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Eurocentrism- is considered to be the term where the European or rather the Western culture is considered to be supreme over all

other civilizations inhabiting Earth. Such conception could be brought by colonizing almost the entire world and distributing the European languages. It also reflects the supremacy of the European capitalist states over 67% of the world by taking over everything economically and military. The states owned all the major resources over the entire world. This also caused massive White European emigration and establishing new European civilizations around other continents and caused cultural supremacy. Rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior. It is the main theoretical paradigm in the currently-dominant school of microeconomics. Rationality (here equated with "wanting more rather than less of a good") is widely used as an assumption of the behavior of individuals in microeconomic models and analysis and appears in almost all economics textbook treatments of human decision-making. It is also central to some of modern political science and is used by some scholars in other disciplines such as sociology and philosophy. It is the same as instrumental rationality, which involves seeking the most cost-effective means to achieve a specific goal without reflecting on the worthiness of that goal. Gary Becker was an early proponent of applying rational actor models more widely. He won the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his studies of discrimination, crime, and human capital. Personal Dictatorship- It is based on the authoritarian rule kept in the hands of one person. Examples are Joseph Stalin of the USSR or Julius Caesar of Roman Empire. This is one of the most known form of dictatorships and antidemocratic structure of political state. The personal dictatorships can be achieved today through military regimes or single party rules which usually disguise under the ideology and democracy- Ceasescu in Romania, in the older system through monarchies or sultanism. This appears to be unlimited personal power over the state. The purpose of this ruling is to build the ideal society or just simply strengthen the religious regimes. Other reasons might be is establish a strong economic structure. One Party Rule- the dictatorship of one party in the state usually is in 3 forms a) Openly and literally one party state b) Other parties are just puppet and only organize the circus of democracy These forms of rules are usually established through military coups or revolutions. USSR , North Korea and China. They are mostly usual in Latin America and Africa because of poverty and frauded democracies. Third Wave of Democratization- happened in 1980s and 1990s which cause the collapse of Eastern Bloc and Soviet Union. Why this is important because it also reflected the rise of neo-liberalism and building the new democracies. This event also brought to the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the new World order where America becomes the hegemony actor and the major world player.

Consensus democracy is the application of consensus decision-making to the process of legislation in a democracy. It is characterised by a decision-making structure which involves and takes into account as broad a range of opinions as possible, as opposed to systems where minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Consensus democracy also features increased citizen participation both in determining the political agenda and in the decision-making process itself. Some have pointed to developments in information and communication technology as potential facilitators of such systems. Illiberal Democracies- is a democracy with the serious abuses from the government. It is not really an open society and might limit some freedom of speech and census some information. Usually in these forms of government, the opposition does not have the loud voice in the politics and can barely change any progresses in the conflict. Other aspects might be is the unequal powers between the centre and country s regions. Other is unequal powers between the Parliament and the President. President might have much more and almost unlimited power to make decisions and the parliament is only left by accepting the decision. New imperialism Political aspects Division of Africa into francophone and anglophone states today mirrors distribution of colonial empires in 19th century Cultural Brings westernization to colonial elites Ex. Gandhi: passive resistance a combination of western and eastern ideas Contradictions Those who ruled were a minority even in the metropole (double rule) As democratic impulses challenge this dominance at home, rule in the colonies remains autocratic Total War Hobsbawm: unlike other wars, which were fought for limited and specifiable objectives, WWI was a war without limits Age of Empires: fusion of politics and economics goal: unlimited growth (endless search to expand markets)

Stinging rebuke to idea that Europe was civilized Incredible toll taken over 60 million people were killed, which was over 2.5% of the world population

Crimes against humanity Sheer size of conflict ( global ) Size of war effort requires large scale management Economies become essentially planned Revolutionized technology and production

It also causes the change of political scale and distributes the keynisianism across Europe. Bolsheviks- is more radical communist group headed by Vladimir Lenin which goal was to establish the communist utopia. Its goal was also to establish a pure communist state with militant and classconscious group, which is capable to lead the working class and the complete elimination of the bourgeois and owner classes. The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states in the mid 20th century. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation-states. Preparing to rebuild the international economic system as World War II was still raging, 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations gathered at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The delegates deliberated upon and signed the Bretton Woods Agreements during the first three weeks of July 1944. Setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system, the planners at Bretton Woods established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group. These organizations became operational in 1945 after a sufficient number of countries had ratified the agreement. The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate by tying its currency to the U.S. dollar and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. On August 15, 1971, the United States unilaterally terminated convertibility of the dollar to gold. As a result, "[t]he Bretton Woods system officially ended and the dollar became fully 'fiat currency,' backed by nothing but the promise of the federal government."[1] This action, referred to as the Nixon shock, created the situation in which the United States dollar became the sole backing of currencies and a reserve currency for the member states. At the same time, many fixed currencies (such as GBP, for example), also became free floating. stagflation is a situation in which the inflation rate is high and the economic growth rate slows down and unemployment remains steadily high. It raises a dilemma for economic policy since actions designed

to lower inflation or reduce unemployment may actually worsen economic growth. The portmanteau stagflation is generally attributed to British politician Iain Macleod, who coined the phrase in his speech to Parliament in 1965. Liberal welfare Regime Keynesian economic policies and a mixed economy (an economic system in which both the state and private sector direct the economy, reflecting characteristics of both market economies and planned economies). More or less 'institutional' welfare state to deal with market dysfunctions and provide minimum standards of public service. Broad-based agreement between left and right, capital and labour over basic social institutions and accommodation of their competing interests through elite-level negotiations. These were seen as the best way to avoid both economic disasters and political polarization of the inter-war year.

End of Ideology-Daniel Bell once described himself as a "socialist in economics, a liberal in politics, and a conservative in culture." In this collection of essays, he argued that political ideology has become irrelevant among "sensible" people, and that the polity of the future would be driven by piecemeal technological adjustments of the extant system. At the time, Bell was attacked by political critics, left-wing and otherwise. Broadly speaking, hostile criticism of The End of Ideology boiled down to five general concerns: It was a defense of the post-1945 status quo. It was downplaying genuine political debate in favor of 'technocratic guidance' from social and cultural elites. It was substituting consensus for moral discourse. Its intellectual honesty was compromised by its author's outspoken anti-Stalinism. [He had been a social democrat in his youth.] It was disproven by the return of radical discontentment in politics, marked by the 1960s and 1970s youth agitations in the West and the rise of extremist politics in the Third World. (Actually, Bell anticipated this in his book. He did, however, fail to anticipate the resurgence of "free market" ideology in the 1970s. A variety of theories have emerged, even before Daniel Bell's work. Karl Marx, influenced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, stated that once a state progressed from capitalism, a classless society would emerge, rendering ideology irrelevant. Daniel Bell, in the 1950s, is often seen as the standard-bearer for the theory. James Burnham, a journalist for the National Review, proffered a similar thesis that foresaw the advent of a state of technocrats, all capable of finding the best answers to political and social problems, making ideology extinct.

The concept of post-materialism is a tool in developing an understanding of modern culture. It can be considered in reference of three distinct concepts of materialism. The first kind of materialism, and the one in reference to which the word post-materialism is used most often, refers to materialism as a value-system relating to the desire for fulfillment of material needs (such as security, sustenance and shelter) and an emphasis on material luxuries in a consumerist society. A second referent is the materialist conception of history held by many socialists, most notably Marx and Engels, as well as their philosophic concept of dialectical materialism. The third definition of materialism concerns the philosophical argument that matter is the only existing reality. The first concept is sociological, the second is both philosophical and sociological, and the third is philosophical. Rentrechment- the act of reducing expenditure in order to improve financial stability Bicameralism- is the parliament which includes the house of commons and senate. Senate decides on more important decisions. House of commons makes a decision on the minor issues about the head of government or head of state declarations. Senate made a decision on such important issues as the impeachment of the president. House of the Commons is usually elected through parliamentary elections. But it is not necessary with the Senate, for example in Canada, senators are elected by the Prime Minister but not by the people. Asymmetric federalism or asymmetrical federalism is found in a federation or confederation in which different constituent states possess different powers: one or more of the states has considerably more autonomy than the other substates, although they have the same constitutional status. The division of powers between substates is not symmetric. This is in contrast to a symmetric federation, where no distinction is made between constituent states. As a result, it is frequently proposed as a solution to the dissatisfactions that arise when one or two constituent units feel significantly different needs from the others, as the result of an ethnic, linguistic or cultural difference. An asymmetric federation is similar to a federacy where one of the substates enjoys considerably more independence than the others. The difference between an asymmetric federation and federacy is indistinct; a federacy is essentially an extreme case of an asymmetric federation, either due to large differences in the level of autonomy, or the rigidity of the constitutional arrangements. An asymmetric federation however has to have a federal constitution and all states in federation have the same formal status ("state"), while in a federacy independent substate has a different status ("autonomous region"). Multi Party Systems- are the states which democracy is based on several parties (at least 3). Sometimes it brings to the minority or majority government. They most succesfuly represent the social and cultural cleavages in the country. Coalitions are also usual cases in such system. Catch-all/Bokerage Parties - In politics, a big tent party or catch-all party is a political party seeking to attract people with diverse viewpoints. The party does not require adherence to some ideology as a criterion for membership. Such new joining groups may not influence policy or major party decisions measurably at first.

European Parliament- is the major political body of the European Union, which reflects that EU is not only economic but also political and cultural union of the member states. The plural amount of seats is collected by the Christian Democrats and lesser extent the Socialist parties. The number of representatives for each state depends on the population for each country. Many Europeans even argue that all these representatives are unnecessary because they experience very little power. Neoliberalism- is an economic ideology,which requires the minimum role of the state and the full privatizations, including education and resources. It caused the rise of corporations and taken over the control of the state policy in economy and partly in foreign policy. This politics was adopted by the Reagan and Thatcher, and caused the gap between rich and poor in the world. Keynesianism- It is policy that allows the market economy with the strong state intervention. Such policy includes partly nationalizations, welfare system in providing the poor and provide free medicine and education. The growth of popularity happened with solving the Great Depression and during Golden Age of Capitalism, which helped to recover damaged European economies after World War II. The state and the international organizations took a responsibility of controlling the economies. Social democracy is a political ideology of the center-left on the political spectrum. Social democracy is officially a form of democratic evolutionary reformist socialism. It supports class collaboration as the course to achieve socialism. Social democracy advocates the creation of legal reforms and economic redistribution programs to eliminate economic class disparities between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. It advocates the development of an economic democracy and the development of cooperative business organizations as an alternative to private enterprise. Practical modern social democratic policies include the promotion of a welfare state, and the creation of economic democracy as a means to secure workers' rights. The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International in 1951, attended by many social democratic parties from across the world, committed adherents to oppose Bolshevik communism especially Stalinism, and to promote a gradual transformation of capitalism into socialism. It includes the importance of the role of unions, strikes and welfare states. Today it is happening in Nordic states and lesser extent of Germany.

Review three major factors contributing to the decline of the welfare state as discussed in the course?

1. One of the major reasons of the failure of the Keynesian system is supposed to be the loss in the Vietnam war which brought to a lot of losses in the military equipment and budget. Another reason was the oil crisis a resource on which the Keynesian states were strongly depended on the this sources and the war in the middle east caused economic decline in 1973 and 1979. There were also stagflation, the lack of employment and falling productivity. In this case scenario, the neoliberalism has begun to rise and there was an increasing demand of the privatizations on institutions. This has happened during the Reagan s doctrine when there was full

liberliazation of trade and full transformation into the market economy. This brought to the low unemployment and high GDP, however unfortunately it lead to the disappearance of the public sector and growing income between rich and poor. Moreover, the economy became much more profit-oriented and more ignorant about the poverty of the people. 2. After World War II, the Western world was developing in the corporatist system. This was basically based on the Keynesian form of structure of economy with the strong private/capital sector and the state intervention policy. Labour: get collective bargaining, regulated and regular wage increases Capital: get stable labour climate, increased productivity State: acts as intermediary results in relative stability and peace Maintenance of capitalist system Western Europe and North America were experiencing the Golden Age of Capitalism. The Keynisisian Welfare state has begun to overcome the Soviet Union in the competition. It was experiencing rapid and diversified economic growth.

The rise of social democracy- promotion of development other than state control and liberal market economies. The socialist parties were rising popularity in the Western world (excl. America). Moreover parties such as NDP had little connection with working class and barely demonstrate their interests. Nevertheless, it was more socially oriented which is concentrated on the well being of society and education. Strong role of the middle class- family/ethic values Public and universal healthcare and education- private insurance 3. The main difference between democratic and authoritarian regimes is based on that in the democracy the ruling party can be replaced by some other party. In authoritarian regimes, the party or dictator can be replaced in a case when there is a revolution or some urgent removal from office. Authoritorian regime illegitimately interfere into the state s society and economy, and also try to establish some sort of forceful ideology or legitimate some sort of religious or theocratic rule to run the country. Dictators are usually not replaced by the elections. The political parties lack the competition or it is rather semi-competitive. Otherwise, they would experience nothing else but the election manipulation or giving up the power if authoritarian regime even loses the election.

Today it is difficult to say what is the democracy or what is an authoritarian regimes because they usually changes the guise as the democratic states (evolution interpretation). The real democracy must provide the freedom of speech, referendums and participation. The best example is considered to be Switzerland. This state provides the election for each community and each canton. Switzerland has the biggest amount of elections and referendums. 4. Russia and the Soviet Union has indeed shown a different form of economic structure other than the remaining of states. In 1917, the Revolution caused to abandon the capitalist system established by Tsar and Bourgeois, the bolsheviks have begun to promote the idea of World Revolution, transforming the power to the working class and developing alternative to capitalism economic system. It no longer promotes the division of labour and prefers the classless society. Next step what the Revolutionary Russia has established is the nationalization of the industries, strict worker values and and strict centralized management. However later in the late 1920s, USSR adopted the New Economic Policy and made a compromise with the capitalist market. In 1930s, there were strong government rule (Stalinism) which has established mass censuses, Gulags in order to build much stronger and competitive economic mechanism. It also caused the massive construction of industrialization and collectivization. Nationalism and protection of the state from foreign capital. Indeed USSR became one of the industrialized countries in the world. Later USSR was turned into the state Capitalism, when the Communist party became nothing else other than a profit making coproration controlling and exploiting citizens. Also, it was a major reason of USSR collapse and coming back to liberal capitalist economy. 5. Stuart Hall argues that the Western civilization is not a geographical entity but rather a historical entity. It is important to mention, that West is not only in the Western Europe or United States of America. It is also in Japan, Taiwan, Australia and New Zealand, which are located rather in the South or Eastern Hempisphere of the planet. The true definition of West is based on distributing the capitalist economy around the world and establishment of industrialized, capitalist, secular and modern society. This is what happening in other countries around the world. Western becomes an identical concept as developed and civilized (desirable) and non-west as underdeveloped and uncivilized (undesirable). Nevertheless West was considered to be Eurocentric and propagated as more civilized than all other nations in the world (including Eastern Europeans).

Western Civilization has also introduced the responsibility of discovering all other continents in the world and of course colonizing all the new lands. Europe was responsible to distribute the language and the religion to all other indigenous people. West was also distributing the economic, political and social system across the entire world. Europeans were also distributing the idea of Christian morality and the protection of private property. Today it is mistaken to say that the Western civilization appears to be the only civilized than the East. Despite Latin American, Chinese and Indian civilizations were heavily influenced by the West, they are succesful to build and organize their own economies and etc. Moreover, it is hard to define what is considered to be the west right now. North America and Europe are behaving as separate and competitive markets between each other (Euro vs. Dollar, American Dream vs. European Dream) World experiences the rise of all other civilizations around the planet. 6. The absolutism was no longer effective ideology. The centralization of power in one monarch could not decide effectively on the economic and military problems. Therefore people were demanding of transformation of more power to the elected individuals who can be replaced by a different ruler who does not hold a hereditary title. Also absolutist states were weak of influence of bourgeois, nobilities and merchants, who eventually have begun to have more influence on politics. The Treaty of Westphalia- it is a treaty which is based on 1648, which brought to the 80 years war between Spain and the Dutch. This year depicts the world community consisting of the sovereign states which settle differences privately and make the national interest over everything. Nation does not recognize no superior authority over the state officials. The state was an easier object to organize the lawmaking entity and protect the rights over its citizens. Developing the context of nationalism- people have agreed to create the constitution which guarantees the protection of national and linguistic identities- the rise of nationalism. Nevertheless the nation states had taken control over society more than the absolutist states which have been before. Modern states are of different types: Modern states were also demanding the rule of law and therefore a modern states were adopting the constitutions. (constitutional state) There were other requirements to make people more free in the personal, business and family lives. There were requirements of the free market competition and protection of property (liberal state). It is based on making an economy and big business from specific individuals. Representative democracy- people elect specific representatives into the parliament and senate.

Single-party polity- where one party is a legimitate expression of the government Moreover they were more successful in developing the warfare and compete with all other states in conquering the territories. The states which were born in Europe have also been succesful in developing the european globalization around the world. Its progressiveness and good organization has helped the European powers to win the competition against non-European states (alliance of modern capitalism and modern state). Through this it could achieve more profit for the ruling and bourgeois elite. The states have also distributed the capitalism around the world which was based on the massive exploitation of people around the world and massive slave system. Modern State was using the nationalism and pride in order to legitimate the actions of conquering of other territories. People were volunteerly going into other continents to take over the resources and promote the pride of a white race. They also got a chance to promote the European Culture to the indigenous populations. However it is only capitalism combined with the state. It used the state and the army as the weapon to take over all other resources around the world. Additional Notes: Capitalism Emerges and develops due to number of factors Technology New kinds of relationships From nobility-peasant to capitalist-wage worker Helen Wood: Agricultural origins of capitalism Enclosure movement Role of ideas Enlightenment and Liberalism Individuals as maximizers of self-interest Free market/limited state intervention Democracy and liberalism To enable pursuit of self interest Protect property

Minimal state state only needed to protect private property and basic rights of individual to provide policing to protect private property and basic rights to provide defence of the state (army)

Market: state not to interfere Max Weber Alliance between modern capitalism and emergence of modern state

Poggi Convergence of interests between two autonomous forces for specific period Political rulers Rising bourgeois (capitalist) class

Marx the changing economic structure of social relations (class) and means of production lead to changes in the political and state structure State acts in interests of ruling classes State acts in interests of maintaining capitalist system

Civil rights (all citizens are equal before the law) Political rights (one man one vote) Social rights (welfare-state) Response to emerging socio-economic and cultural cleavages

Nationhood: The concept of a nation-state (one nation) The social construction of a collective identity (imagined community) Response to emerging socio-economic and cultural cleavages

These features contributed to the civilianization of the state: More moderate state-demeanour

Increase in the potential, but decrease in the actual exercise of violence

he development of a public- and state-binding law Centralized organization: State hierarchy (state as a pyramid) Managerial rationality (state as a machine)

Differentiation between state and society: Secularization Property rights and freedom of contract

Formation of a public sphere: Representative government Legitimate criticism

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