Smith 1 Biology Honors Midterm Review Scientific Method The organized way of using evidence to learn about the

e natural world The goal of science is to investigate and understand nature. Also, to explain events in nature and to use those explanations to make useful predictions Scientists They make observations using one or more of their senses to gather information -Qualitative - Can not be easily counted or measured (Odor or texture) -Quantitated - Can be easily measure (Like objects) Interpreting Evidence An observation must be understood to be useful An inference is a logical interpretation based on proper knowledge and experience Explaining the Observation When faced with a problem, scientists may formulate several hypotheses for why it is happening A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a set of observations or an answer to a scientific question Hypotheses arise from prior knowledge, logical inferences or imaginative guesses Designing an Experiment I. II. State the problem -What are we trying to learn? Form the hypothesis

Smith 2 III. Set up a controlled experiment - Only one variable should be changed, others remain constant IV. Record and analyze your data V. Draw a conclusion: evaluate the data and state whether it supports or refutes the hypothesis Characteristics of Life All living things are: -Made of cells -Reproduce -Based on a genetic code -Grow and develop -Obtain and use materials -Respond to their environment -Maintain homeostasis Made of Cells A cell is a collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier that separates that cell from its surroundings -Unicellular - Consists of one cell (Bacteria) -Multicellular - Consists of many cells (Complex organisms) Life Processes Metabolism - All the chemical reactions that occur within the cell of a metabolism. -Digestion, Synthesis, Hydrolysis

Smith 3 Respiration - This is not the same as breathing and is sometimes called cellular respiration. Chemical bond energy stores in nutrients are released for us by cells -Anaerobic - Fermentation without oxygen -Aerobic - With oxygen Synthesis - Involves combing simple substances into complex substances. -Most common is dehydration: Joins two simple substances by removing water. Amino acids in your food are used to create protein with this process Transport - This is not the same as locomotion. This is the movement of materials into and within a living thing -IE- Our circulatory system moves oxygen and nutrients into our cells. (Locomotion is movement, such as plants bending towards the sun or animals moving their bodies) Regulation - Control and coordination -Includes communication, like the endocrine and nervous system Assimilation - The process by which materials are incorporated into a living thing. -Proteins we ingest are used by our bodies Nutrition - Obtaining and processing food -Autotrophs - Make their own food (photosynthesis and chemosynthesis) -Heterotrophs - Must obtain food Growth - An increase in either the size or number of cells. All organism grow during at least one part of their life cycle. -Organisms also develop which is a change in the appearance of the organisms structure

Smith 4 Excretion - The removal of all wastes produced by the ells of the body -We exhale CO2 as a waste product of cellular respiration -One celled organisms such as ameba excrete wastes through their cell membranes Reproduction - Process by which organisms produce new organisms -This is the one process that is not necessary for the individual but is necessary for the survival of the specie. -Can be asexual with one parent or sexual with two parents Homeostasis When all life functions are maintained. The process by which living things keep a stable internal environment Images Under the Microscope Images under microscope appear upside down and backwards When viewing under the microscope, move slide in opposite direction to center Field of Vision Switch to high power from lower power, the field of vision gets smaller but the detail of the object gets smaller. Light Higher magnification = you need more light Measure Use millimeters or micrometers (1 Micrometer = 1,000 millimeters)

Smith 5 Cells Cells have been particular structures that perform specific jobs. These cell parts coordinate and work together just as systems within an organism are coordinated and work together Cell Theory This is one of the fundamental concepts of Biology -All living things are composed of cells -Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things -New cells are produced from living cells Exceptions to the Theory Viruses can not reproduce on their own, they must be inside a living thing in order to reproduce Mitochondria and Chloroplast contain their own DNA and can reproduce Organelles Specialized cell structures that are formed from many different molecules and perform specific jobs -Cytoplasm - Transports materials -Mitochondria - Extracts energy from nutrients in a process called cellular respiration -Ribosome - Protein building -Lysosome - Contains enzymes -Cell Membrane - A thin flexible selectively permeable membrane -Endoplasmic Reticulum - Modifies components of the cell membrane and modifies some proteins -Vacuoles - Storage of the cell

Smith 6 -Nucleus - Information center; the nucleus contains the DNA Plant Cells There are two organelles that are found in plant cells but not in animal cells -Cell Wall - Provides support and structure for the cell -Chloroplast - Use energy from sunlight to make energy rich food molecules in a process called photosynthesis Levels of Organization Cells are grouped into tissues > organs > organ systems > organism The body is composed of different kinds of cells grouped in ways that enhance how they function together The structures present in single - celled organisms act in a manner similar to the tissues and systems found in multicellular organisms Fluid Mosaic Model The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also provides protection and support The core of the cell membrane is a double layered sheet called a lipid bilayer Embedded within the cell membrane are protein channels that allow certain molecules to enter the cell Carbohydrate chains are attached to the outside of the membrane and act for identification

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Diffusion Diffusion causes substances to move across a membrane but does not require energy -All cells contain liquid and are surrounded by liquid -When molecules are in solution they move constantly -When the concentration of a substance is different in one of these liquids, it moves from the area of high concentration to low concentration -Equilibrium is reaches when the concentration is the same both inside and outside of the cell Osmosis The diffusion of water through a permeable membrane -When the concentration of a substance that can not pass through the membrane is lower on one side of the membrane, water diffuses through the side of the membrane until equilibrium is reaches -Water like other substances move from an area of high to low concentration Osmotic Pressure Because cells contain numerous salts, sugars and protein, the concentration of water is usually lower inside a cell, so water is constantly diffusing into a cell The extra water pressure creates osmotic pressure Osmotic pressure can cause a cell to burst if they do not have a way to remove water Most cells in multicellular organisms do not come in contact with fresh water. So this is not a problem

Smith 8 Single celled organisms that live in fresh water have mechanisms to move water out of the cell. These mechanisms require energy Facilitated Diffusion For molecules that can not pass through, the cell membrane can move through a protein channel -Different protein channels allow ions, sugars and salts to cross various membranes -This process is fast and specific but still moves from areas of high to low concentration and does not require energy from the cell Active Transport Moves substances from low areas to high areas of concentration. This process requires the cell to input energy -Endocytosis - When the cell folds over to take in large molecules -Phagocytosis - The cell membrane engulfing food. The membrane pinches off, forming a vacuole -Exocytosis - The process where a vacuole fuses with a cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell Classification Needs for classification I. II. All living things are basically alike in functions There is however a great variety in the ways and means by which different organisms carry out these functions

Smith 9 III. In order to study the variety of life in an organized and systematic manner, the different kinds of organisms are grouped together or classified on the basis of certain common characteristics or the relationships they share Classification of organisms are based mainly on similarities of structure I. Some classification is supplemented by other evidence such as: A. Fossil record B. Biochemical date - genetic makeup C. Behavioral information D. Embryonic development E. Cellular structure II. Modern classification is based on the assumption that all present forms of life development from earlier forms and have have common ancestors. The grouping of organisms suggest relationships among them that may be the result of common ancestry Modern Classification Systems I. Carolus Linnaeus - Father of modern taxonomy A. Developed the classification system today B. Based mainly off of structural similarities II. Binomial Nomenclature A. Names are in Latin B. Italicized with the genus name III.They are first separated into kingdoms A. Not all scientists agree on the number

Smith 10 B. Most used is 5 kingdoms 1. Animal - Multicellular organisms ingest food. 2. Plants - Multicellular organisms that make their own food 3. Fungi - Cells are usually organized into multicellular filaments called hypae, They reproduce by the means of spores 4. Protists - Mainly one celled plants-like or animal-like organisms. They have distinct nucleus surrounded by a double membrane 5. Monera - Primitive cells, lacking a nuclear membrane (Prokaryotic) C. Linnaeus System of Classification 1.Kingdom 2.Phylum 3.Class 4.Order 5.Family 6.Genus 7.Species Biochemistry The study of organic compounds Chemical Bonds Ionic Bonds - Transfer electrons (Like salt crystals dissolving in water) Covalent Bonds - Share electrons Van Der Waals Bonds - Atoms attracted to each other Way to remember: King Philip Came Over For Good Soup/Salad/Other words that start with S

Smith 11 Water Has 2 H+ molecules and one O Polar - Has 2 different charges Adhesion - Sticks to other things (Like rain on a window) Cohesion - Sticks to itself (Like a puddle)

pH Measure of H+ (Positive Hydrogen atoms in a solution) Scale of 1-14 1 - Very acidic (Lots of H+) 7 - Neutral (Pure Water) 14 - Very little H+ (A Base) Buffers - Control pH to prevent sharp changes (Maintains homeostasis) Organic - Has carbon and hydrogen ( Like C6H12O6 ) Carbohydrates - Main source of energy for living things Subunits - Sugar (Saccharide) Inorganic - No carbon (Like H2O) Monomer - One, small unit Polymer - Big unit, from small units Carbohydrates Monosaccharide - 1 Sugar (Glucose) Disaccharide - 2 Sugars (Lactose)

Smith 12 Polysaccharide- Many Sugars (Starch) Lipids (Fats) Store energy Made of mostly carbon and hydrogen Subunits - 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids Saturated - Max # of hyrdogens; no double bonds in the molecule Unsaturated - 1 Carbon double bonded to another Polyunsaturated - More than 2 double bonds (Missing 4 or more Hs) Protein Regulate cell processes and control rate of reactions inside cells -Enzymes Made of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Subunit - Only 20 different amino acids DNA tells amino acids what order to get in to make certain proteins Enzyme Made of protein End in Ase, like Lactase Involved in all chemical reactions They are catalysts - Increase rates (speed) of reactions by lowering activation energy Substrate/Reaction = Product Fits into the enzyme at the active site The fit is specific and must be exact for the reaction to occur

Smith 13 Enzyme substrate complex - When theyre together, the enzyme does not change shape after a reaction and can be re-used over and over Enzyme Reactions are affected by: Temperature - Too high/Too low = denatures enzyme pH - Too high/Too low = denatures enzyme Concentration of Substrate More substrate = Higher concentration = Faster reactions Fewer substrate = Lower concentration = Slower reactions

C6H12O6

C6H12O6

C12H24O11 + H2O Products

Reactants X=Enzyme
Nucleic Acid Store and Transmit hereditary information DNA and RNA Made of carbon, phosphate and nitrogen Subunit - Nucleotides

Nucleic Acid - Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphates Lipids - Carbon and hydrogen Proteins - Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon and Nitrogen Carbohydrates - Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon

Smith 14 Leaf Structure The structure of a leaf is optimized for absorbing light and carrying out photosynthesis To collect sunlight, most leaves have thin flattened sections called blades. Leaves are covered on the top and bottom by an epidermis. The leaf epidermis is sometimes covered with a cuticle The epidermis and cuticle protect leaves from water loss Transpiration The loss of water from a plant through its leaves. Water is lost in ways by being replaced by water drawn into the leaf through the Xylem Xylem - Tubes through which water moves from the roots to the leaves Plants keep their stomata open just enough to allow photosynthesis to take place, but not so much that they lose an excessive amount of water -Stomata - Are pore like openings in the underside of the leaf that allow CO2 and Oxygen to diffuse in and out of the cell -Each stoma consists of two guard cells that control the opening and closing of stomata by responding to changes in water pressure -When the pressure is hugh, the outer walls of the cells are forced into a curved shape and the stoma is opened. Wen pressure is low, the guard cells are not curved and the stoma closes Biochemical processes are necessary to maintain homeostasis in living things. Life is dependent upon the availability of an energy source and raw materials that are used in the basic enzyme controlling biochemical processes of living organisms

Smith 15 -The energy for life comes from primarily from the sun. Photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems Plant cells and some one celled creatures contain chloroplasts (The site of photosynthesis) -Photosynthesis uses solar energy to combine the inorganic molecules (CO2 and H20) into energy-rich organic compounds (Glucose - C6H12O6) -Oxygen is released into the environment as a result of this process ( http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aupr9qT2qgc ) Song for Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6CO2 Carbon Dioxide + Water = Sugar and Oxygen
In addition to Water and Carbon Dioxide, photosynthesis requires light and chlorophyll, a molecule found in chloroplast The Reactions of Photosynthesis The process of photosynthesis includes the light dependent reactions as well as the Calvin cycle Calvin Cycle - Light Independent Reactions The light dependent reactions produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP into ATP and NADPH The light dependent reactions occur in different areas of the thylakoid called Photosystem I and Photosystem II

Smith 16 The Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to produce high energy sugars.

The chemical energy stored in the bonds or organic compounds can be used as a source of energy for life processes. This energy may be released during the process of cellular respiration

C6H12O6 -> H2O + ATP Sugar + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
-ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate This energy is temporarily stored in ATP molecules This energy from ATP is used by the organism to obtain, transform, and transport materials and to eliminate wastes. In organisms that use oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are released and ATP is produced. Cellular respiration is concluded in the mitochondria

Smith 17 In organisms that do not use oxygen or if oxygen is not available, less ATP is produced With Aerobic - 36 ATP is used With Anaerobic - 6 ATP The Reactions Glycolysis - The process in which one molecule of glucose is broken in half, producing two molecules of pyruvic avid When oxygen is not present, a different pathway follows glycolysis. Glycolysis and the pathway are called fermentation, because fermentation does not require oxygen, it is anaerobic respiration The two main types of fermentation are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation Yeast and a few micro-organisms perform alcohol fermentation Produces Carbon Dioxide and Alcohol Pyruvic Acid -> Alcohol + CO2 + ATP Lactic Acid fermentation takes place in cells during exercise when the body cannot supply enough oxygen to the muscles. The buildup of lactic acid causes a painful burning sensation (This is why muscles are sore after exercise) Pyruvic Acid -> Lactic Acid + CO2 + ATP The energy to make ATP comes from Catabolic Reactions that are Exergonic (Exergonic = Chemical reactions that release energy) (Catabolic Reactions- Breakdown of more complex organic molecules into simpler substances)

Smith 18 Respiration and Photosynthesis Different Uses: Oxygen < Respiration > Uses: Glucose Produces: CO2 Produces: H2O Produces: ATP Occurs in: Mitochondria Similar Occurs in Cells Chemical Reactions Needs Enzymes Involves Energy < Photosynthesis > Different Uses: CO2 Uses: H20 Uses: Sunlight Produces: Glucose Produces: O2 Occurs in: Chloroplast

Alcohol Fermentation : C6H12O6 -> Alcohol + CO2 + ATP Lactic Acid Fermentation: Lactic Acid + ATP Aerobic Cellular Respiration: 6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O +ATP

Aerobic: (Oxygen + Glucose -> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy) Digestive System Made up of digestive tract and accessory glands 15 feet/9 Meters long Purpose - To acquire energy and nutrients out of the food we eat The pathway that food travels through the digestive system: -Mouth -Esophagus

Smith 19 -Stomach -Small Intestine -Large Intestine -Rectum -Anus Accessory Glands Exocrine glands that secrete digestive liquids through ducts into the digestive system Salivary Glands Pancreas ALiver Mouth and Salivary Glands Teeth mechanically break up food Breaks down food into smaller pieces to increase the surface area so that it can be digested easier Salivary Glands - Produce saliva Made up of mostly water which moistens food, making it easier to swallow Ptyalin and Amylase are digestive enzymes in saliva which begin the breakdown of simple sugars. Esophagus A gullet or muscular tube Peristalsis - Waves of muscle contraction in the throat that push food through the digestive tract

Smith 20 -Takes food from the throat and pushes it down the neck and into the stomach (Takes 5-10 seconds Stomach The thick muscles in the stomach wall contract to mash the food up Chemical digestion of protein begins here Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which contain digestive enzymes, acids, and mucus Pepsin - Begins protein digestion Hydrochloric Acid - Produces acidic environment in stomach so digestive enzymes can work better Mucus - Protects the stomach wall from acid Digestion here takes about 2-6 hours Small Intestine 6 Meters long Final digestion and nutrient absorption occurs here over a 5-6 hour period In the beginning, mostly digestion is occurring whereas in the end, mostly absorption is occurring Villi - Small fingerlike projections that increase surface area of the small intestine which maximizes absorption/diffusion -Capillaries - Simple sugars, amino acids, vitamins and minerals are absorbed into the bloodstream here -Lacteal - Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into these tiny lymphatic vessels

Smith 21 Pancreas Produces a couple of digestive enzymes that chemically digest or breakdown proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids in the small intestine Chemical Digestion: -Protein -> Amino Acids -Carbohydrates -> Simple Sugars -Lipids -> Fatty Acids -Nucleic Acids -> Nucleotides Liver Among many other functions in the body, it produces bile which doesnt contain any digestive enzymes Bile is stored in the gall bladder Bile emulsifies the fat into smaller globules (Mechanical Digestion), Which aids in the absorption of fats in the small intestine Large Intestine Any useful substances in the leftovers, such as spare water and body minerals are absorbed through the walls of the large intestine, back into the blood Usually takes about 12-24 hours to move through the large intestine The remains are formed into brown, semi-solid feces, ready to be removed from the body Over 7 liters of water are released into the digestive tract with secretions throughout a day (this is much more than the average person drinks). 90% of this water is recovered in the small and large intestines

Smith 22 Rectum and Anus Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated/egested These are finally pushed through a ring of muscles (the anus) and out of the body Gall Stones Deposits of bile that became hardened stone like structures and can be surgically removed

Disorders of the Digestive System Heart Burn -Painful burning sensation in the center of the chest -Caused when stomach acid moves out of the stomach and into the esophagus -Happens when you drink or over eat Peptic Ulcer -Holes in the wall o the stomach caused by acid -For many years, people thought this was caused by stress and spicy food -Caused by Helicobacter Pylori Bacteria -Doctors can cure 90% of ulcers with antibiotics Appendicitis -Inflammation of the appendix -Located below colon/large intestine -No function in humans Diarrhea -When not enough water is absorbed by the large intestine

Smith 23 -A lot of salts and water can be life threatening -Can be caused by contaminated water -Leading cause of childhood death in under-developed countries The Human Circulatory System Consists of: The heart A series of blood vessels and the blood that flows through them The Heart Located near the center of your chest and is composed entirely of muscle The size of a clenched fist and contracts roughly 72 times a minute pimping 70 milliliters of blood each time Parts of the Heart Pericardium - Protective sac of tissue Myocardium - A thick layer of muscle in the walls Septum - Divides the left side and the right side of the heart Prevents oxygen rich blood from mixing with oxygen poor blood Upper chamber which receives blood is the Atrium Lower chamber which pumps blood out is the Ventricle There are two atriums and two ventricles: A total of four chambers

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Heartbeat Contractions begin in a small group of cardiac muscle cells Located in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node Because these cells set the pace for the whole heart, they are also known as pacemakers Circulation Blood flows through the lungs through the pulmonary artery, where it picks up oxygen and returns through the pulmonary vein Blood then enters through the left atrium and is pumped to the left ventricle, then through the aorta to the body Oxygen rich blood flows to the left side of the heart and is pumped to the body (Systemic Circulation)

Smith 25 Blood that returns to the right side of the heart is oxygen poor because the cells of the body have absorbed so much of the oxygen and are loaded with CO2 (both types of blood are shades of red) Blood Vessels Arteries - Large vessels that carry blood away from the heart, except for the pulmonary artery, they always carry oxygen rich blood -They have thick walls to help them withstand pressure -Exerted when the heart contracts and pushed through them Capillaries - Smallest vessel (the walls are only once cell thick) -Blood must pass through in single file and the bring the nutrients to the tissues and absorb CO2 and other wastes Veins - Returns blood to the heart and the walls contain connective tissue and muscle like arteries -They contain one way valves that keep the blood flowing toward the heart -Many are located near skeletal muscles so when these muscles contract, blood is forced through the veins Blood Blood is made 45% of cells Suspended in the other 55%, a straw colored fluid called plasma Plasma is 90% water and 10% dissolved gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, waste products, and proteins called plasma proteins

Smith 26 Red Blood Cells Transport oxygen and get their color from hemoglobin The iron containing protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs and transports it to the tissues White Blood Cells and Platelets White blood cells attack foreign substances or organisms Blood clotting is made possible by plasma and proteins and cell fragments called platelets Blood Types A, B, AB, O Blood can be given to individuals with the same blood type and all blood types can receive O Blood Pressure When the heart contracts, it produces a wave of fluid pressure in the arteries The pressure the blood exerts on the artery walls is known as blood pressure Blood pressure decreases when the heart relaxes but the system remains under pressure Measuring Blood Pressure Medical workers can measure blood pressure with a cuff placed on the arm An average adults blood pressure is 120/80 First number is the systolic pressure: the force in the arteries when the ventricles contract Second number is the diastolic pressure: the force in the arteries when the ventricles relax Disorders of the Circulatory System Arteriosclerosis - Fatty acids known as plaque build up on the walls of the arteries If the deposits get too big they obstruct blood and can increase blood pressure The plaque buildup also increases risk of blood clots

Smith 27 High Blood Pressure/Hypertension - Forces the heart to work harder which may weaken or damage the heart muscle and blood vessels (Increases risk for heart attack and stroke) Heart Attack - When the arteriosclerosis blocks one of the arteries bringing blood to the heart Part of the heart muscle begins to die from lack of oxygen Symptoms include nausea, shortness of breath, and severe crushing chest pain Stroke - Blood clots break free and stuck in one of the blood vessels leading to the brain Brain cells die from lack of oxygen Can also occur when a weakened blood vessel in the brain bursts Prevention - These disorders are easier to prevent than cure Exercise, weight control, sensible diet and not smoking seem to be the best ways to keep the heart healthy Lymphatic System A network of vessels called the lymphatic system Collects the fluid that is lost by the blood and returns it to the circulatory system Along the length of the lymph vessels are small enlargements called lymph nodes They act as filters that trap bacteria and other microorganisms; they can become enlarged as a result Respiratory System Two meanings: when glucose and oxygen are converted into CO2, water and ATP into the mitochondria Oxygen and CO2 are exchanged between cells, the blood and air in the lungs Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs

Smith 28 Nose Filters dust particles in the air Hairs lining the entrance to the nasal cavity traps large dust particles Mucus, produced by cells lining the system, moistens the air and traps inhaled particles Cilia sweeps trapped particles and mucus away from the pharynx The mucus is either spit out or swallowed Airflow Air moves from the nose to a tube at the back of the throat called the pharynx This is the passageway for both air and food When food is swallowed, a piece of cartilage called the epiglottis covers the trachea -Trachea - Tube from pharynx -Vocal Cords - Two highly elastic folds of tissue in the larynx. When the muscles pull the chords together, the air moving between the folds causes the chords to vibrate Air moves the trachea and enters two large passageways n the chest cavity called the bronchi (Each bronchus leads to the lungs) In each lung, the large bronchi subdivides into smaller bronchi which lead to even smaller bronchi called bronchioles The bronchi and bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscles that regulate the size fo the passageways Alveoli - Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles and are grouped together like grapes. A delicate network of capillaries surrounds each alveoli This is where the exchange of oxygen and CO2 happen within the blood

Smith 29 Gas Exchange Oxygen diffuses through the inner surface of the alveoli and through the capillary to the blood CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction Very efficient process: inhaled air is 21% oxygen and .04 CO2 -Exhaled air is 15% oxygen and 4% CO2 Breathing The movement of air into and out of the lungs Lungs have no muscles attached to them so the large flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity is called the diaphragm Because the cavity is sealed, this causes a vacuum and atmospheric pressure causes air to rush to the lungs The system works because the cavity is sealed and if it is punctured, then it is very difficult to breathe Breathing is controlled by the amount of CO2 in the blood, not oxygen Diseases Asthma - Constriction of the bronchioles caused by allergens or exercise Emphysema - Loss of elasticity in the lungs Bronchitis - Bronchi are swollen and filled with mucus Lung Cancer - Particular deadly because it easily spreads to other locations (It metastasizes or spreads), mostly caused by smoking or asbestos

Smith 30 Excretion Metabolic waste is ousted -CO2 is a waste of cellular respiration -Water is a waste of cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis -Mineral salts are produced by many processes -Nitrogenous wastes -Result of metabolism of proteins and when proteins are used in cellular respiration Ammonia: Very toxic Urea: Less toxic Uric Acid: Generally non-toxic Results Toxic materials are released by animals Toxic materials are sealed and stored in the vacuoles of plants Non-toxic wastes are retained, released, or recycled in other metabolic activities Human Excretory System Two kidneys on either side of the spinal column near the lower back Two ureter tubes that leave each kidney and cary urine to the bladder -Bladder - Where urine is stored -Urethra - Is the tube in which urine travels to leave the body Kidney Made of two parts

Smith 31 -Inner: The renal medulla -Outer: The renal cortex Functional unit of the kidney is called the nephron (1 million nephrons in each kidney) Kidney Function Waste containing blood enters the kidney through the renal artery Blood travels through the kidney and urea and other wastes & water are filtered out as urea The cleaned filtered blood is returned to circulation through the renal vein Blood Purification A complex mechanism that involves three distinct processes I. Filtration II. Reabsorption III. Secretion Filtration Occurs in the Glomerulus Diffusion causes substances to leave the blood and enter the Bowmans Capsule Water, salt, glucose, amino acids and urea are filtered Proteins and blood cells remain in the the blood because they are too large to diffuse Reabsorption The kidneys play an important role in homeostasis; they regulate blood volume, water content, blood pH, and remove wastes from the body If anything goes wrong, serious medical problems can ensue; humans can only live with one kidney

Smith 32 If both kidneys fail there are two options: Transplant from healthy, compatible donor Dialysis blood is removed and pumped through a machine that does the work of a nephron (Expensive and time consuming - 3 times a week for several hours) Immune System Homeostasis - An organisms homeostasis is constantly threatened (Failure to respond can result in disease or death) Agents of Disease: V -Viruses - Common Cold, Chicken Pox, Influenza -Bacteria - Tetanus, Meningitis, Strep Throat -Fungi - Athletes foot, ringworm -Parasites - Protists - Malaria, African Sleeping Sickness - Worms - Tapeworm Factors of Disease Many show up right away or not show up for many years Inheritance, Toxic Substance, Poor Nutrition, Organ Malfunction, Personal Behavior Person-to-Person (Through coughing, sneezing and physical contact or sexual transmission) Contaminated food or water Exposure to an infected animals (Vectors- Insects tat spread disease via bite) First Line of Defense

Smith 33 A nonspecific response like skin which is the most important nonspecific response. This is the barrier that keeps pathogens out of the body (even a small cut can become infected) Pathogens can enter through the mouth and nose Mucus in your nose and throat trap viruses and bacteria Cilia push them away from lungs Stomach acid and digestive enzymes destroys pathogens Body secretions including mucus, saliva. sweat and tears contain lysozyme (breaks down cell walls of bacteria) Second Line of Defense Inflammatory response (When pathogens enter the body and release toxins) Blood vessels near the infection site grow larger and white blood cells leak into the infected area -Phagocytes (Macrophages) - White blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens -B Cells - Produce antibodies -Killer T Cells - Attach to and kill infected cels -Memory B and T Cells - Remain after an infection, ready to kill the pathogen before you get sick if you are ever exposed again Fever The immune system releases chemicals that raise the body temperature Many pathogens can only survive in a narrow temperature range This slows or stops their growth and speeds up metabolism in the body to repair damaged cells

Smith 34 Specific Defenses If a pathogen gets past the nonspecific defense, the body starts a defense called the immune response. The substance that triggers this response is an antigen -A carbohydrate, lipid or protein on the outside of the pathogen that triggers the immune response Humoral Response Carried out by B Lymphocytes (B Cells) They produce antibodies -A protein that helps destroy pathogens and are Y shaped and have identical binding sites -Antibodies attach to pathogens and mark them for phagocytes and other white blood cells (Keeps them from entering other cells) Antibody Production Specific for each pathogen; B cells each create a different antibody When infected with a pathogen, the B cell that produces and makes plasma cells, also produces the specific antibody needed to destroy the pathogen T Lymphocytes (T Cells) Assist the body Cell Mediated Immunity Body cells infected with a pathogen must also be destroyed by T Cells Organ Transplant Rejection Killer T cells cause problems during organ transplants. They see the new organ as foreign

Smith 35 They damage or destroy transplanted organs this is called rejection. To prevent rejection transplant patients are given drugs to suppress the immune system. This leaves the patients open to other infections. Permanent Immunity Once the body has been exposed to a pathogen, memory B and T cells remain. They are capable of producing the specific antibody to the pathogen before you ever get sick Active Immunity 1. Once the body has been exposed to a pathogen memory B cells and T cells remain. They are capable of producing the specific antibody to the pathogen before you ever get sick. This is why you can only get certain diseases once in a lifetime 2. Injection of weakened or dead forms of a pathogen is called vaccination. Vaccines cause the body to produce memory B and T cells without having been infected with the disease Passive Immunity 1. Travelers are sometimes injected with antibodies produced in animals to give them protection from certain disease 2. Antibodies can be passed from mother to child through the placenta and through breast milk Disorders 1. Allergies happen when an allergen attaches to a type of immune cell called a mast cell which releases histamine. Histamine causes the sneezing, runny eyes and nose associated with an allergy. Antihistamines are drugs that counteract histamine. 2. The immune system needs to recognize your own tissues and cells as self in order to work effectively. When the body makes a mistake and attacks cells of the body it is an autoimmune disease

Smith 36 3. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS happens when one is infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV. The HIV replicates in helper T cells which destroys them. This makes the immune system unable to fight off other diseases