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Galileo Galilei
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GALILEO'S
EXHIBITED
IN
BROKEN LENS.
THE LOAN COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS AT THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, 1676.
5^.
GALILEO GALILEI
AND A PART OF THE FRE FACE
TO KEPLER'S DIOPTRICS
CONTAINING THE ORIGINAL ACCOUNT OF GALILEO'S
ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES.
rangiIation
ioitl^
3lntrotmction ann
Bote^
BY
M.A.
RIVINGTONS
WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON
(iforti anti
^ambtitise
MDCCCLXXX
pi
PREFATORY NOTE.
About
five
Hospital.
One
known
of
as the Royal
Mathematical
Foundation
King
Charles
ii.
to
was a
little
and
and Kepler's
Dioptrics.
vi
of
in
matter and in
as a
I venture to think
be interested in following
discoveries,
and
which
he announced them.
INTRODUCTION.
In 1609, Galileo, then Professor of Mathematics at Padua, in the service of the Venetian Republic,
heard from a correspondent at Paris of the invention of a telescope,
and
set to
work
to consider
how
The result was his invention of the telescope known by his name, and identical in principle with the modern operaglass. In a maritime and warhke State, the advansuch an instrument could be made.
tages to be expected from such an invention were
and
first
telescope
seen at
how he came
to
research
and how
his observations
were rewarded
by numerous
and
at
INTRODUCTION
len^h by
Galileo at
upon the establishment of the Copernican system of astronomy, which had met with shght acceptance, and indeed as yet had hardly any recommendation
except that of greater simphcity.
{Commentaria de motihus Stellce Martis), on which he had been engaged apparently for eight years
;
himself, through a
common
to
Duke
of Tuscany,
Cosmo
ii.,
Medici
ii.,
the
Emperor Eudolph
The Emperor
in a
pam-
entitled
Discussion
vjith
the
Sidereal
In
this
Discussion
Kepler
gives
reasons
for
although
he was
Galileo's
INTRODUCTION.
the same explanation of
rejects,
ix
the
phenomenon.
He
colour of the
moon
in echpses.
Kepler ends by
furnishes
it
Soon
after,
in 1611, Kepler
pubHshed another
made
by himself and
several
friends,
whose
names he gives, with a telescope made by Gahleo, and belonging to Ernest, Elector and Archbishop
of Cologne.
but
of
corresponding
Galileo.
the
imperfect
description
He now
extended
it
to
the consideration of the theory of the telescope, and explained the principle of Galileo's telescope
also
;
he
showed another combination of lenses which would produce a similar effect. This was the principle of the
called,
common
The account of
INTRODUCTION.
Venus
is
(Kepler's
Dioptrics;
Augs-
burg, 1611.)
series of observations
and
in
three
comets.
of
satellites,
(Galileo's
Worhs
One more
was made
of
it
is
as late as 1637,
dated
" dalla
8,
mia
1642.
Arcetri."
The following
translation
:
editions
for the
Galileo's Worhs.
1.
Florence, 1718.
2. 3.
Padua, 1744.
Florence, 1842-56.
Sidereus Nuncius,
1.
Venice, 1610.
2.
London, 1653.
INTRODUCTION.
Kepler's Works, ed.
C.
Friscli.
xi
Frankfurt
a.
M.,
1858-71.
conti-
Tubingen,
1596.
Astronomia
motibus
nova
alrLoXoyT^ro^
(Comment aria de
stellse Martis).
[Prague,] 1609.
THE
SIDEREAL MESSENGER
OF
GALILEO GALILEI
THE
SIDEREAL MESSENGER
UNFOLDING GREAT AND MARVELLOUS SIGHTS, AND PROPOSING THEM TO THE ATTENTION OF EVERY ONE, BUT ESPECIALLY PHILOSOPHERS AND ASTRONOMERS,
BEING SUCH AS HAVE BEEN OBSERVED BY
GALILEO GALILEI
A GENTLEMAN OF FLORENCE,
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA,
TELESCOPE
lately invented by
him.
Milky IVay, and Nebulous Stars, but especially respecting Four Planets which revolve roiuid the Planet fitpiter at different distances and in different periodic times, with amazing velocity, and which, after refnaini?ig unknown to every one up to this day, the Author recently discovered, and
determined
to
iiame the
MEDICEAN STARS.
Venice i6io.
COSMO
DE' MEDICI,
THE SECOND,
THERE
is
and
large-
minded
who have
endea-
and decay.
This desire
them
to future ages
to the
same
feeling
we owx
the
mountthis
ing to the
stars,
and distinguished
by the names of those men, whom the gratitude of posterity thought worthy of being handed down to all
ao^es.
For the
state of the
1
human mind
iii,
is
such, that
Propertius,
2.
17-22.
unless
upon
it
from without,
recollection
it.
of the
matters
easily passes
away
from
But
lasting
others,
of great
men by placing
it
monuments
of literature.
if
But why
do
human
that
wit, content
human
monuments do perish at last by violence, by weather, or by age, she took a wider view, and invented more imperishable signs, over which destroying Time and envious Age could claim no rights so, betaking her;
of the brightest
stars
those
the
names
stars.
stars are
called, will
not fade
Compare Lucretius
iv.
881
tions themselves.
But
this invention of
human
shrewdness, so par-
ticularly noble
ages ago, inasmuch as primeval heroes are in possession of those bright abodes, and keep
of right
;
them by a
sort
into
affection of
Augus;
for
when he
name
name, from
hair -like
tails,
comets,
it
But we
are
able
to
for scarcely
mind begun
to shine
on
earth, w^hen
tongues to
virtues
to
tell
all
stars
longing to the
common and
stars which,
less
conspicuous multi-
tude of fixed
planets
stars,
four
moving
differently
from
the planets, as
if
own
children
while
all
all
complete
round
the Sun.
me by
others.
new
planets to the
all
famous name
of your highness
in preference to
stars, like
children worthy
of their
appreciable
distance,
who
does not
know
that
others, all
your highness,
who,
I say,
from
the
whom
all
Jupiter,
Jupiter,
own
and
the
first
ments when
conclusion
?
was the
will of
unworthy
to be
employed
I
in teaching
when
it is
evidently
fell
to
my
lot
by God's
of your
surpassing
what wonder
it
is it if
you
have so warmed
anything
else
my heart that
who am
to be
by
my
may
be
known
most anxious
And
so,
were unknown to
all
have,
And
as
6
I
investigate them,
who can
call
rightly
the
blame
me
give
them
Medicean
Stars,
may
monuments
of all
virtue alone,
stars
most mighty
;
an immortal name
for
be,
ment, but that you will also far surpass them, so that
you
may
still
vie
you
for
.
many
blessings,
much from
of
servant,
Galileo Galilel
Padua, Ilarrh
12, 1610.
Milky
Way, Nebulous
Stars,
an
innumerable multitude of Fixed Stars, and also respecting Four Planets never before
seen,
THE COSMIAN
STARS.^
introduction.
IN
mena
to look at
and
consider.
They
are of great
;
and
lastly, also
my
apprehension.
The number
sight
1
which observers
powers of
therefore
artificial
up
to this
It is
The satellites of Jupiter are here called " the Cosmian Stars " in honour Cosmo de' Medici, but elsewhere Galileo calls them " the Medicean Kepler sometimes calls them ''the Medicean Sfars,'^ but more Stars.'^
of
often "
satellites.''^
before,
number more
distant from
was
;
at a distance of only
measures
Moon
surface about
viewed only
mth
the
naked eye
the
Moon
and
sinuosities.
Then
or
to
nature clear to
the
Galileo says, " per sex denas fere terrestres diametros a nobis remotum'
for semi-diametros,
by mistake
p. 11.
In addition to
this, to
to this time
it is very-
will be
pleasant,
and very
fine.
will excite
by
far,
moved me
this,
namely, that
by any one
my
time, which
star,
one of
sometimes
it
behind
it,
beyond
^
certain limits.
enlightening
my
will
mind.
still
more
excellent
me
or
by other
telescopium "
1647.
lo
and preparation,
and then
made by
me.
Galileo's ac-
count of the
invention of
his telescope.
About tcu months ago a report reached my ears X O J that a Dutchman had constructed a telescope, by the
aid of which visible
....
;
J.
objects,
although at a great
distance
distinctly as if near
its
most
few
gave credence
days
letter
after, I
to,
written
me
to give
which a
little
after
succeeded in doing,
and I prepared a tube, at first of lead, in the ends of which 1 fitted two glass lenses, both plane on one
side,
Then bringing
my
eye to the
saw
objects
satisfactorily large
and
ofl"
ii
and nine times larger than when they are seen with the
natural eye alone.
I shortly
afterwards constructed
times.
At
length,
by sparing
seen
through
it
appear magnified
nearly a
viewed
of
sight
oaiiieos
tions with
ate the
this
instrument
may
sea.
be expected to confer,
when
used by land or
first
all,
viewed the
Moon
of
as near as if
it
was
scarcely
two
the
semi- diameters^
the
Earth
distant.
After
Moon,
and,
when
saw
number,
I
began to
to
consider about a
method by which
is fitting
might be able
I
found
And
here
it
that
all
who
intend to
"
Telluris d'lamttros^''
by mistake
for "semi-diametros."
12
turn their
observations
of
this
kind
first
should receive
place,
it
certain cautions.
For, in
the
is
them
to prepare
show very
for
and
free
and
it
will
magnify them
at least
400 times,
then
will
show them
off.
distance
power,
it will
the
by me
in the heavens,
But
in order that
little
more
themTgn'ifythe telescope,
power of
his instrument,
circles, or
is
which
greater
the
other.
Then he
shall
for that
may
Then both
figures
same
size, if
THE SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
13
method of measuring distances remains for inquiry, and this we shall accomplish by the following contrivance
:
Method
of
L'S an^i
distances
between
heavenlj'
bodies by the
n
^
size of the
.
aperture of
the telescope.
easily understood, I
suppose a tube A B c d/
;
observer
then,
when
there
no lenses in the
Ed
drawn
the
in
in the
straight
lines
Ec
F,
g,
but when
rays
lenses
have
been inserted,
E c H, E D
i,
let
the
go
the
bent lines
for
tracted,
originally,
when
by the
will
The
line c
rays
from H which,
through the telescope, reach the eye e. The enlarged figure shows that if op be the radius of the aperture employed, the point H of the object would be just outside the field of view. The method, however, is at best only a very rough one, as the boundary of the field of view in this telescope is unavoidably indistinct.
after refraction
14
able to find,
by means of a
magni-
H I, which we shall find to contain only some minutes. But if we fit on the lens CD thin plates of metal,
pierced,
tures,
plate,
some with
larger, others
lens sometimes
may
be necessary,
we
angles of
more
or fewer
which
w^e shall
intervals
between
separated
by an angular
error of one or
distance of
two minutes.
our
But
let it
Now
let m.e
me
who
portant phenomena.
The Moon.
Ruggedness
of its surface,
j^g^
Moon,
whlch
Is
tumcd towards
us.
15
two parts
in
it, Existence of
lunar mountains
which
and
valleys.
to surround
discolours
Now
are plain
to every one,
I shall call
them great
but so thickly
These
before
by any one
which
I
me
I
have
that
opinion
have
the
Moon
is
equalities
and exactly
Moon and
and
itself,
which
is
varied everywhere by
lofty
mountains and
deep valleys.
these
of the
following
nature
On
the
Moon
which divides the part in shadow from the enlightened part does not extend continuously in an ellipse, as
would happen in the case of a perfectly spherical body, but it is marked out by an irregular, uneven, and very
wavy
line,
as
given, for
may
be
called,
and shadow
even a
of
nay,
great
altogether
sprinkle everywhere
is
light,
have
common
characteristic always
and
in every
case, that
position,
and on the
side
Now we
have an appearance
sunrise,
when we
but the
light,
Sun already
ablaze
mth
the
splendour of his
Sketches
by
Galileo
to
shew
17
and just
as the
shadows
Earth diminish in
also these spots
size as the
Sun
rises higher,
so
on the
Moon lose
Again, not
Moon
many
produces
greater astonishment
and
this
from the
by no inconan hour or
increase in size
after
and
on
to the
same
luminous surface,
now
more extended.
same
figure.
An
Now,
example of
is
it
by the Sun's
raysl
After a
little
and
at length,
when
the
Sun has
risen,
of the plains
join together
The grandeur,
Moon seems
after show.
to surpass
And
Moon was
tion,
first
quarter,
representation of which
illustra-
A protuberance
;
of the
shadow, of great
and when
had
it
two hours,
and
this
by
degrees
Soon around
shine, until,
it
three other
when
the
that
triangular
figure,
of
shadow
like
a vast
promontory of
At
also
19
rest of the
is
seen
In both horns
there
also,
was a great quantity of dark spots, of which those which are nearer the boundary of light and
shadow appear
more remote
cases,
larger
are
all
less
Moon
in shadow.
it is
This
Moon, where
with
its
marked
is
with spots
azure eyes,
plunged while
still
wavy
surface,
from which
cir-
spots of the
Moon
all
The
lunar
spots are
and uniform
up
so that if
any
Specimens of frosted or crackled Venetian glass are to be seen in the Museum, and fully justify Galileo's comparison.
20
one wishes to revive the old opinion of the Pythagoreans, that the
say,
the brighter
the
Indeed, I have
when
which
is
Sun s rays, that part of the surface land would present itself to view as brighter,
is
Moon
are seen to be
;
tracts
for in the
Moon, both when crescent and when waning, on the boundary between the light and shadow, which projects in
regions
have noticed in
drawing
referred
my
illustrations,
to are not
by
the
ridges
or ruggednesses.
to an
enormous
show.
seen
21
which just
like
on the
side
them away from the Sun appears brilliant, and that part which lies nearer to the Sun dark and in shadow.
After a time,
when
the enlightened
portion of the
size,
as
soon as
These two
There
is
must on no
and rather
as
Description
of a lunar
account forget,
which
:
have
noticed
"ater, per-
wondered
it
at.
It is this
hapsTycho.i
seems,
is
all
the
rest,
and
have
and third
produces
it
as well as I can
It
efi'ects
Webb,
Celestial Objects
suggests this
identification.
22
777^
SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
all sides
if it
were shut in on
by very
is
lofty
mounperfect
tains
circle
;
arranged on the
circumference
of
Moon
walled in with
Moon
is
seen
the
boundary between
circular
space.
But according
is
side of the
Moon, which
Moon.
Of these
spots,
off
;
and
less
decidedly dark
when
the
Moon
at opposition
becomes
the darkness of
thatThere
is
In the
constitution
in various
we do not
.
parts of the
'
sious
auQ prommcuccs
we
'"'
face"
23
in the
less
rest, as I
illustrations,
their
shadow
is
neither intensified
but the
change of colour
rays
fall
very
slight,
and
boundaries mingle
region.
But
it is
is
no change of shape
it
or
becomes a
24
appearance
owing
and
not to unevennesses only in their configuration, changing in different ways the shadows of the same parts
Moon,
for
increase, decrease,
or disappear,
^^^ \qyq
I fccl that
compel them to
about
ence^'ofThe
and supported by so
most brightly
cavities
byThYant.
Irfalphe^n"!^'
Hiauy phcnomcna.
For
if
Tpoiibie^^ full
sphere^^"'
and
innumer-
^^Ic,
is
Moon
is
east,
and
at full-moon the
whole
circle,
pair of
tuberances or cavities
And most
remarkably
so,
25
be throughout
full of
For
cir-
away from
causes,
the edge.
and
first
so
The
solution
I offer is this
If the pro-
Moon
hemisphere which we
rather must,
see,
then the
Moon
might, or
show
itself to
bounded with an
;
but
if,
instead of a single
many
and ruggednesses
we
see,
but also
near
which
is
still
them
vals
afar
off,
will
not at
all
differences of prominences
and
circle, or in
by the
jutting
26
and
placed in
the spectator
elevation.
is
a long
way
off
and standing
is
at the
same
the waves seem to form one plane, although between the billows there
is
many
that not only the hulls, but even the bulwarks, masts,
and
sails
Therefore, as
as well as
round her
circumference,
a manifold arrangement of
prominences and
cavities,
is
and the
eye, regarding
them
strange
them
as
an unbroken
this
from
unevennesses.
To
explanation
is
may
be added
Moon, just
as
and
reflect the
Sun s
rays, although
much opaqueness
through
it
as to be able
especially
when
it
not illuminated.
by the
Moon
27
really
is,
body
it is
of the
Moon,
if its
now,
Moon,
and so
greater, I
may
when
it
is
in a state of brightness,
circumference of the
Moon on
Sun. This
may
be understood more
clearly
from the
is
G.
An
Moon,
da, of the
at-
mosphere
shuts out
its
boun-
An argument
in favour of this
28
is,
Moon
appears
in shadow.
why
the greater
spots on the
Moon
might
and
it
I thluk
that
made
clear,
some lunar
mountains exceeds four
Italian miles*
cavities
British feet).
me
and
to
surface
smaller, I
And
this is plainly
shown thus
As
(Berlin,
feet.
I often
observed
Moon with
reference to the
list of
1837), there
are
six
toises, or
19,000 British
29
Moon
shadow appeared illumined, although at some distance from the boundary of the light (the
in
by comparing their distance with the complete diameter of the Moon, I learnt that it someterminator),
Suppose the
be
exactly
dis-
tance
to
-i^\h
the
diagram represent
orb, of
circle,
the
is
Moon's
a great
which c A F
E
its
centre,
the
diameter of
ratio
2:7; and
CF
will be 2000,
100 miles.
CF
(for,
Moon from
owing
Moon
one),
and
a from
let
the point c be
the radius E
A be
di-awn,
and
let it
30
Gc
Then the
arc
CA
or the
will be
100 of such
units, as c
e con-
The sum
CE
is
therefore 1,010,000,
this; therefore the
equal to
whole
ED
will be
and A D
will
A D in the Moon, which represents a summit reaching up to the Sun's ray, G c d, and separated from the extremity c by
tained 1000.
the distance c D,
is
more than 4
Italian miles
but
We
are
it
is
prominences of the
the Earth.
Moon
are loftier
than those of
The
faint
\ wlsli iu
tMs pkcc
illumination
of the Moon's
disc about
new-moon
explained to
be due
to
pheuomcnon was observed by me not lately, but i T many years ago, and has been pomted out to some
i i
111
of
my
intimate friends
its
and
pupils, explained,
and
it
assigned to
is rendered easier and more vivid by the help of a telescope, I have considered that it would not be
wish to
and
Moon and
the Earth
may
When
is
found not
itself to
its
orb
show
it is fur-
seen to
circle of
turned away
it
But
in
if
we examine
more
closely,
we
extreme
faint
Moon, that
glare, is
Suns
At the
first
But
if
by the
or a chimney, or
some other
object between
his sight
at a considerable distance
from his eye, the shining horns are hidden, and the
rest
is left
; ;
32
Moon
also,
and particularly
for
so if the
gloom of the
Sun
light appears
Moreover,
it
is
found that
I
may
call
Moon
is less
distant
in pro-
for it abates
portion to the
Moon s
it is
much
faint,
be observed in a darker
less,
even
during twilight,
it
is
may
be distinguished in
it.
philosophical
minds
and some
have
be alleged for
it.
Some have
said that
it
;
is
the
Moon
;
some
or, as
others maintain,
it
by
all
the stars
while some
rays,
way
33
But statements of
tins
much
difficulty,
trated to be false.
For
this
Moon would
retain
it
it,
particularly in
left in
eclipses,
then,
is is
when
an unusually
For
Moon
is
in eclipses
far
less
intense,
being
somewhat
reddish,
and
brighter and
face of the
Moon,
which
is
near the
Earth
seen
is
Moon
is
always
to
be
dark.
From
Avhich
circumstance
we
is
due
the
coming into
surrounds
Moon
as an envelope
owing
to
which contact a
;^
but
I will
The illumination
of the
Moon
in eclipses,
is
noticed by Galileo, is now by the earth's atmosphere, and explained by Herschel {Outlines of
34
treat
matter in
my
is
so childish as to
is
be undeserving of an answer
for
who
so ignorant
and within
an angular distance of 60
the part of the
it
is
Moon
seen
But that
rendering
luminous,
is
equally
For
Moon is always illumined by the Sun, except at the moment of a lunar eclipse, yet really it quickly decreases while the Moon is drawing near to the end of her first quarter, and when she has passed
sphere of the
Astronomy, ch.
rays
vii.)
and blue
idea of
The
phenomena
1
Galileo's Systema
Mundi.
Owing
by the
Copernican system of astronomy, Galileo seems to have found it necessary to delay the publication of this work until 1632, when, belie \^ng himself safe under the friendship and patronage of Pope Urban viii. and
others in power at
Rome, he
at length published
it.
Urban, however,
author, and sumof his trial
its
and
condemnation took
35
quarter
it
becomes quite
dull.
is
Since, there-
not inherent
now remains
?
in the
we conclude
What must
body of the
not be the
we
assert
Shall
we
Why
it
should
is.
it
Moon ?
fair
And most
like
certainly
Moon an
from the
darkest
illumination
receives
Moon
clearly.
nearly
during
the
gloom of
a
position
is
night.
Let
me
Moon
illuminated
half,
covered
mth
When
the
Moon
has slightly
is
partly
she turns
36
and the
Moon
Moon
moon-
illumined less
powerfully
at length the
Moon draws
near her
first
and forthwith
and
fainter illumination.
is
But the
to the Earth
Moon
is
his
Owing
to such reus,
through a cjuadrant,
when removed from the Sun the Moon sees only one-half of
yj
Earth's
half,
liemispliere
illuminated,
namely the
is
western
the eastern,
covered
the
Moon
is,
therefore, less
But
if
to be set
of the Earth to the Sun, she will see the hemis23here of the Earth, now^ between the
Moon and
the Sun,
;
in the
gloom of night
no light at
if,
an
ecli^^se
tion of the
Moon, she
being
Moon
receives
more or
less
by
reflexion
Sun
for such a
law
is
Moon,
least
at those times,
is
and
contrariwise.
suffice
in
this
more
fully in
my
System
of the Universe, where, by very many arguments and experimental proofs, there is shown to be a very
strong reflexion of the Sun's light from the Earth, for
38
Moon
in brightness,
and
is
down; and
my
Their
Hlthcrto
appearance
in the
now
t*ii will
as yet, seen
by me with
all
And
first
of
:
worthy of con-
sideration
The
when
by no means appear to be
Moon
herself,
gain increase of
much
which
to
so that
telescope,
powerful enough
will scarcely
But
are
as follows
When
size,
stars
but beaming
39
when
the night
is
far
advanced ; and
larger than
from
mnch
they would
at the eye
star,
but
by the brightness which so widely surrounds it. Perhaps you T\ill understand this most clearly from the well-known circumstance that when stars rise
just at
sunset,
in
the
may
be stars of the
itself,
magnitude
on
may
present
itself to
it
view in
scarcely
It is
so
in the light of
midday
same
We
at
them
off,
slight cloud
which
may
observer.
effect, for,
it
upon placing them before the eye between and the stars, all the blaze that surrounds them
them
at once.
leaves
40
stars their
and
so they
accidental
(if
before
it
and
seem
less
magnitude seen
through a telescope
only.
is
shown
as of the first
magnitude
The
j)lanets
difference
between
the
appearance of
the
and the
notice.
perfectly
round, just as
and appear
as so
many
little
moons, completely
;
illu-
out beams on
all sides
same shape
as
when they
so
much
-^
laro^er
seems to equal
Telescopic
Stare Stars
:
tKpIr their
infinite
of
stars
makes
it
an optical effect, which depends on the telescope used, and smallest with the largest aperture.
Pleiades,
3b Stars
Galileo^Sidereus Nunc/us."
41
escape
-L
J
tlie
unassisted
belief, for J
sio;lit,
'-'
so
numerous
see
as to
multitude.
As examples,
0"^'^ Beit and Sword ^"^ the
Pleiades are
be almost beyond
you may J J
^
more than
O
of
_
and
tlie laro-est
*-^
whicb
may
^
call stars of
described
as seen
Gaiiieo.
by
But
in order that
you may
see one
two proofs of the inconceivable manner in which they are crowded together, I have determined to
make out a case against two star-clusters, that from them as a specimen you may decide about the rest. As my first example I had determined to depict
the entire constellation of Orion, but I was over-
of stars
and by want
or scattered
stars
more than
five
hundred new
For
two degrees.
Belt and the six in his Sword, which have been long
and
have
them.
The
distinction, I
size,
and
have
42
one
of
magnitude
as
much
As a second example
/
stars
scarcely ever
is
lie
invisible to the
no
any
my
diagram.
intervals, magnitudes,
old
stars, just
case of the
constellation Orion.
The Milky
Way
have observed
is
the
consists
entirely of
stars in
Milky Way.
By
the aid
countless
this in a
manner
numbers and
of various magnitudes.
many
by the
irrefragable
we
are freed
from wordy
is
nothing
in clusters.
Upon whatever
part of
it
you
direct the
Star-duster
in.
Orion's
Head'
43
crowd of
stars presents
view
many
of
them
and
is
And
_
Nebuise
re-
-,
is
m
.
solved into
the
dusters of
examples.
orioasHead
telescope
stars
and you
up
to this
be more surprised at
called
the
by every one
of the astronomers
day
on account of
its
smallness, or
immense distance
has
from
their rays
there arises
that
Sun.
I
these,
and
wish to subjoin
First,
you
Head, in which
stars.
The second
sepe,
which
is
44
Discovery of
my
brief account
far
of
the
re-
sSkeJ,
Jan.
7,
have thus
made with
1610
record of
Galileo's
gard to the Moon,- the Fixed Stars, and the Galaxy. There remains the matter, which seems to
observations
me
to
own times, their positions, and made during the last two months
all
tude
and
summon
selves to
which
to this
I
it
me
to achieve
up
give
day, owing to the restriction of my time. them warning however again, so that they may
telescope,
and such
as I
this account.
On
1610, in the
1
The times
be understood as reckoned
from sunset.
45
my
had
view, and as I had prepared for myself a very excellent instrument, I noticed a circumstance
which
power in
stars,
my
little
and although
believed
them
to belong to the
num-
made me somewhat
and
to be
them
The
and
position of
them with
reference
(Fig. l).
to Jupiter
was as follows
On
The
star
the
east,
appeared
them and
I believed
them
to be fixed stars
I
The
satellites of
which
is
inis
clined 3 5'
30^''
46
at the
found a very
differ-
illus-
At
this
point,
all
although I had
not turned
my
thoughts at
my
surprise
the
when
;
it
had been
afraid
west of two of
lest
them
and forthwith
became
moved
and
differently
from the
calculation of astronomers,
stars
so
I
by
its
own proper
motion.
for the next night with the most intense longing, but
I
was disappointed of
my
sky was
stars
appeared in the
;
there were
third,
thought,
(Fig. 3).
They were
in the
same straight
the Zodiac.
When
as I
knew
that
47
means belong to
for there
Jupiter,
and
as,
moreover,
perceived
at length,
I discovered that
which
my
attention had
be observed henceforward
precision.
mth more
I
attention
and
saw an arrange4),
ment
two
(Fig.
namely, only
which
from
as far as
and the
star furthest to
concluded,
stars
which
at length
was
estab-
by numerous
other subse-
lished that there are not only three, but four, erratic
sidereal
bodies
48
Jupiter,
Besides
this, I
have given
when
several were
made
in the
same
may
generally
At the
first
nig;ht I
saw
manner
(Fig. 5).
The
satellite^ furthest to
satellite
furthest to
the west
;
exceedingly small.
They were
first
all
arranged in the
same
Jan. 13.
For the
time four
satellites
were in
sto.rs,
is
more convenient to
them
satellites,
; ;
49
little
from the
The
2'
satellite furthest
;
was
at a distance of
1'
from Jupiter
there
were intervals of
nearest
satellite,
west of Jupiter.
size,
and
far
Jan. 15.
satellites
the four
(Fig. 7)
same
straight line
but the
satellite
which counted
to the north.
all; the
was raised a
little
The nearest
rest
to Jupiter
were
1'
all
equal,
tude of
each;
but the
furthest
to the
from the
brilliant,
satelHte
nearest to
and not
at all twink-
ling,
since.
But
at
only
50
three
appear-
They
were, that
;
to say, in the
same straight
line to a hair
the
the planet
3^;
\
one was
l'
But
still
after another
satellites
were
Jan. 16.
satellites
At the
saw three
arranged
Jupiter was
The
satel-
but not
larger.
Jan.
after
sunset
this
hours 30
minutes, the
configuration
was of
kind
(Fig. 10).
There was
one
satellite
;
only to the
east, at
a distance of o from
Jupiter
satellite,
The
on
the
satellite to
west
But
four hours
that
is,
51
kind (Fig.
11).
The middle
on the
little
satelHte
was
satellite
east,
and was
and was a
and Jupiter.
h.
Jan. 18, at
was such
The
satellite to
the east
was
and was
at a dis-
Jan. 19.
At
that
of the
night the
as
this
relative position of
(Fig. 13)
,*
is,
was an interval
or
of 5'; this satellite was 4' off the other one more to
the west.
At
that time
no
the planet
but at the
fifth
dis-
tinctly, by that
satellite, so
that
Moreover, the
was nearly
52
1 h.
15 m.
similar arrangement
satellites, so
;
was
small
scarcely
to
their
distances
side
About the
sixth
was twice
as far
on the western
and from
on the
Jupiter
The
satellite nearest to
0^ 20";
between
this
one
satellite furthest to
was
than
most westerly
satellite.
Jan.
21
Oh. 30 m.
;
There were
The
three satellites
Jupiter were at
intervals were
satellite
satellite
all.
by
on
The
on
2 h.
The
grouping of the
satellites
5^
was
from
53
from Jupiter to
The two
O'
interior
on the western
side
were
1^
The inner
along the
satellites
in the
same straight
line,
western
satellites
was
slightly to
the south of
it,
The
satellite
before
20"
each.
The
appeared
line.
satellites
two
;
the
was
1'
and
3''
this satellite
2'
2 0"
from the
satellite
on the west
all
of nearly the
same
size.
But
at the fifth
54
two
were no longer
as I suppose,
hidden
Three
satellites, all
on the
east side,
were
and
same
straight
line
23).
The
satellite
the
next in order
9^
O'
30"
from
still
;
this
satellite,
all
and
very
only
further off
sixth
they were
But
at the
hour two
satellites
same straight
line
ened to
I
o'\
off,
and unless
as
am
in the middle
one.
had come
together,
and appeared
satellites
on the
large.
th<e
The
satellite
was
6'
5'
from
satellite in the
middle, and
Jan.
it
was
h.
from Jupiter.
Three
26, at
55
view,
of
east
and the
o'
this
from
the
planet.
On
beyond
in the
was
6'
line,
At the
fifth
hour the
east
and
was then
was raised a
north, as the
accompanying
only
was very
and
at a
distance
Jan.
of 7^
from Jupiter.
28 and 29.
Owing
first
to the intervention
of
clouds, I could
make no
the
observation.
Jan. 30.
lites
At
hour of the
(Fig. 28).
on the east
side, at
Jupiter was
further.
The
and Jupiter
satellite in
but the
56
The
satellite furthest to
rest.
On
two
satellites
visible,
and one
on the west
Jupiter
and the
was
They were
in
little
At the
still
nearer together, for they were only 20" apart (Fig. 30).
The western
Feb.
1.
satellite
two observations.
At
the
second hour of
(Fig.
31).
arrangement was
similar
The
satellite
6'
was
at a distance of
satellite
from
8^
On
the east
side there
satellite, at
a distance of
They made a
satellites
perfectly straight
Feb.
2.
The
(Fig. 32).
57
between
this satellite
and the
exactly,
satellite further to
;
interval of 8'
But
at the seventh
were there
33).
two
Jupiter
;
on
each
side
Jupiter
(Fig.
Of
was
at a distance
\'
this satellite
6'
was
40" from
Jupiter was
satellite
on
all
alike in
the same
drawn
(Fig.
Feb. 3
following
7 h.
The
way
34)
The
on the east
the nearest
dis-
was
from Jupiter
satellite
2',
tance, 10^,
to the west.
line,
same
straight
Feb. 4
2 h.
Four
satellites
on the east and two on the west, arranged in one perfectly straight line, as in the adjoining figure (Fig. 35).
The
o'
was
at a distance of
O'
40" from
Jupiter
58
west
and
tliis
satellite further to
;
the
the
west 6^
satellite nearest to
But
2^
at the seventh
hour (Fig.
30" apart.
;
Jupiter was
on the east
in order, A!
satellite
Z'
and in
They were all equal in magnia straight line, drawn in the direction of
the ecliptic.
Feb.
Feb.
5. 6.
between them, as
(Fig.
3 7).
The
satellite
2'
from
Jupiter,
They were
in the
same straight
magnitude.
Feb.
Jupiter,
7.
There
were two
satellites
by the
side of
The
intervals
between the
\'
satellites
equal,
and of
each
and a straight
Jupiter.
satellites
1 h.
Three
on
59
was
dis-
20"
the satellite
at a dis-
was
tance of
0^
It
was doubtful
sometimes
it
by its
1 0"
and
only
from
a straight line
They were all situated at points in drawn in the direction of the Zodiac.
satellite nearest to
it
Jupiter was
for the
to
Feb. 9: Oh.
30m.
There
this
were two
satellites
on
arrangement such as
furthest to the east,
distant
4'
(Fig.
40).
The
satellite
one,
was
the satellite in
and
at a distance of 7'
from
Feb.
small,
30 m.
east
the
planet, were
6o
visible,
the
following
position (Fig.
41).
lO',
The
the
further satellite
nearer
line
;
0^
20",
diminished that
it
and the
before, since
distance was
now 12^
Feb.
east,
11:1
was
h.
There
east,
were two
satellites
on the
(Fig. 42).
The western
satellite
satellite
at a distance of 4'
from Jupiter.
to
nearest
;
the planet,
The was
likewise
to
8'
;
from Jupiter
but the
satellite further
the
east
was
at
distance
from
this
in
one of
the same
satel-
straight line
lite
was
on the
east, less in
They were
but at
5 h.
all
distinct,
to Jupiter
6i
They were
all
in the
same straight
line exactly,
may
be seen in the
accompanying diagram
Feb.
(Fig. 44).
12
Oh. 40 m.
(Fig. 45).
The
satellite
was
They were
both fairly
Jupiter,
east,
distinct.
The
and
The
was
But
at to
Feb. 13
Oh. 30 m.
two
also
Two
satellites
were visible
46).
in the east,
satellite
its
in the west
(Fig.
The
fairly distinct
The
it
satelHte
was distant
from the
other.
Of the
satellites
Between
this satellite
satellite close to
the
0^ 3" off.
They were
all
in the
same
62
was thus
on the
(Fig. 4*7)
that
is,
east,
on the west.
The
dis-
satellite
tance of
was
2'
satellite,
was
larger than
fifth
satellites
;
to be seen
its
The distance of
48).
was then
4' (Fig.
But
at the
two situated
as just described
on the
east,
one
satellite
was
visible
2'
from Jupiter
16
h.
;
Their
that
is,
5^^
places
were arranged as
satellite
on
satellite still
They were
all
of the
same mag-
Zodiac.
Feb. 17
1 h.
Two
satellites
63
other on the
The
latter
;
was somewhat
than the
satellite
on the
east
satellite
was nearer
was
further
off,
namely 12^
were in
the
h.
Three
satellite
satellites
were in view, of
east
;
the
3^,
on the west
2'
the remain8'
was
all
from the
middle
They were
in the
same
the
But
at the second
western
satellite
was now
also 3'
But
fol-
was
visible be-
tween the
satellite
lowing configuration
to the east
The
satellite furthest
was
at a distance of o'
order; this
Jupiter
;
50" from
Jupiter
was
at
a distance of
this 7^
from the
satellite
next
satellite
from the
64
still
satellite
in the
same straight
:
Feb. 19
view,
h.
40 m.
Two
satellites
only were in
and arranged
exactly in the
same straight
line
was
at a distance of 7'
from the
satellite further to
the west.
cloudy.
satellites,
Feb. 20.
Feb.
rather small,
(Fig.
55).
;
The
satel-
from Jupiter
;
from the
satellite further to
the west.
They were
exactly in the
same
1
h.
Feb.
25
Three
satellites
ap-
two on the
east,
4' apart,
from Jupiter
distance of
satellite at
2'
from Jupiter.
They were
exactly in
Feb.
26
li.
30 m.
pair
of satellites
only
65
one
on the
east,
distant
10'
from
Jupiter
The
for,
eastern satellite
was
slightly smaller
At
were visible
besides the
two already
noticed, a
and
it
was
at a distance of
l'
(Fig. 58).
But the
off
satellite
from
Jupiter.
On
to
mined
observe the
some fixed
star;
for there
was a fixed
from the
satellite
on the
east,
and a
little
to the
manner The
1 0'
(Fig. 59).
Feb. 27: 1 h. 4 m.
The
satellites
appeared in the
the
following configuration.
east
satellite furthest to
;
was
at a distance of
from Jupiter
the next
of
in order
0'
was near
The next
satellite
was on the
western
and the
of
\'
from
The two
E
satellites
66
on the east
but the
satellites furthest
oflf
ticularly that
line
The
by reference
and
were nearer to
it,
as
may
At the
hour the
1'
satellite
on
was
Feb.
28:1
h.
Only two
satellites
9'
were
2'
;
visible,
one
on the
both
east, at
a distance of
with
fixed
Jupiter,
and a
on the
straight line
upon the
At
third satellite
was seen
at a distance
east, in
March
h.
Four
;
satellites,
all
on the
from
Jupiter was
2'
the next
1'
was
0'
was
and the
was
at a distance of 4'
from
it,
and was
67
63).
They made a
The
fixed star
line.
March
Oh.
40 m.
Three
the
satellites
were in
west, in
64).
attendance,
two on the
furthest
east
the configuration
shown
The
satellite
;
was
7'
from
0' 30",
Jupiter
from
was distant
and the
Jupiter
ofi*
satellite
by an
interval of
The
satellites furthest
the remaining
satellite,
small.
The
satellite
little
furthest
be raised a
satellites
and Jupiter.
The
8'
was
at a distance of
that
is,
drawn through
all
the system, as
shown
in the
figure given.
by
reference to a
68
and
in latitude agree
These are
my observations
it is
by me
and although
bodies, yet I
me
to deduce
by
orbits of these
may
And, in the
first
place, since
concerning
lndperiods
of Jupiter
satellites.
this planet
this planet
it
when
its
can
same
time they
all
Moreis
unequal
circles,
which
evi-
satellites in
conjunction
great,
all
when
their distance
(four),
Moreover,
may
69
when
the
Also the
satellite
moving
carefully
to
in the greatest
orbit
seems to me,
of
its
after
weighing
the
occasions
returning
positions
previously
-^
noticed, to
Besides,'' we
Sun
in the Coper-
one
Moon about
orbit of
for
now we
satellites circling
given the tables of the hourly movements of the satellites of Jupiter, from
of his treatise
which Galileo determined their periods of revolution. In the beginning on floating bodies, Discorso intorno i Galleggianti, 1611-12,
Galileo gives the times of rotation as approximately,
(ii.)
(i.)
Id. 18^
h.
d. l.Si h.
(iii.)
7 d. 4 h.
(iv.)
16
d.
18
h.
he
also published
May
3
h.
1613.
The
(iv.)
by
(iii.)
later
7 d.
observers, are,
(i.)
d.
d.
18 h. 28 m. 16 h. 32 m.
(ii.)
d.
13
h. 15
m.
43 m.
16
70
Sun
must not pass over the consideration of the reason why it happens that the Medicean stars, in
Lastly, I
brightness
jf Jupite ufTupiter^
satellites
revolutions
about
Jupiter,
as at other
We
and neighbouring fixed stars are seen quite unaltered. That they approach and recede from the Earth at the
points of their revolutions
nearest to and furthest
for so
mena
able
and an
elliptical
motion (which in
this case
would be nearly
rectilinear)
and by no means
observed.
in
mena
But
me upon
that
subject,
and
to the
It
judgment and
is
philosophers.
certain
when atmospheric
larger,
but
;
the fixed stars and planets less than they really are
larger
than at other
times,
*j\
visible
also they
are
still
;
more diministied
if
light
Moon
so, as I
have
that
previously remarked.
Moreover,
it
is
certain
its
own
I
it,
which
for those
;
which
shall
my
System
is
and
we may
same
true with
so that it
seems to
to place
round
Moon about
the
this
apogee
1
consider
(Webb,
by
spots,
Common
Telescopes.)
tudes are different, and their surfaces have been observed to be obscured
These
same face to
and
it
the Sun."
laire, 1854.)
72
attenuation of that
Want
of time prevents
;
my
matters
my
readers
may
upon these
Satellites ob-
March
1610,
73
74
75
Date.
A CONTINUATION OF GALILEO'S
SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
The
is
added here, as
Extract
7^0111
the Preface
of Kepler s Dioptrics.
Augsburg, 1611.
" The Sidereal Messenger^' of Galileo has been for a
Kepi er remarks on the
importanc
of the appli-
my
*'
Discussion,
such as
it is,
ivith
this
Messenger'' and
my
briefly
T
1
and
and the
oaiueo's
discoveries,
made by the
I
which
am
intending to demontestified
Actual sight
that
call
there
is
we
the Moon.
body
is
round
also
Astronomy, by
8o
had
built
up
is
earth
Various spots
result
showed themselves
dubious opinion
in that
body
and the
was a
among
now
all
thinks
is
open to doubt.
Nothing
more
in
moon teem
many
in number,
parts,
and vast
inasmuch as they
flowing
down from
the south.
might be assigned
;
to
human
but
now
new door
of heaven
But
if it
Diodorus Siculus,
ii.
47.
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
ing upon these
8i
new
observations,
who
is
how
far the
boundaries,
tracts of
when we
ask,
''
What
mountains and
valleys,
moon
man
tracts
V
do we decide by the
With no
itself,
is
disputed to
intellects
move
(as the
bodies
elements
For
if
some
and flow
universe
and yet we
moon, as well as
occupying
this
and although
is
not at
all
which
it
belongs.
So,
by
pheno-
82
mena
point
amends the
the
my
introduction to
my
Commentaries upon
The
followers of the
Samian philosophy
(for I
may
phenomena
if
of the moon.
his abode,
would seem
the
Motions
of the Planet Mars, that the theory of gravitation depends on certain axioms, one of which is that " heavy bodies do not tend to the centre of
the universe, supposing the earth to be placed there, because that point
is
it is
So,
wherever the earth be set, or whithersoever it be transported, heavy bodies have a continual tendency to it." Kepler's object in this work was to correct the methods for determining the apparent places of the planets according to the three theories then current the Ptolemaic, the Copernican, and that of Tycho Brahe.
In 1593 the observed place of the planet Mars differed by nearly 5 from the place calculated for it. Kepler accordingly studied the motions of this planet, and " by most laborious demonstrations and discussions of
many
known
as Kepler's first
and
second laws
epicycles
was replaced by an
the same as the centre and eccentricity of the eccentric in the older
method, and the Sun therefore was in one of the foci. Also the motion of the planet in its orbit was such that equal areas were described about
the Sun by the radius vector of the planet in equal times.
Kepler,
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
quite immovable, but our earth
rest of the
83
all
the
prin-
Way
Way
sight
is
is
Way
stars.
nothing
had been
them,
entirely
unknown
but
if
the telescope be
Way,
Again,
who without this instrument would have number of the fixed stars was ten
twenty times, more than that which
?
And
we
84
fixed stars,
from
this
multitude of fixed
which
%
is,
as
it
were, the
Again,
how greatly
in determining the
stars,
may
be
produce in proof a
letter
my
admiration of that
is
by the
were, in the
planet Jupiter.
reels as
The mind
is
on
this
reveal something
of
moons, not
unlike this
moon
of ours;
published
the next to
this,
by
and
May
still
shorter
periods.
And
here the
reasoning
of
my Commen-
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
taries
case,
85
induces
me
to
our days
mighty orb
it
upon
its
own
axis
is
accompanied wherever
moons.
goes
by the perpetual
over, this
More-
common
source of heat
and
or 7^
and
is
having com-
after a period of
Accordingly,
the
creatures
which
live
among
The degree
of accuracy attained
by Kepler and
of later astronomers.
Jupiter
is
about 1300
m. 21
sec.
Its diameter is
between
43 m.,
6'
and
:
7'.
(i.)
The times
1 d.
18 h. 28 m.,
3 d. 13 h. 15 m.,
(iii.)
7 d. 3 h.
(iv.)
16
d.
6 h. 32 m.
86
by
Eomans
(for I
have lately
really at rest,
no
less
theirs, revolve
round
And from
this instance
Samian philosophy
to
will learn
telescope, instrument of
works of God
Truly
is
If there
is
any one
in
who
can
how
it
among
so con-
stantly
and at
by her side, like an inseparable companion, the same time fly round and round the actual
87
now
now
him look
at the planet
Jupiter, which,
as
this
telescope shows,
certainly
the earth, as
though
all
each in
its
own
orbit.
my
time that
my
Discussion wHth
it,
by means
It is
of this telescope.
now just
Gaineos
dis-
and gave
full notice
new
satums
""'''^
ring
in the heavens
beyond
and that
an
he himself
manner
b
smaismrmilmepoetale
t
u n
n u g
a u
r a
s.
Out
of these
THE SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
88
letters I
my
made an uncouth verse which I inserted in Short Account in the month of September of last
:
year
cMdren
of Mars.
But
the letters
it
the solution of
ofit:^
''
Di Firenze
altro,
li
13 di Novembre 1610.
il
Ma
io
pas-
sando ad
giacche
Sig.
che
mandai
ne desidera
il
mando
a Yostra
Keplero
Illustrissima
bramando
che
lo
sappia ognuno.
Le
Unibistlneum.
Apparently this
is
two
^
satellites of
Mars.
is
The text
that given in
;
works published
at Florence, 1842-56
that in
is
very
sador of
were written to Giuliano de' Medici, ambasthe Grand-Duke of Tuscany to the Emperor Eudolf ii. at Prague.
These
letters
KEPLER S CONTINUATION.
lettere
cos\,
89
Questo
e, clie
non una
toccano
;
stella sola,
ma
tre
questa guisa
oQolaterali
;
Quella
di
mezzo e
assai piii
grande delle
I'altra
;
da
occi-
dente, nella
medesima
non sono
giustamente secondo
Toccidentale
parallele
all'
dirittura
del
Zodiaco,
;
ma
si
forse sono
Equinoziale.
Se
si
guarderanno con un
occhiale che
non
sia di
grandissima moltiplicazione,
non appariranno
Saturno
cosi,
pill
tre stelle
stella
ben
distinte,
ma
parrk, che
sia
una
O^.
vedranno
tre globi
non apparendo
oscuro.
tra
maggior divisione di un
sottil filo
Or
gli
ci
Intorno agli
altri
Pianeti
non
differ little
them that no
difficulty
may
hinder
my
90
" But
to
come now
which
to
my
second topic.
Since
an anagram to your
given
me
meaning of those
send
it
to
your
illustrious
it
may communicate
to
may
be,
wish.
''The letters
say
*
when joined
this,
'
triple
"
For in truth
not merely
one single
so
star,
much
so
mth
ner,
another.
They
are
quite
immovable
with
oOo.
by
far
either side.
They
are situ-
ated one
towards the
east,
the
not,
how-
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
star furthest to the
91
west
rises
north
you look
separate
them through a
the
stars
glass
multiply much,
will
from one
another,
but
orb
will
appear somewhat
thus,
plies
But if you should use a glass which multia surface more than a thousand times, there will
(^.
very distinctly three orbs, almost touching
;
appear
*
one another
and they
will be
thought to be not
very fine and
satel-
man two
So says Galileo
but
if
may
do
so,
will not
ser-
make an
vants for
old dotard
out
of Saturn,
and two
him out
that most
planets,
drawn
it
it
out of
'to
down
and exposed
it to
the gaze of us
all.
It pleases
me
too,
now
92
what
kind of
life,
if
there be
any
life there,
between orbs
which
all
not even
" a space
elLs
wide,"^
is
round.
Do
the
free
air
Although the
than in
darkness here
rather
more
supportable
Venus appears
to us
on the
earth, continually
orbs in such a
way
who
as
are
by the other
by a
exposed as
it is
if
But
its
must draw
in the reins
and check
my
;
mind
in
enjoyment of the
for fear,
Virgil,
Edog.
iii.
105.
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
93
*
different
from the
first
course of time.^
At the end
planets,
respecthis,
that
mean
his telescope
in
made more
li
discoveries, concerning
:
which
^^^^^""^ of
Galileo's dis-
Di Firenze
11 di Decemhre 1610.
Sto con
il
desi-
derio,
scritte ultima-
foveryofthe
phases of
mente per
1
Sig.
venus.
The completion
of Galileo's observations
improvement
following sketch.
Galileo
first
but in December 1612 he wrote to one of his friends, Marco Velseri, that he could no longer see these indications, and began to imagine that his telescope had
in 1610, as narrated in his letter,
Hevelius in
1642 saw the ring more clearly, but figured it as two crescents attached to Saturn by their cusps. At length, in 1653, Huyghens provided himself with a power of one hundred, having made the lenses with his own
hands, and immediately discovered the explanation of the
phenomena
which had
He
first satellite,
more powerful instruments, discovered four more satellites in 1671, 1672, 1684. Sir William Herschel in 1789 detected two more, " which can only be seen with telescopes of extraordinary power and perfection, and under the most favourable atmospheric
nium, 1659.
Cassini,
with
still
circumstances."
(Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 548.) And the last was discovered in 1848 by Lassell of Liverpool, and Bond of Cambridge, U.S., simultaneously.
THE SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
Intanto
94
mando
nuova-
un
il
da
me
mente,
quale
sime controversie in
contiene in se
Astronomia,
ed in particolare
la
con;
tempo pubblicherb
ed
altri
particolari.
metodo per
definire
quale piacera,
"
ec.
Le
lettere trasposte
" Haec immatura a
sono queste
me jam
Which,
''
may
be translated thus
am
my
I
last
two
letters,
may
learn
send
him a
in
new and
splendid
astronomy
and
argument
of the universe.
At
publish the
I
particulars.
hope that
which
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
95
"
The
letters
So
far Galileo.
But
YOU with a
Galileo
desire to
know
which
follows.
so, I
For he points to
my
Mystery of the Universe^ published fourteen years ago, in which I took the dimensions of the Planetary
orbits according to the
Kepler, in his Mystery of the Universe, endeavoured to connect the with the five regular solids, thus If in a sphere (i.)
:
and in that sphere a tetrahedron, and in the tetrahedron a sphere (iii.); and in that sphere a dodecahedron, and in the dodecahedron a sphere (iv.); and in that sphere an icosahedron, and in the icosahedron a sphere (v.); and in that sphere an octahedron, and in the octahedron a sphere (vi.), the diameters of these
a cube be inscribed, and in the cube a sphere
(ii.);
or, as
Kepler
expresses
it,
the
common
of the Sun,
and the
By
law, that the squares of the periodic times of planets are proportional to
mean
Mathematicarum
(Tubingen, 1596.)
THE SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
its
96
own
axis
and
had been already distributed by their author among the elements of the world, though the attempt was
admirable rather than happy or legitimate, and for
which
fio;ures'
Geometry.
of
Now, in that Mystery you may find a sort combination of Astronomy and Euclid's Geometry,
this
and through
pletion
and
this
was the
reason
sort of
why
of the Pythagorean
argument
was as follows
dissimo.
mio colen-
"E tempo
sima
e
Eeverendissima e per
le
al
Sig.
Keplero
le le
lettere trasposte
quali
inviai
tempo
non
ci resta
un minimo
circa a
la
scrupolo, o dubbio.
tre
ciai
cominper
ad osservar diligentemente
coll'
occhiale,
S the Sun.
S v
v'
Planet's epicycle.
YY'stationary
points.
^ IS
the centre.
S the Sun, centre of solar system, v e positions of planet and Earth at conjunction. VV^stationary points of planet, ^^'corresponding positions of the Earth.
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
97
punto
figura
rintelletto.
La
vidi
e
dunque
sul principio di
rotonda,
pulita
terminata,
ma
molto pic-
ad avvicinarsi
alia
ma
tra
rotondita
nella
sua
ed
avversa
ad esser un
mezzo cerchio
punto
perfettissimo, e tale si
mantenne, senza
ritirarsi
alterarsi, finche
incomincib a
verso
il
Ora va calando
riducendosi
dal
mezzo
con
cerchio, e si
assottigliandosi
allora
sino
all'
coma
sottilissime.
Sole
andera poi
manterra molti
mezzo
si
di quello, clie
vespertina
abbiamo
L'una
e,
die
98
777^
SIDEREAL MESSENGER.
che
Venere
necessarissimamente
si
volge
intorDO al Sole,
altri
Pianeti, fu creduta
Copersensata-
nico, dal
ma non
in Venere, ed in Mercurio.
dunqne
il
Coper-
sebbene
ci e
ad esser
per poco
stolti.
dicono ordinate
Cyntliiae figuras aemulatur mater
amorum.
Cioe, che
Venere imita
sono
le figure della
Luna.
Osservi
e
vai
tre notti
I'ecclisse,
nella quale
taglio dell'
non
si
vede
il
ombra
indis-
essa
ombra
da essa Luna.
Voleva scrivere
ma
Favoriscami salutare in
mio nome
Signoria
Illustrissima
le
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
mani, e dal Signore Dio
il
99
gli
prego
felicita.
Di Firenze
Ab
Incarnatione.
"Di Yostra
Servidore obbligatissimo.
Galileo Galilei."
but
Such
" It
is
Galileo's letter
it
:
let
me
substance of
is
time for
me
to disclose the
method of reading
after
I
anagram.
It
is
time now,
mean,
have
become
much so even a shadow of doubt. You about three months ago, when
it
my
was entertaining
as certain.
At
so,
;
first
know
the
planet
Venus
appeared of
circular
form,
accurately
and
bounded
by a
this figure
Venus kept
orb
until
it
began to approach
its
kept on increasing.
its
From
that time
side,
it
began to lose
contracted
;
visible
portion
an exact semicircle
that
loo
it
leaves the
it
At
its
this
time
loses
conjunction,
when
After completing
us, at its
its
it
will
appear to
movements of the heavenly bodies were The sun was conceived to describe
whose
a circle about a point not exactly coinciding with the centre of the earth,
The
of these eccentrics
of the epicycle
drawn from
nomica, 1647.)
points as the points where the planet leaves the tangent to its epicycle,
{i.e.
Copernicus placed the sun instead of the earth at the centre of the
any given time with as much accuracy as was attainable with the Ptolemaic system, he was obliged to use a similar method of eccentrics and ejncycles, so that Kepler's expression may be understood to describe the stationary points according to the Copernican theory, though it is still strange that he
universe, but to determine the positions of the planets at
had
lately
elliptical form of the planetary orbits, which he demonstrated after most laborious reasoning in his Commen-
taries
on the Motion of the Planet Mars, 1 609, Galileo's own expression seems to describe the stationary points according to the Copernican system, as would be expected, as the points where the planet leaves the
its orbit
tangent drawn to
(Fig. 2).
KEPLER S CONTINUATION.
appearance as a morning
star,
loi
as only sickle-shaped,
sun, in
which position
it
will
many days
degrees,
without appreci-
Then by
change to a
full orb,
and
will
;
keep
but
is
Venus
showed
about
five
times as
laro;e
as that
which
star.
it
at
its first
appearance as an evening
most
conclusive,
and appealing
discussed
clusions.
two
by the greatest
intellects
One is that the planets are bodies not selfluminous (if we may entertain the same views about Mercury as we do about Venus). The second is that we are absolutely compelled to say that Venus (and
Mercury
the
also) revolves
also all
Pythagorean
school,
by Copernicus,
in the case of
and
by by
by the evidence
of our
now proved
Venus and
I02
Mercury.
of Copernicus have
good reason
how-
ever
much
it
lot,
by the philosophers
on paper, with an
intellect,
of our times,
who
philosophise
universal agreement, as
men
of
no
and
little
when reduced
The mother
of the
Loves
Cynthia
that
is,
of the
Moon.
indistinct,
blurred,
and hazy
phenomenon no
doubt
" I
is
at a great distance
am
prevented
etc."
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
103
What now,
telescope
\
we make out
of our
Shall
we make
a Mercury's magic-wand
star,
allured
by
a
or shall
we make
eyes,
it
which,
entering
by our
has
and
fired us
is
if,
with a love of
Venus
For what
lano;uao;e
having no light of
as
Venus
for if the
it will
moon,
dull,
dead,
and
leaden.
truly
golden Venus
Will any one doubt any more that the whole orb of
Venus
is
in the
And
here
me add my
my
i.
Astronomy which
12.
I04
treats of Optics.
nothing
its
else
but
own
surface
less
But enough of
of
my own
conclusions.
Let us now
made with
his
telescope,
Thus
clusions with
mio colen-
regard to the
inherent
dlssimO.
"JJo ricevuto o ^usto, 6 coutcuto particolarissimo nella Icttura dcll' ultima di Vostra Signoria Illustrissima
'
j.
Keverendissima
delli 7
ella
stante,
ed in particolare in
la favorevole in-
quella parte
dove
m'accenna
"Wackher, verso
^ The first scientific determination of the period of the rotation of Venus was made by Dominique Cassini in 1666, from observations of spots on the planet, and concluded to be about 24 hours but in 1726 Bianchini deduced a period of 24 d. 8 h. from similar observations. The true period is considered to be 23 h. 21 m., determined by Schroeter by a series of observations lasting from 1788 to 1793 on the periodicity
;
of the
1854.)
phenomena
KEPLER'S CONTINUATION.
di me, la quale io infinitamente stimo,
eel
105
apprezzo
necessariamente dimostranti
da sua Signoria
il
maggiormente
pos-
Sua Signoria
siccome tutti
Illustrissima
i
ho dimostrazione
il
certa,
che
Pianeti
stessi
ricevono
tenebrosi,
lume dal
opachi
;
Sole,
le
essendo per se
cosi
raggi solari,
quali,
Dio
sa, se
lume
di
una
di esse fisse.
II
principal fondamento
del
mio discorso
mente con
mano, che
gli occhiali
si
mano
al
in
Sole,
illustremente ce
e a noi vicin;
e percio
Marte perigeo,
issimo
si
vede
Giove
benche
e dijficilmente se gli
pub
pedisce
vedere
il
il
la
si
io6
la Stella
;
mao^more di
il
due piccole
lateral!
ed appare
suo
e senza
i
niuna irradiazione,
distinguere
che
il
e clie
molto
piii
il
lume
di Giove (sebbene
il
clie
accade
come molto
lume
piii
lontano,
bilmente
dal Sole
piii di
%
Saturno, quando
il
loro derivasse
Ma
tutto I'opposito
il
per esempio
quello
stessa,
rimangono
Pianeti, e dico
Giove
Yenere
benche
il
disco di
della cinquantesima
globo tra
molto
piii
Saturno)
si
vedono
e terminati, e di
KEPLER S CONTINUATION.
e per cosi dire quieta.
107
clie
bene
filosoferemo,
delle
Stelle
referendo la
fisse,
causa della
scintillazione
al
vibrare,
dall'
che
elle
fanno dello
;
de' Pianeti
termina
piii
e si parte.
io sentirb
ricevuta dal
medesimo
d'
desiderosissimo di servire
un tanto
Signore, e
non gia
che a
perche
benissimo
comprendo,
quant
non
si
puo aggiungere
di
squisitezza
mal
sottigliezze.
gran numero
fioriscono
nelF
si
raddoppia per
la
nuova grazia
dell'
lllustrissimo Sig.
AVackher, la quale
picciola occasione,
soverchio
occupata Vostra
Keverendissima.
dediSig.
carmi devotissimo
lllustrissimo
il
Sig. Keplero,
io8
ed a
le
Dio
le
prego
somma
li
felicita.
''[Di Firenze
Di Yostra
Wben
translated, the
last
is
" Your
letter
lias
entertained
me by
the most
illus-
which
I for
my
And
I
that
strated
clusions
by some observations
wish to
so
confirm
my
him
this
news from me
that
just
as
he
their light
from the
by constitution bodies dark and devoid of light ;^ but that the fixed stars shine by their own proper light, not needing to be illuminated by the
sun, being
1
Proctor [Other Worlds than Ours, 1875) has given some reasons for
own
light,
KEPLER S CONTINUATION,
snn
s rays,
109
since
reach the
which the
come down
to ns.
and
is
reflect it
more
nearer to us and
is,
to the sun.
when
nearest
although in actual
Jupiter
and
in consequence
difficult to receive
the
efful-
gence
to distinguish
the circular termination of the planet's disc. does not happen in the case of Jupiter, for
quite circular.
it
This
appears
The next
planet, Saturn,
on account
of
its
appears
most
bounded by a wellIndeed,
its sides.
it
appears to
prevent an
we
illumined by
no
much
size
more
it
due to the
and
light
of
most
faint,
and
stars,
which are at an
Most
and
pallid.
And
yet
we
for, let
us look
We shall
of such
its rays,
and Venus
too, are as
thoroughly outshone as
common and bad glass compared with a highly polished and most sparkling diamond. And although the orb
of the Dog-Star appears no larger than the fiftieth
its
brilliancy
is
among
the rays
own
and
almost disappears
and
it is
some
difiiculty
Whereas
Jupiter,
and
still
more Saturn,
KEPLER S CONTINUATION.
defined
I
;
in
if
and
so,
their light is
may
say
quiescent.
we
shall rightly
we
which
is
and inherent in
and
say,
on
which
world,
is
is
conclusions
in
Galileo's'
You
how
the subtle
mind
of Galileo, in
my
opinion the
first
philosopher of the
and
loftiest
world, surveys
all
own
eyes, and,
from
most acute
intellect
and
compares with
,G15
messenger of Galileo
Galile
Galileo
The
sidereal