MASTER OF ARTS IN GENDER AND PEACE BUILDING

Are We Asking Too Much?: Exclusive Gender Mainstreaming Efforts by International Organizations by Tomoko Ohtsuki Thesis Adviser: Dr. Amr Abdalla June 26, 2006

Abstract
A long time has elapsed since notions and concepts of gender and mainstreaming gender perspectives were introduced in the field of international development cooperation and peace studies. However, while international organizations are enthusiastic in their mission toward promoting gender mainstreaming, the concept of genderwhat they are really mainstreaminghas gone unquestioned. Considering what gender perspectives originally meant to be, there should be the need for assessing inclusiveness and diversity of the existing framework of gender. As the current effort for gender mainstreaming takes heterosexual context for granted, who is left out is the population of gender and sexual minoritiesgays, lesbians, bisexuals, transsexuals, transgenders, and any other individuals who do not fall into the conventional heterosexual category. This thesis explores, first, what gender mainstreaming is aiming for by those organizations via content analysis of current documents and publications. Second, it shifts focus to explaining those organizations attitudes toward the issues of gender and sexual minorities by conducting survey interview. Ultimately, it asserts current gender mainstreaming is not inclusive enough to represent all the people affected by the power dynamics of gender, and they are trying to achieve the narrowly defined gender equality at the expense of those who are excluded. This thesis then calls for unity among activists for womens rights and activists for gender and sexual minorities rights to achieve gender equality in the fullest sense.

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction Gender, Gender Equality, and Gender Mainstreaming

Page 1 Page 1

Chapter 2: Background Gender and Sexual Minorities in the World Literature Review on Current Gender Mainstreaming Efforts Homosexual Agenda and Cultural Relativism Are the Gender and Sexual Minorities Issues Gender Issues? Why Should We Care? Research Topic

Page 3 Page 3 Page 5 Page 8

Page 10 Page 12

Chapter 3: Methods and Procedures Feminist Research Overview Variables and Constructs Subjects and Samples Instruments and Measures Ethics Procedures Design of Research Materials Contacts Data Collection Process Data Storing and Coding Limitations

Page 14 Page 14 Page 15 Page 16 Page 17 Page 19 Page 21 Page 22 Page 22 Page 23 Page 23 Page 23 Page 24
ii

Chapter 4: Findings and Analysis Findings on Content Analysis Findings on Survey Interview Survey Case #1 Survey Case #2 Survey Case #3 Survey Case #4 Survey Case #5 Survey Case #6 Survey Case #7 Analysis

Page 26 Page 26 Page 31 Page 32 Page 32 Page 33 Page 33 Page 34 Page 34 Page 34 Page 36

Chapter 5: Discussion General Discussion Recommendations: Inclusive Gender Perspectives The Gender and Sexual Minorities and Womens Activism Heterosexuality as a Privilege

Page 38 Page 38 Page 38 Page 41 Page 41

Chapter 6: Conclusions ConclusionsAre We Asking Too Much?

Page 44 Page 44

Appendix I: List of Publications Subject to Content Analysis

Page 47

Appendix II: List of Organizations Contacted for Survey

Page 50

iii

Appendix III: Survey Form

Page 53

Bibliographies

Page 56

iv

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to acknowledge, with deepest thanks, my thesis adviser Dr. Amr Abdalla for his insightful advice and help. I also would like to thank the entire University for Peace community, the Department of Gender and Peace Building, Prof. Dina Rodriguez, Dr. Sara Sharratt, Dr. Alda Facio, Prof. Sherrill Whittington, Dr. Mohammed Abu-Nimer, Dr. Parvin Ghorayshi, Profs. Vivienne Sols, Ivannia Ayales, and Patricia Madrigal (CoopeSolidar RL), Dr. Mary King, Prof. Nadine Puechguirbal, Dr. Victoria Fontan, Prof. Matthew Norton, Ronald Castro, Christopher Santee, and especially all wonderful Gender studentsAllison Attenello, Elisa Audo, Alison Casey, Annika M. Gifford, Monica Henry, Andrew Hicks, Alex Sivalie Mbayo, Diana Maria Montealegre, Sara Niazi, Belete Retta, Abigail Stucker, Sujata Thapa, Julie Tippens, and Yunike Zuluwho have given me unconditional support that I think I could not have been able to complete the program without them: I cannot thank them enough. In addition, I would like to appreciate Sabrina Sideris, the founder of UPEACE Rainbows, for encouraging me to explore this theme. My gratitude extends to my host family in Costa Rica, Jenny Chavez and Eduardo Monge, for always trying to provide me with such pleasant environment where I can concentrate on my study. Moreover, I owe profound thanks to my family and friends in Japan and also to those who kindly participated in my survey research by taking time from their busy schedule. Last but not least, I would like to sincerely thank my colleagues at Tokyo Pride and Tokyo Lesbian and Gay Parade (TLGP) who have always been the source of my motivation and inspiration, and I would like to dedicate my work to all the people around the world who have been affected by the power dynamics of gender

I take sole responsibilities of the views expressed in this thesis unless otherwise stated and of any errors in writing.
v

Chapter 1: Introduction

Gender, Gender Equality, and Gender Mainstreaming

Today, gender mainstreamingthe effort to include gender sensitive approaches in policies and practices in order to achieve gender equalityhas become a trend among international organizations. The concept of gender mainstreaming was first introduced in 1995 at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, China (International Labour Organization, 2002).1 It was developed and perceived to be the global agenda for social and economic development in order to achieve gender equality worldwide. Then, in 1997, the United Nations Economic and Social Council of the General Assembly defined the concept of gender mainstreaming:
Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. (The United Nations Economic and Social Council of the General Assembly. Qtd. in the United Nations, 2006)2

Along the same lines with it, there are a few definitions of gender mainstreaming, which have been developed since then by several prominent international organizations that have shown initiative for promoting gender equality around the world. According to International Labour Organization:
Gender mainstreaming includes gender-specific activities and affirmative action, whenever women or men are in a particularly disadvantageous position. Gender-specific interventions can target women exclusively, men and women together, or only men, to enable them to participate in and benefit equally from development efforts. These are necessary temporary measures designed to combat the direct and indirect consequences of past discrimination. (International Labour
1

International Labour Organization. (2002). Definition of Gender Mainstreaming. Retrieved February 1, 2006, from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm. The United Nations. (2006). Mainstreaming the Gender Perspective into All Policies and Programmes in the UN System. Retrieved February 1, 2006, from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/main.htm. 1

Organization, 2002).1

Also, United Nations Development Programme says:

[Gender and development means:] While planning, implementing and evaluating the activities to be undertaken, the conceptual framework for development takes into consideration the balance of power between the sexes. Such an approach puts forward not simply the goal of improving economic/social situation but (in the final analysis) of establishing more just gender relations. (United Nations Development Programme in Armenia, 2006)3

Reflecting the definitions given, one might question: What is gender they are talking about here? What is gender mainstreaming? Who, or whose perspective, needs to be brought into the mainstream? Who have been in a particularly disadvantageous position and victims of past discrimination? What does the balance of the power between the sexes mean? One consistent thing about the existing framework of gender, however, is that they keep putting substantial focus only on women and girls or men/women relations, always taking heterosexual contexts for granted, and consequently other individuals who are also affected by the power dynamics of gender are excluded. Then, people who commit themselves to gender in the field try to mainstream that narrow concept of gender, while, ideally, gender perspectives are aimed to include and empower all those of who are marginalized. The population who is omitted from existing gender mainstreaming efforts are those individuals who are considered to be gender and sexual minoritiesgays, lesbians, bisexuals, transsexuals, transgenders, and anyone who do not fall into the conventional heterosexual category4that have long been marginalized and stigmatized in the society.

United Nations Development Programme in Armenia. (2006). Glossary. Retrieved Mar. 31, 2006, from http://www.undp.am/publications/gender/wsr/Z+++/Glossary.htm. Note that there is more than one single terminology and definition for gender and sexual minorities and is in controversy. However, in this study, gender and sexual minorities refer to individuals who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, transgender, and/or anyone who do not fall into the heterosexual category. 2

Chapter 2: Background

Iranian youths are hanged to death for being engaged in homosexual act.5

Gender and Sexual Minorities in the World

A common theme running through the current framework of gender is the assumption of heterosexual contexts, implying that gender is simply about men and women and that everyone feels comfortable with their sex, either male or female. What is missing in that notion is inclusiveness in the fullest sense. It does not address diversity in the sense that there are more than just men and women in conventional terms, which, this thesis argue, should have been the intended purpose of mainstreaming gender perspectives. Who is affected by that deficiency, then, are individuals of the gender and sexual minorities. Where are the gender and sexual minorities? They are visibly or invisibly everywhere around the world. There are conflicts and struggles motivated by discrimination and violence based on gender, in which not only women and girls but also the gender and sexual minorities are affected, or regardless of the state in peace or war time, every social issue affects those marginalized populations differently. Up until now, however, the issues of gender and sexual minorities have not been studied or even mentioned adequately in association with international development
5

Sodomy Laws. (2006). Iran. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/iran/iran.htm. 3

cooperation and peace building. This might be partly because their existence itself is invisiblized and merely recognized, intentionally or unintentionally, by researchers and policymakers. Yet, they are here and there in this world, both in times of peace or in war time. Some of them are open about their gender and sexual identities, and some of them are closed, whether they like it or not. Their existence is accepted in some parts of the world, and their existence is not even recognized in the other parts of the world. If they are living in a country where homosexuality is punishable by death, they have to hide their gender and sexual identities for their own survival.6 However, the existing framework of gender mainstreaming lacks inclusiveness in the fullest sense and diversity that there are more than just men and women in conventional terms, and the heterosexual context is almost always assumed, thus furthering their oppression and denying their human rights. Currently, there are a few international legal instruments that might be of those international organizations concern, and might be a support for the gender and sexual minorities as well. For example, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, an individuals sexual orientation, among others, has been recognized as a legitimate reason to seek asylum status in order to find refuge from criminalization of his or her sexual orientation or act (UNHCR Japan, 2002).7 However, in general, it is hard to find a single international legal document that clearly states that the rights of gender and sexual minorities are human rights, and that therefore State parties ought to respect, protect, and fulfill these rights. All activists for the rights of gender and sexual minorities might be able to do is probably interpret and apply those legal instruments as if the rights of gender and sexual minorities are included or at least implied.8 This lack of mentioning gender and sexual minorities is oftentimes explained by

According to Myers (2006), currently, eight countries (Afghanistan, Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen) punish homosexual act by death. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Japan, the. (2002). Protection of Refugee. Retrieved Mar. 31, 2006, from http://www.unhcr.or.jp/protect/proj05.html. See Study Guide on Sexual Orientation and Human Rights by Human Rights Learning Centre (2006) for further information. 4

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