EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE HUMAN BODY

Several general changes take place in the human body as it ages: hearing and vision decline, muscle strength lessens, soft tissues such as skin and blood vessels become less flexible, and there is an overall decline in body tone. Most of the body's organs perform less efficiently with advancing age. For example, the average amount of blood pumped by the heart drops from about 6.9 liters (7.3 quarts) per minute at age 20 to only 3.5 liters (3.7 quarts) pumped per minute at age 85. For this same age range, the average amount of blood flowing through the kidneys drops from approximately 0.6 liters (0.6 quarts) per minute to 0.3 liters (0.3 quarts). Not all people experience decreased organ function to the same degree some individuals have healthier hearts and kidneys at age 85 than others do at age 50. The immune system also changes with age. A healthy immune system protects the body against bacteria, viruses, and other harmful agents by producing disease-fighting proteins known as antibodies. A healthy immune system also prevents the growth of abnormal cells, which can become cancerous. With advancing age, the ability of the immune system to carry out these protective functions is diminishedthe rate of antibody production may drop by as much as 80 percent between age 20 and age 85. This less-effective immune system explains why a bout of influenza, which may make a young adult sick for a few days, can be fatal for an elderly person. Most of the glands of the endocrine system, the organs that secrete hormones regulating such functions as metabolism, temperature, and blood sugar levels, retain their ability to function into advanced age. However, these glands often become less sensitive to the triggers that direct hormone secretion. In the aging pancreas, for example, higher blood sugar

levels are required to stimulate the release of insulin, a hormone that helps the muscles convert blood sugar to energy. The ovaries and the testes, the endocrine glands that regulate many aspects of sexual reproduction, alter during the aging process. As a man ages, the testes produce less of the male sex hormone, testosterone. A woman's ovaries undergo marked changes from about age 45 to age 55 during a process known as menopause. The ovaries no longer release egg cells, and they no longer generate the hormones that stimulate monthly menstrual cycles. After women have gone through menopause, they are no longer capable of having children without the aid of reproductive technology. The physical changes associated with aging do not have a significant impact on sexual activitymost healthy people maintain an interest in sex all of their lives.

CAUSES OF AGING
Although the exact causes of aging remain unknown, scientists are learning a great deal about the aging process and the mechanisms that drive it. Some of the most promising research on the aging process focuses on the microscopic changes that occur in all living cells as organisms age. Scientists have been searching for the underlying cause, known as the senescent factor (SF), of why cells stop dividing and thus age. Different theories have been proposed to explain how SF works. One theory is based on the assumption that aging, and diseases that occur more frequently with advancing age, are caused by structural damage to cells. This damage accumulates in tiny amounts each time the cell divides, eventually preventing the cell from carrying out normal functions. One cause of this damage may be free radicals, which are chemical compounds found in the environment and also generated by normal chemical reactions in the body. Free radicals contain unpaired electrons and so carry an electric charge that makes them highly reactive. In an effort to

neutralize their electric charge, free radicals constantly bombard cells in order to steal electrons in a process called oxidation. Free radicals are thought to greatly increase the severity ofor perhaps even causesuch life-shortening diseases as diabetes mellitus, strokes, and heart attacks. Researchers have observed that free radicals exist in smaller amounts in those species with relatively long life spans. Increasing human life span may depend on our ability to prevent free radical damage, and scientists are currently examining the role of chemical compounds, called antioxidants, that prevent or reverse oxidative damage in the aging process. Another theory suggests that SF is genetically regulatedthat is, cells are genetically programmed to carry out about 50 cell divisions and then die. Researchers have identified at least three genes that are involved with human cellular senescence. They have also discovered a protein on the surface membranes of senescent cells that inhibits production of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the essential molecule that carries all genetic information. Another theory proposes that extra, useless bits of DNA accumulate over time within a cell's nucleus. Eventually this so-called junk DNA builds up to levels that clog normal cell action. If this idea is correct, scientists may be able to find ways to prevent accumulation of junk DNA, thereby slowing down the process of senescence in cells. Other studies focus on cell division limits. Each time a cell divides, it duplicates its DNA, and in each division the sections at the ends of DNA, called the telomeres, are gradually depleted, or shortened. Eventually the telomeres become so depleted that normal cell division halts, typically within 50 cell divisions. Scientists have found that an enzyme produced by the human body, called telomerase, can prolong the life of the telomeres, thus extending the number of cell divisions. In laboratory studies, cells

injected with telomerase continue to divide well beyond the normal limit of 50 cell divisions. These promising results have triggered worldwide attention on telomerase and its relationship to aging.

A number of other studies are underway to investigate the effects of aging. Scientists have found, for example, a possible explanation for why women have longer average life spans than men. The difference seems to be biologically determined, and male and female sex hormones are probably responsible. The blood levels of female sex hormones drop sharply during menopause. At that time, the incidence of heart disease and high blood pressure in women increases to match the incidence in men, suggesting that the presence of female sex hormones offers some protection against heart disease.

AGING POPULATIONS
In developed nations, life expectancy has increased more in the 20th century than it has in all of recorded history. A person born in the United States in 1995 can expect to live more than 35 years longer than a person born in 1900. Today more than 34 million Americans are 65 or older, accounting for about 13 percent of the population. By the year 2030, their numbers will more than double: One in every five Americans will be over age 65. A person who lives 100 years or more a centenarianwas once a rarity, but today about 60,000 Americans are 100 years or older. By the year 2060, there may be as many as 2.5 million centenarians in the United States. The number of supercentenarianspeople 105 years of age and olderwill probably be as commonplace in the next century as centenarians are fast becoming now.

Effects Of Aging On Your Body

Physiological aging refers to the changes in structure and functioning of the body that occur over a lifespan. Many of these changes are involuntary and occur very gradually while others occur over a short period. Following are the descriptions of some of the physiological changes that normally occur. Note down the steps that can be taken to counteract some of them.
EFFECTS ON THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Some changes that may occur in the cardiovascular system are a decrease in the elasticity of the blood vessels and heart valves, restricted blood flow due to the thickening of the vessel walls and because of the fatty deposits lining the vessels, and a decrease in the ability of the heart to pump out as much blood with each beat. As a result, you may feel fatigued, become short of breath more easily and have less capacity for physical exertion. To counteract some of these effects, maintain a normal weight, exercise regularly, stop smoking, reduce salt, sugar and fatty foods in your diet. If you do this, you will be able to tolerate natural changes more easily and still live a normal life, as well as help to deter the development of heart disease.
EFFECTS ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Once again, a regular exercise program and quitting smoking will help. Also ask a health adviser about diaphragmatic breathing. You can use these techniques to increase your lung capacity more efficiently.
EFFECTS ON THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

There tends to be a gradual loss of muscle tone, elasticity and strength. In some areas, the muscle is often replaced with fatty tissue leaving you with little rolls or soft, flabby spots. But what is more significant is that your endurance or strength to perform certain tasks may also decrease. A balanced diet and regular exercise may improve muscle tone and strength. Adapt to decreased muscle strength and endurance and do not try to do everything yourself and give yourself more time to accomplish a task.

EFFECTS ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system gradually changes over the years until it is porous and brittle, as the bones lose calcium and also their density. This may be more pronounced in women. As a result, you may become more prone to fractures, notice a

decrease in height or even develop a stoop in your posture. To retard this process, eat a diet high in calcium and vitamin D. Ask your doctor whether you would benefit from calcium and vitamin D supplements. Also, moderate amounts of exercise such as walking and exercising on a stationary bicycle are helpful and prove to be very enjoyable.
EFFECTS ON THE METABOLIC SYSTEM

There may be a gradual decline in the activity of the thyroid gland, as well as decline in the ability of the pancreas to produce insulin. As a result, there is a decrease in the body's ability to use fats and sugars and to convert them into energy. You may note an increase in weight, an increased blood sugar level when you go to the doctor, who may tell you that you have adult onset diabetes. You may find a decrease in energy as well as decrease in your ability to handle stress. Reduce your caloric intake, avoid junk food, reduce your sugar and fat intake, and exercise regularly.
EFFECTS ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive tract is a very resilient system, but there are some changes that occur which may cause you some distress. There is a gradual slowing of the system as well as a decrease in the secretion of saliva and enzymes which are necessary for digestion. As a result, there may be problems with indigestion, elimination and adequate absorption of nutrients. Eat a balanced diet, high in fibre and fluids. Avoid eating heavy meals. In fact, small, frequent meals eaten slowly enhance the digestive process.
EFFECTS ON THE NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM

What happens here is, the messages take a slightly longer time to pass from the nerves to the muscles, and the muscles take a slightly longer time to react to these messages. So take this into consideration while doing things that require a quick response. Also, there may be a decrease in the perception of pain and an increase in the time to react to it. This may seem like a blessing at times; after all, it would be nice for injuries and aches not to hurt so much. Problems may arise, however, if you put off going to the doctor for something that hurts you because it does not seem too bad. Become attuned to your body and what you are feeling and have anything unusual checked out by a doctor. There is also a change in the wake-sleep cycle. You may find yourself not sleeping as much at night. This may be nothing to worry about. You may sometimes need to rest during the day and need less, deep sleep at night.
EFFECTS ON THE GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM

The ability of the kidneys to filter and reabsorb may also decrease. Also, men show a tendency towards prostate enlargement while women have hormonal changes that may cause vaginal itching and burning, making intercourse

uncomfortable. Frequent check-up and contact with your doctor when symptoms appear are important.
EFFECTS ON THE SENSORY SYSTEM

There is a gradual decrease in the overall sensual acuity of the body. Your sense of touch is decreased, as is your ability to hear some high-pitched sounds. You may notice a decrease in the ability to smell and a loss of some of the sweet and salty taste buds. The lenses of your eyes lose some of their ability to accommodate, so you may find yourself reading at arm's length. The size of the pupil also decreases, sometimes making it harder to adapt to dim light. There may also be a yellowing of the lens, and decrease in colour perception. Simply ask people to speak slower and in a lower tone. Add colour, variety, and seasonings besides salt to your food to make your meals more appealing. Decreasing the glare while increasing the light helps you to see more clearly. If colour differentiation has become a problem or if things look rather dull, try adding touches of bright colours, such as oranges and reds to your home and wardrobe.
EFFECTS ON THE HAIR, SKIN AND FACE

Turning grey is one of the most obvious changes that occur with age. Most people past thirty express some dissatisfaction if not dismay with what is happening to their hair. Amongst men and women, the hair begin to grey in the late twenties and thirties. Almost everyone has grey hair by the age of forty, although, as with every other aspect of aging, there are distinct variations within the family and ethnic groups. One possibility is to dye your hair with one of the safe, vegetable based dyes or rinses now available in the market. This is preferred to aniline (coal tar) based dyes, as prolonged use over the years may cause bladder cancer or leukaemia. In addition to the greying process, a small percentage of men are subject to baldness. This tendency is passed on genetically from father to son. It occurs in the son because of the production of testosterone, the male sex hormone. Another type of baldness is thinning of hair. Certain hair restoration products including minoxidil, which is also used to control blood pressure are available to control the above. Various implant procedures are also available. As the skin ages, the various layers tend to lose their ability to retain fluids, and there may also be a loss of some of the fatty deposits under the skin. It also loses some of its elasticity. As a result, the skin may become wrinkled, dry and easily bruised. To minimize these effects, avoid direct sunlight and use a moisturizing cream. The outlook for the development of 'beauty products' that will help cover wrinkles or add the blush of youth seems unlimited. The recent development of a vitamin A related agent, Retin-A, applied to the skin over the course of months, increases the blood supply, results in a flush and thickens the aging skin. Most of the changes in the face and skin that occur with aging are natural and normal and are not cause for worry. But if you become dissatisfied with the way you look and you want to 'help' nature a little bit, there are a number of medical possibilities, one of them being cosmetic sugery.

What Is Aging?

In this essay I attempt to define aging. The different components of human aging are succinctly reviewed and several other key concepts in gerontology are defined.

Sections Demographic Measurements of Aging Pathological and Physiological Age-Related Changes Basic Definitions in Gerontology Keywords: ageing, aging traits, biomarkers, demography, older people Although everyone is familiar with aging, defining it is not so straightforward. Aging can simply refer to the passage of time and can even have a positive connotation as in "aging wine." In the context of senescence.info, and unless otherwise noted, the term "aging" refers to the biological process of growing older in a deleterious sense, what some authors call "senescence" (Williams, 1957; Comfort, 1964; Finch, 1990). (Personally, I actually prefer the term "senescence." If this were an academic book, I would be tempted to use the term "senescence." Being a website with visitors from various backgrounds, I think the term "aging" is more accessible; "senescence" now also frequently refers to cellular senescence.) Aging is one of the most complex biological processes, whose definition is intrinsically related to its phenotype, as developed below.

Demographic Measurements of Aging

Aging has been defined as the collection of changes that render human beings progressively more likely to die (Medawar, 1952). Indeed, one hallmark of aging in humans and in many other species is an age-related increase in mortality rates shortly after maturity (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Mortality rates, expressed in deaths per 100,000 people, as a function of age for the 2002 US population. The black line represents the Gompertz function extrapolated from the mortality rates after maturity. Source: CDC/NCHS, National Vital Statistics System, Mortality. Mathematically, aging can be quantified from mortality curves such as that in Figure 1. There are several mathematical functions that can be used (Wilson, 1994; Strehler, 1999, pp. 103-124). The simplest, most widely used method is based on the Gompertz function (Finch, 1990, pp. 13-22; Strehler, 1999, pp. 111-113): m(t) = AeGt Being m(t) the mortality rate as a function of time or age (t); A is the extrapolated constant to birth or maturity, and G is the exponential (Gompertz) mortality rate coefficient. From Figure 1 it is possible then to estimate the Gompertz equation by performing a simple regression analysis after maturity: m(t) = 8.84e0.0800t with r2 = 0.997. From this equation--or even sometimes from the mortality plot--we can derive the initial mortality rate (IMR), which is the mortality rate independent of aging, often calculated from the mortality rate prior to its exponential increase with age; in this case, IMR = 0.0002/year since that is the mortality rate at ages 10-20. Another important variable derived from the Gompertz equation is the mortality rate doubling time (MRDT) given by MRDT = 0.693/G (Finch, 1990, pp. 22-24). Hence, MRDT = 0.693/0.0800 = 8.66 years. In fact, human populations tend to have a MRDT around 8 years. This means that after our sexual peak, at roughly age 30, our chances of dying double approximately every 8 years.

Demographic measurements of aging, such as the MRDT, may then serve as estimates of the rate of aging. Changes in the MRDT are expected to reflect changes in the rate of aging, but the same is not true for the IMR (Finch, 1990; Finch and Pike, 1996; de Magalhaes et al., 2005). For example, the life expectancy at birth increased considerably in the past 100 year. In the US, it jumped from 47.3 years in 1900 to 77.3 years in 2002 (National Center for Health Statistics, Data Warehouse on Trends in Health and Aging). Nonetheless, the rate of aging and the MRDT are thought to have remained unaltered for thousands of years (Finch, 1990; Hayflick, 1994). What happened last century was that the IMR, which is not affected by the aging rate, was lowered due to breakthroughs in different areas, such as in the war against infectious diseases, thus lowering mortality rates across the entire lifespan and increasing the life expectancy. Because the increase in life expectancy was due to changes in the IMR independent of changes in aging rates is also the reason why the average lifespan of humans may be reaching a plateau. The only way to considerably increase human longevity in the future is to retard the aging process itself (Olshansky et al., 1990; Butler et al., 2008). The way changes in the IMR and in the MRDT affect lifespan yet only changes in the MRDT reflect changes in aging rates means that changes in lifespan, for example due to feeding animals a particular anti-aging drug, may not reflect changes in the rate of aging. This is a crucial concept to correctly interpret experimental results in gerontology. For experiments in, for instance, animal models to be relevant to aging it is therefore imperative to discriminate between interventions affecting the aging process (i.e., the MRDT) and interventions affecting health (i.e., the IMR), as argued by many others (Hayflick, 2000; Pletcher et al., 2000). To determine whether rate of aging is affected one tool researchers have at their disposal is then calculating the MRDT and IMR (Pletcher et al., 2000; de Magalhaes et al., 2005). Indeed, such demographic measurements have been employed to determine whether genetic and dietary manipulations of lifespan in rodents modified or not the aging process (de Magalhaes et al., 2005). Moreover, and being the IMR independent of aging, the conditions by which aging is studied should be ideal environmental conditions in order to minimize the IMR and allow us to better focus on the aging process (Strehler, 1986). Lastly, demographic measurements are also useful for comparisons between species, as further discussed elsewhere. It is common knowledge that women have a longer life expectancy than men. Premenopausal hormonal protection might contribute to this. Women have a lower IMR than men but the MRDT is similar for men and women*. This indicates that women do not age slower than men. Rather, women appear better protected against many major diseases at all ages (Austad, 2006). Men are the sicker sex (Zuk, 2009). Interestingly, there is some anecdotal evidence that, after menopause, women may suffer more from aging than men. Eunuchs also appear to live slightly longer than men (Hamilton and Mestler, 1969); a reduction in IMR due to hormonal alterations may be at the origin of this phenomenon (Grossman, 1984). As mentioned above, human mortality rates begin to climb exponentially after about age 30. One peculiar phenomenon, however, is that this rate of increase of mortality actually levels off after about age 65 (Vaupel et al., 1998), and this has been reported in other

species too. This is probably due, however, to statistics and heterogeneity--e.g., if a population is made up of two sub-populations with different rates of aging eventually only slower aging individuals will remain--rather than any unknown biological process (Vaupel et al., 1979; Partridge and Mangel, 1999; Rossolini and Piantanelli, 2001).

Pathological and Physiological Age-Related Changes

Aging can also be defined as a progressive functional decline, or a gradual deterioration of physiological function with age, including a decrease in fecundity (Partridge and Mangel, 1999), or the intrinsic, inevitable, and irreversible age-related process of loss of viability and increase in vulnerability (Comfort, 1964). Clearly, human aging is associated with a wide range of physiological changes that not only make us more susceptible to death but limit our normal functions and render us more susceptible to a number of diseases. The purpose of senescence.info is not to describe all age-related changes and pathologies typical of old age, as there are excellent resources on the topic (Craik and Salthouse, 1992; Spence, 1995; Timiras, 2002), including our lab's Digital Ageing Atlas. Nonetheless, a brief inspection of the most important physiological changes that occur with age and the pathological consequences of these changes is useful to understand aging. In humans, albeit some functions like hearing and flexibility begin to deteriorate early in life (Bowen and Atwood, 2004), most of our body's functional decline tends to begin after the sexual peak, roughly at age 19. Contrary to demographic measurements of aging that show mortality rates increasing exponentially, the human functional decline tends to be linear (Strehler, 1999). Succinctly, aging is characterized by changes in appearance, such as a gradual reduction in height and weight loss due to loss of muscle and bone mass, a lower metabolic rate, longer reaction times, declines in certain memory functions, declines in sexual activity--and menopause in women--, a functional decline in audition, olfaction, and vision, declines in kidney, pulmonary, and immune functions, declines in exercise performance, and multiple endocrine changes (Craik and Salthouse, 1992; Hayflick, 1994, pp. 137-186; Spence, 1995). Although the immune system deteriorates with age, called immunosenescence, a major hallmark of aging is an increase in inflammation levels, reflected in higher levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines and that may contribute to several age-related disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis and arthritis (Franceschi et al., 2000; Bruunsgaard et al., 2001). Some age-related changes, such as presbyopia, also called farsightedness, which is caused by the continuous growth of the eyes' lenses and appears to be universal of human aging (Finch, 1990, pp. 158-159; Hayflick, 1994, p. 179), and menopause, are inevitable yet the incidence of most age-related changes vary considerably between individuals. The phenotype of human aging is one in which practically any system, tissue or organ can fail (Austad, 1997a; Strehler, 1999). This indicates an intrinsic phenomenon affecting the whole organism and leading to the "weakest link" failing, resulting in death. Interestingly, studies in supercentenarians--i.e., people over 110 years of age--suggest that these individuals age uniformly. In other words, one thing that makes supercentenarians unique is the fact they do not have one debilitating organ or system

that results in death; they do not have a "weakest link." Supercentenarians are nonetheless extremely frail and debilitated, showing multiple pathologies (Coles, 2004). Likewise, one "autopsy study" in centenarians revealed that all, even those described as healthy before death, had an acute organic failure causing death. These results also suggest that the idea that people can die of "old age" is incorrect (Berzlanovich et al., 2005). Clearly, the incidence of a number of pathologies increases with age (Fig. 2). These include type 2 diabetes, heart disease, cancer, arthritis, and kidney disease. Also note how the incidence of some pathologies, like sinusitis, remains relatively constant with age, while the incidence of others, like asthma, even decline. Therefore, it is important to stress that aging is not merely a collection of diseases. With age we become more susceptible to certain diseases, but as described above we also become more likely to die, frailer, and endure a number of physiological changes, not all of which lead to pathology.

Figure 2: Prevalence of selected chronic conditions, expressed in percentages, as a function of age for the US population (2002-2003 dataset). All forms of cancer and heart disease are featured. Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Data Warehouse on Trends in Health and Aging.

Figure 3: Death by underlying or multiple cause, expressed in rates per 100,000 people, as a function of age for the 2001 US population aged 85 and older. Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Data Warehouse on Trends in Health and Aging. 45-54 years Cause of death Diseases of the heart Malignant neoplasm Cerebrovascular diseases Parkinson's disease Alzheimer's disease Pneumonia Chronic lower respiratory diseases Diabetes mellitus Certain infectious and parasitic Incidence 92.8 126.3 15.1 0.1 0.2 4.6 8.5 13.6 22.9 % of deaths 21.66% 29.48% 3.52% 0.02% 0.05% 1.07% 1.98% 3.17% 5.35% Over 85 years Incidence 5607.5 1747 1485.2 1312.8 703.2 676.5 638.2 318.6 243.8 % of deaths 37.48% 11.68% 9.93% 8.77% 4.70% 4.52% 4.27% 2.13% 1.63%

diseases Atherosclerosis Others 0.5 143.8 0.12% 33.57% 177.3 2050.9 1.19% 13.71%

Table 1: Death by underlying or multiple cause, expressed in rates per 100,000 people or in percentage of the total deaths, for the 2001 US population in two age groups: 45-54 years and 85 years of age and older. Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Data Warehouse on Trends in Health and Aging. Figure 3 shows the most important causes of death in the elderly. Not surprisingly, heart diseases are the number one cause of death in people aged 85 and older, followed by cancer, cerebrovascular diseases, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, pneumonia, and chronic lower respiratory diseases. While diseases like cancer and heart diseases are major causes of death at all ages, other diseases, like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, only become significant at old age (Table 1). Lastly, it is important to note that an understanding of the physiology and pathology of aging is important to assess the relevance of model organisms for the study of human aging, as mentioned elsewhere. Despite all the physiological and pathological changes, there is still no accurate way to quantify how aged someone is. Despite decades of research, and even though it is clear that different people age at different paces, the most accurate method to determine the biological age of someone is still chronological age. This is a major problem for studying aging and there have been ongoing efforts to determine a better way to quantify aging for years (reviewed in Balin, 1994).

Basic Definitions in Gerontology

Given the description of the human aging phenotype detailed above, I will define the basic terms that are used in senescence.info. To sum it up, aging is a complex process composed of several features: 1) an exponential increase in mortality with age; 2) physiological changes that typically lead to a functional decline with age; 3) increased susceptibility to certain diseases with age. So, I define aging as a progressive deterioration of physiological function, an intrinsic age-related process of loss of viability and increase in vulnerability. Gerontology is the branch of biomedical sciences that studies aging. In senescence.info, gerontology normally refers to the study of the biological process of aging, not its medical consequences. Generally, I use geriatrics to refer specifically to the medical study of diseases and problems of the elderly. Technically, gerontology includes both the biological and the medical branches of the study of aging, but since senescence.info is written in the context of the biology of aging, gerontology usually refers to the study of the biological aspects of aging, unless otherwise specified. Biogerontology refers specifically to the biological study of aging and is also used, usually interchangeably, with gerontology.

Life expectancy is how long, on average, an organism can be expected to live. Longevity is the period of time an organism is expected to live under ideal circumstances. Lifespan is defined as the period of time in which the life events of a species or sub-species (e.g., a strain or population) typically occur. Lifespan and longevity can sometimes be used interchangeably, though they have slightly different meanings. For humans, lifespan and longevity are about the same in industrial nations, but when studying species in the wild, one can expect that lifespan will be lower than longevity since feral conditions are certainly not ideal for assessing longevity. For most purposes, life expectancy, average longevity, and average lifespan have the same meaning. Maximum longevity and maximum lifespan are the maximum amount of time animals of a given species or subspecies can live--typically, the record longevity for that species. The maximum longevity of humans is 122 years, recorded by the late Jeanne Calment (Allard et al., 1998). For a quick reference on terms and definitions, you may always consult the glossary.

Definitions gerontology
noun

1. the study of the elderly, and of the aging process itself. 2. the branch of science that deals with the problem, problems of aged people. It is to be distinguished from geriatrics, which is the study of the diseases of the elderly. Gerontology covers the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging. Translations:

German: Gerontologie

Etymology: (geron), "old man".