of production Considering these objectives, a new drive train was designed as shown in fig. 11.

Figure 9: 2007 Flaps mechanism

These interceptors were positioned on transom stern of the boat and controlled by drive system directly with morse cables and connected to articulated drive train as shown in fig. 10.

Figure 10: 2007 Flap mechanism

The interceptors were constructed from AISI 316 steel to avoid corrosion and obtain high strength. Holding supports were covered inside with Teflon to decrease friction. With nearly no effect on weight, interceptors gave Nusrat an extraordinary maneuverability [5]. Gearing And Steering Two electric motors were coupled with a single shaft using a chain drive system. The propeller was designed to operate at 1911 rpm in the running condition. The roller chain/sprocket combination was used to allow gearing changes based on propeller rpm during trail runs. The design gear ratio was 1.3:1 (shaft/motor) [5]. Steering was controlled by a direction wheel, a steering box connected to the drive train by a morse cable. Design Evolution

Figure 11: 2008 Sprint surface drive system

Analyses of the system were made in ANSYS Workbench as shown in fig. 12.

Figure 12: Analyses of sprint drive train

Useless parts from the old system were eliminated to achieve a compact design. In the old design, a steel rail system was used to change the direction of the thrust created by the propeller. This rail system was replaced by two bearings connected to the aft of the boat. As a result the weight of the drive train was significantly reduced. The new drive train had a wider turning angle that increased the maneuverability thus eliminating the necessity to use maneuverability flaps which were used in the old system. Shaft dimension calculations were renewed considering that the old shaft was broken during the tests due to fatigue failure. A simple vertical adjusting mechanism was introduced to modify the submergence of the propeller. Tests were conducted for different propeller submergences. Since the surface drive was powered by two PMG-132 DC Motors and the drive train had a 1.3:1 reverse reduction, final characteristics of power, speed and torque that are delivered to the propeller is as follows (with the reverse reduction, shaft speed is increased and torque is decreased) [18]; Speed * Reduction Factor = Shaft Speed 1470 *1.3 = 1911 rpm Torque / Reduction Factor = Delivered Torque (2 * 69) / 1.3 = 106 Nm
Table 2: Sprint drive-train data Power Speed Torque Voltage Current Value 10.6 kW 1911rpm 69Nm 36V 350A Quantity 2 2 Delivered 21.2kW 1911rpm 106Nm 36V 700A

The starting point in propeller selection is to define maximum allowable diameter since maximum efficiency is possible with low turning speeds and big diameters [14]. When hull form and the outboard drive chosen were considered, maximum allowable propeller diameter was measured as 37cm. The whole solar and electric system including the solar array, battery pack, electric circuits and motors was assembled in the laboratory environment and tested. A value of 1 HP was calculated as the continuous power that can be delivered to the motor within the rules and limitations of the competition. Within these design parameters, (Using these parameters in PropCalc - a software package designed by Assoc. Prof. Ali Can Takinac of ITU) a Wageningen B type two bladed propeller with 37 cm diameter and P/D: 1.45 ratio was selected. Afterwards the propeller was manufactured by casting process and propeller hub is machined with milling process [5]. Outboard Drive Inspections were made on inboard and outboard drive systems. In inboard drive trains, shaft tube is pulled out of bilge and steering is done by a rudder that is placed before the propeller which is placed on the shaft. Disadvantages of this drive train are the limitation of the propeller diameter by shaft angle and shaft length, and not being portable. These leaded ITU Solar Boat Team to cancel out this drive train system. As an outboard drive train, a Johnson motor with 2.5 HP power was bought, the gasoline engine was dismounted, foundation for Perm PMG-132 was fabricated and the system was fixed in the stern. Johnson outboard drive trains use engines with 4000-5000 rpm and have a reduction ratio of 1:1.85. The most efficient interval was found as 680-750 rpm after the propeller calculations were made [5]. The weight of whole drive train with outboard system was around 23 kg it was quite portative. There was no possible harm to the solar panels during operation or maneuver. With its articulated construction, perfect maneuverability was achieved. The drive train was controlled with a morse cable directly by the skipper [5]. Design Evolution

After the tests, it was discovered that the propeller was not operating on its maximum load. The tests were renewed for different propeller submergences and transmission ratios such as 1.3:1, 1.5:1, 1.7:1, 1.9:1 and optimum conditions that give maximum thrust was acquired [6]. In order to decrease the weight of the steering system in Muavenet, the steering box and morse cable system used in Nusrat was replaced with a robe & pulley mechanism which uses Ronstan pulleys. A dramatic decrease in weight was achieved.

6. Mechanical Systems Endurance Configuration Propeller Design And Fabrication

The drive train used for 2007 Boat, Nusrat had an inefficient hydrodynamic geometry resulting ventilation problem when transom stern got dry as the boat accelerated. A completely new endurance drive train was designed to solve

these problems and increase the average speed in endurance event. The design goals were: Hydrodynamic waterline section Hydrodynamic underwater form High efficiency In order to investigate unproven concepts in propulsion technology [19], design and construction of a forward-facing propeller and drive train was decided. Forward facing propellers are exposed to undisturbed water, which can improve efficiency, however they increase form drag. To submerge the propeller to a desired depth and avoiding the resistance created by the interaction between the accelerated water from the propeller and the hull surface, an outboard drive was designed. Designs and drawings were made in SolidWorks while analyses were made with ANSYS Workbench. The aluminum parts were redesigned in order to decrease total deformation of the shaft according to the analysis results [6]. The new system was manufactured from aluminum, fiber reinforced plastic and stainless steel. The propeller wake was optimized by the help of forward facing system geometry. Also the gearbox part which was manufactured using 3-axis CNC milling machine has an efficient hydrodynamic form as shown in fig. 13.

blade feature was not changed in Solar Splash 2008 as it has high efficiency. The calculations were made in PropCalc software and the propeller blade geometry was modeled in Rhinoceros 3D. Hub geometry, manufacturing details and CNC tool paths were modeled in SolidWorks and EasyCAM. The diameter of the propeller was designed to be 40cm regarding the power, shaft rpm, submergence depth and other design data. Blade area ratio was taken as 0.40 to avoid cavitation. The design has cross sections and skewed blade tips similar to Gawn series propellers. The propeller was designed to operate at 887 rpm to give a speed of 7.5 knots. After the design process, the propeller was manufactured with high precision by Calibre CNC Propellers using a 3-axis CNC milling machine from a single aluminum alloy block [20]. The fabrication process of the propeller is illustrated in fig. 14.

Figure 14: The fabrication of endurance propeller

Figure 13: 2008 Forward facing endurance drive train

Vertical shaft was located inside a protective aluminum barrel and it allows the operation of propellers up to 40 cm diameter. Outside the aluminum barrel, a fiber reinforced plastic sleeve was used to regulate the flow. The aluminum barrel was connected to a gearbox which transmits the power of the vertical shaft to the horizontal shaft by the bevel gear mechanism in it. The bevel gears have a reduction ratio of 1.625 (26 16 teeth). Maneuverability was obtained by rotating the system about an aluminum base part located on the aft of the boat. Overall endurance drive train weight was significantly reduced and hydrodynamic efficiency was improved [6]. A 2-bladed, 37cm diameter aluminum cast propeller was used in Solar Splash 2007. This 2

In order to decrease the weight of the steering system in Muavenet, the steering box and morse cable system used in Nusrat was replaced with a robe & pulley mechanism which uses Ronstan pulleys. A dramatic decrease in weight was achieved. A total increase of 39% in speed was achieved, as the design improvements were made and ventilation problem encountered in Nusrat was eliminated.

7. Electrical Systems Motors Before choosing the electric motor to be used in the boat, a wide investigation was made about both new motor types and the motors of previous successful solar boats. Because of the voltage limit (36V) of sprint and slalom races, the current values of the motors were inspected in detail. High current requirements eliminated the use of brushless DC motors and narrowed the search to permanent magnet DC motors. The sprint motors were selected as PMG132 permanent magnet DC motors. These motors

are capable of delivering 4.5HP at 36V and 110A. The motors can withstand currents up to 200% of rated values for 10 minutes or can handle higher currents for shorter durations. The PMG 132 is a brushed permanent magnet DC disc motor, manufactured by Perm Motor Gmbh of Germany. Its armature is made of flat copper strips stacked together so there is no stack of steel laminations like in a traditional motor which gives motor low cogging torque. Its high power, high efficiency and small size make it a good choice for battery powered applications. Before choosing the most suitable motor for the endurance race, the voltage and current values that can continuously be obtained from solar panels and battery pack were determined. The most efficient motors for these parameters were Lynch Motor LEM200-D127 and Perm Motor Gmbh PMG-132. A test mechanism was designed and constructed, and both motors were tested. The results indicated that the performance of Perm Motor Gmbh PMG-132 motor was better, thus using this motor at 24V 40 A in endurance race was decided. Battery Performance Tests Sealed Lead Acid batteries were used as an energy storage device in the Sprint and Endurance events of the competition. There are several battery manufacturers with similar characteristics. After initial evaluation of battery datasheets of many manufacturers, it was decided to purchase three sets of batteries (considering weight limits) from three manufacturers US Battery, Deka and Optima. Considering the battery weight limits of the competition, it was decided to use three 12V batteries and two 12V batteries in the sprint and endurance event configurations, respectively. After the electrical inspection of the performances finally, it was decided to use Optima Batteries with model number 25 [5]. Sprint Electrical Configuration To drive PMG 132 permanent magnet DC motors, two separate Alltrax AXE4865 motor controllers were used. The motor controller is able to operate with brushed DC motors rated for operation from 24-48 V DC. Continuous current rating of the driver is 250A and it can handle currents up to 650A for two minutes. In addition, it has over current protection which limits the maximum output current from the controller to 650A. This motor controller employs modern power MOSFETs to provide extremely low on resistance, in both the main

switch function and freewheeling diode. Synchronous freewheel rectification permits extended high power operation over similar sized controllers due to increased efficiency. A microprocessor based control system monitors numerous functions, and a computer interface allows the user to change numerous operating parameters and perform status monitoring [21]. Complete electrical schematic for Sprint event is illustrated in fig 15.

Figure 15: Sprint race complete electrical diagram

Sprint Tests After completing mechanical and electrical connections, the boat was tested in a small artificial lake located on ITU campus. Several test runs were made to evaluate the performance of drive train (both electrical and mechanical) with NuTeS for monitoring several key quantities. Endurance Electrical Configuration Photovoltaic System According to Solar Splash rules, sunlight is the only power source for charging energy storage devices used for propulsion of boat. The sunlight is converted to electric energy by sun cells or photovoltaic array (PV) made from semiconductor materials. The energy delivered by PV arrays is stored in lead acid batteries or directly used by propulsion devices. The output power ( P ) of PV arrays may not have a one OUT sun output greater than 480 watts and open circuit voltage ( VOC ) cannot be greater than 52V. During competition, PV arrays were used to charge sprint and endurance batteries and used for endurance lap. PV array tests, set as indicated in fig. 16.

Figure 17: Endurance race complete electrical diagram

MPPT Design The multipurpose control circuit called Nusrat Control Circuit (NuCC) was used as control circuit. A buck converter was designed for the solar boat because battery voltage was lower than the array voltage. Battery voltage was around 24V and PV array voltage was about maximum 48V. The most essential part of MPPT is its control algorithm. MPPT algorithm was constructed so that it increases or decreases the duty cycle in order to determine MPP as the conditionals which change the maximum power point of PV array vary. Since the MPP of PV array is only one point on V - P curve, the algorithms used should operate efficiently as much as it is possible to operate the PV array at this point [22], [23]. By considering this fact, the various algorithms were tested to determine the most efficient methods. Before testing conventional MPPT methods, the PV array was operated at its MPP by manually adjusting duty cycle of buck converter to monitor MPP points during atmospheric condition changes. Motor Controller A first- quadrant (Class A) DC chopper illustrated in fig. 19 was designed and manufactured for controlling motor speed in the endurance event calling Nusrat Motor Controller (NuMC). In this part of the race, a constant DC voltage has to be converted into a variable DC voltage to control the speed of motor. In this type of choppers, current and voltage values of load are both positive indicating a single-quadrant operation [24]. DC choppers have several advantages like soft start, smooth speed control and high efficiency [25]. For the control part of this chopper, the same multipurpose control circuit was used. For different values of armature voltage (ten - step voltage), family of speed - torque curves is illustrated in fig. 18 along with the propeller load characteristics. Stable operating points are the intersecting points of the two curves.

Figure 16: Solar array design

Following the characteristic tests, it was concluded that the maximum power point (MPP) of PV array is at the knee of I - V curve and it is unique point. Moreover, since solar cells are semiconductor devices, the power delivered by the PV array depends on the irradiance, temperature, and load voltage (battery voltage). As these parameters always change during daytime, the current voltage (I - V) characteristic of PV varies too. Due to this fact, if the PV is directly connected to load even at its MPP, it may not operate at its MPP. Therefore, the required power will not be obtained from PV array. This problem can be solved by using larger solar panels, but the solution is expensive. Instead of this, maximum power point tracker (MPPT) circuit is located between solar panel and load. MPPT is a microcontroller based, high switching frequency, DC DC converter that forces PV array to operate at its MPP under both changeable atmospheric conditions and load voltage situation. As battery voltage (24V) is less than PV voltage (48V), a buck (step down) converter was used. The analog signals such as voltage, current received by control circuit of MPPT were converted to digital signal by internal analog to digital converter (ADC) of microcontroller in order to be used for MPPT algorithm. Then, according to the result of MPPT algorithm, the duty cycle of buck converter was determined to operate PV array around MPP [5]. Complete electrical diagram of endurance configuration is illustrated in fig. 17.

Figure 18: Torque Speed curves of motor and propeller load

Figure 20: The total electrical system

Telemetry System Telemetry is the wireless transmission and reception of measured quantities for the purpose of remote monitoring of environmental conditions or equipment parameters on the craft. The goal on telemetry system is performing analyses on recorded data. In analysis, recorded results are compared with theoretically expected results to determine and improve the performance during testing and coping with unexpected hazardous situations. By the use of the telemetry system, the acceleration of the craft was monitored not only by the skipper but also by the team on shore during the race. This provides interaction between shore and craft for creating the best performance during the race. The telemetry system should measure environmental conditions precisely, find reliable results and transmit data to shore quickly. Briefly, designed telemetry system called Nusrat Telemetry System (NuTeS) for endurance course measures solar array output voltage and current, battery voltage and current and MPPT output current. In addition, NuTeS measures battery voltage and each motor current for sprint event. These measurement results are displayed in the boat for the skipper as well as they are transmitted to the shore via RF modem. These features help creating a better race strategy during the endurance race [5].

Figure 19: Class-A single quadrant DC chopper

Even though a microcontroller based gating circuit was designed and used, another gating circuit employing a PWM integrated circuit was also designed and built as a backup board. UC3525 is a PWM IC designed to offer improved performance and lowered parts count when used in all types off switching power supplies [5]. Tests were made to observe the performance of endurance motor driver circuit at different loading situations. In the competition, endurance lap should be at least two hours long, though the speed change interval is not broad, the motor driver should give its responses to the changes at speed simultaneously [5]. In order to limit the voltage appearing across the switching devices during MOSFET turn-off, additional protection circuitry called snubber circuits were needed. Snubbers are protection elements consisting of a resistor and capacitor connected as series, directly between positive negative terminals of MOSFET. The total electrical system is shown in fig. 20.

8. Safety And Survivability Commercial ships or yachts have to be designed and built according to classification rules (Lloyds), classified and inspected accordingly. However, Lloyds do not have specific regulations for solar ships. The most comprehensive work in this subject is the rule book of Solar Splash, which is an outcome of 15 years experience and feedbacks of competitors [4]. Nusrat and Muavenet constitute

an example for new solar boat designs as they were built according to Solar Splash rules. The major precautions are in electric rules. First of all, system voltage may not exceed 52VDC or AC rms and source voltage may not exceed a nominal value of 36VDC. All exposed conductors operating at greater than 36 Volts must be properly insulated. The craft must have a switch wired to disconnect all power to the motor. The device must be able to interrupt full load current. It must be clearly marked in 10 mm high letters as the "Motor Switch" and be plainly marked with "ON" and "OFF" positions in 10 mm high letters. A relay may be used for the switch function. If a relay is used, a supplementary battery may be used to power the relay. A separate fuse (not a circuit breaker) must be in series with the main battery and the rating must not exceed 200% of the maximum expected current. A dead mans switch must be designed and used, which can cut the power of the boat in case of the skipper falls into the water [4]. The boat must contain life preservers, a paddle, a fire extinguisher, an audible and a visual signal device for emergency brake - down conditions. An automatic bilge pump and a towing line are also available at all times in the boat. Batteries must be enclosed in one or more battery boxes or a portion of the hull to separate them from the skipper. Battery containment shall not be sealed and must allow for ventilation. Battery containment must protect the skipper from battery explosion and leakage, and may be plastic, fiberglass, or similar materials that will not chemically react rapidly to battery acid. The batteries must be secured in such a manner that they remain in place if the boat capsizes. The craft's revolving parts must be suitably covered to prevent accidental contact. All steering linkage must be shielded from contact with the skipper. In addition, the skippers cockpit is designed in a manner that the skipper can leave the craft in less than 5 seconds. The motor controller and MPPT circuits used in endurance race contain by-passes. These features allow the system to continue working even if either solar panels or batteries fail. The system also uses direct power from the solar panels if MPPT circuit fails [5].

design process. Around 80 different universities, more than 1500 students and teachers are involved in the production of more than 100 different solar boats [2]. In addition, technical reports about the design and production processes of the solar boats were presented, aiming to create an academic pool of articles. Since it is founded in 2004, Istanbul Technical University Solar Boat Team has efficiently benefited from this knowledge pool, and contributed with its works as well. This paper holds a base model for future solar boat designs as it reveals the rational design and engineering approach used in the creation process of the two successful solar boats Nusrat and Muavenet built by ITU Solar Boat Team which are illustrated in fig. 21. Moreover, it contains the information about the new practical technologies and safety and reliability methods utilized in the boats.

Figure 21: Muavenet and Nusrat sprint and endurance configurations (Muavenet endurance, Muavenet sprint, Nusrat sprint, Nusrat endurance)

Acknowledgement ITU Solar Boat Team would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge following companies and individuals for their contribution and sponsorship. Yonca-Onuk JV Shipyard with special thanks to Dr Ekber Onuk, Mr Kaan Onuk, Mr Eralp Noyan, Mr Aykan Turkoglu, Mr Mesut Akoglu, Mr Hakan Celik, Mr Armagan Ortac, Mr Orhan Gencer BGM Limited with special thanks to Baris Gumusluoglu Calibre CNC Propellers with special thanks to Mr. Tezcan Dogangonul Istanbul Technical University Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Dept. with special thanks to Dr Omer Goren, Dr A. Yucel Odabasi, Dr Mustafa Insel, Dr Ali C. Takinaci, Dr D. Bulent Danisman

9. Conclusion Solar Splash Organization is an event that embraces knowledge of 15 years research and

Istanbul Technical University Mechanical Engineering Dept. with special thanks to Dr Taner Derbentli, Dr Haydar Livatyali, Dr Vedat Temiz, Dr Muzaffer Erten Undsec. Of Ministry of Defence with special thanks to Mr Murad Bayar and Dr Elife Unal Marintek Deniz Malzemeleri A.S. with special thanks to Mr Cengiz Arsay and Mr Murat Sakar Turkish Chamber of Shipping with special thanks to Mr Halim Mete Dearsan Shipyard with special thanks to Mr Taner Akkaya TURKON Holding with special thanks to Mr Metin Kalkavan, Mr Alkin Kalkavan, Mrs Semra Cokugra ITU Solar Boat Team with special thanks to Mr Berkin Kl, Mr Enishan Ozcan, Mr. Kenan Askan, Ms. Esin Ilhan, Mr. Metin Aksu, Mr. Irfan Kaya, Mr. Huseyin Turhan, Mr. Tugrul Yldrm, Mr. Efe Kocturk, Mr. Ibrahim Albayrak, Mr. Emrah Adamey Mr Omer Alan, Mr Mekki Kutlu, Brigadier General Ali Akdogan, Mr Jan Nahum, Mr Hseyin Demir, Ms Demet Alan

[7] P.

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