Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof.

Edward Yi Chang) p 1

Chapter 5 Bipolar Transistors
1. Higher current and high voltage capability Power application
2. Faster switching times (fastest transistors ever reported f
t
> 800 GHz)

Basic Structure


Some facets about bipolar devices
1. The base region is non-uniformly doped, this results in a built- in field across the
base which aids the transport of e
-
from emitter to collector.
2. Parasitic exist in the structure
R
B
: base resistance from base contact to active base area
R
C
: collector resistance (predominately through N
-
layer)
3. The N
-
collector adjacent to the base reduces C
BC
, improves BV
CB
decreases base
width modulation by the collector voltage but adds series resistance to the device.

Basic operation
1. An external voltage is applied across the E-B junction to forward bias it. (0.7 V)
2. e
-
are injected into the base by the emitter
(Holes are also injected into the emitter by the base, but their numbers are much
smaller because relative number of N
A
, N
D
)
3. If W
B
<< L
n
in the base, most the injected e
-
get to the collector without combining
a few do recombine, the holes necessary for this are supplied as base current.
4. The e
-
reaching the collector are collected across the C-B depletion region.

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 2

Since most of the injected e
-
reach the collector and only a few holes are injected into
the emitter, i.e. I
B
<<I
C
.

The device has substantial current gain
1 >>>
B
C
I
I


Internally, the control parameter is V
BE
(determines the injection level)

Bipolar is considered a current controlled device with I
B
provided externally
producing I
C
.

To derive the basic relationship for e
-
current between E & C, we start by assuming
the device current gain is high I
B
=0


diffusion
p
drift
x p p
p
dx
dp
qD p q J
J
= =
~ =
c 0
0 base in the current hole

ip) relationsh (Einstein
1
1

dx
dp
p q
kT
dx
dp
p
D
dx
dp
D p
p
p
x
p x p
=
=
=

c
c

Thus, for uniform doping in the base
x
=0 and e
-
travelling through the base will move
by diffusion only.
In IC transistors, 0 and 0 = =
dx
dp
x
c
The direction of this field aids e
-
flow EC and retarded flow CE.
The e
-
flow between E & C is given by


diffusion
n
drift
n
n x n n
dx
dn
qD
dx
dp
p
n
kT
dx
dn
qD n q J
+ =
+ =

c


Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 3

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dn
p
dx
dp
n
p
qD
J
n
n

or
dx
pn d
p
qD
J
n
n
) (
=


Neglecting depletion regions, the effective base width X
B
= metallurgical base width.
} }
=
B B
X X
n
n
dx
dx
pn d
D
dx
q
p
J
0 0
) (

Assume no recombination of e
-
in the base, i.e. constant =
n
J
) 0 ( ) (
0
pn X pn
D
dx
q
p
J
B
X
n
n
B
=
}

From our diode analysis, we know that the pn product at the edge of the depletion
regions are given by
kT
qV
po
po
e n n
p p
=
=

kT
qV
i B
kT
qV
i
CB
BE
e n X pn
e n pn
2
2
) (
) 0 (
=
=

}

=
B
BE CB
X
n
kT
qV
kT
qV
i
n
D
pdx
e e qn
J
0
2
) (

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 4

region base undepleted in charge total
0
= =
}
B
X
B
Q pdx qA
) (
kT
qV
kT
qV
S n
BE CB
e e I I =
Where
B
n i
S
Q
D n A q
I
2 2 2
=
This is an extremely important result
1. Usually one of two exponential term is important because of the fact that one
junction is typically reverse biased. (If both are forward biased both term must be
included saturation)
2. The quantity
}
=
B
X
A
B
dx x N
qA
Q
0
) ( is called the base Gummel Number.
It is the total integrated base charge (atoms/cm
2
)
Since
B
Q
I
1

It is important to minimize Q
B
; IC transistors use low doping levels in the base.

If the base is uniformly doped, 0 =
x
c

p n
n p << because of relative doping
If the base doping level is constant (N
A
), then
B A B
X qAN Q =
And we have
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2
kT
qV
B A
i n
n
BE
e
X N
An qD
I
D
i
no
kT
qV
no n
A
i
po
kT
qV
po p
N
n
p
e p p
N
n
n
e n n
BE
BE
2
2
=
=
=
=
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 5

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
kT
qV
kT
qV
S n
BE CB
e e I I
Where
B
n i
S
Q
D n A q
I
2 2 2
=

biased) reverse is junction BC the because negligible is term (The
kT
qV
CB
e

Alternatively, this may be written as
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2 2 2
kT
qV
B
i n
n
BE
e
Q
n D A q
I

This equation predicts an exponential relationship between I
C
and V
BE
.
Relationship holds well for IC transistor over many decades of current.
In general, Q
B
is obtained by integration over the base region, Q
B
is well controlled to
10
12
/cm
2
to give high I
C
for a given V
BE
.

Current Gain
B
C
I
I
= |
A number of factors can contribute to the current in a BJT (bipolar transistor)
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 6

A A. . R Re ec co om mb bi in na at ti io on n i in n t th he e n ne eu ut tr ra al l b ba as se e r re eg gi io on n

In the general case, some of the e
-
traversing the base will recombine with majority
carrier hole. (This is usually unimportant)

If we assume the base is uniformly doped, 0 =
x
c , the the e
-
current (transport) and
continuity equations are
0
2
2
=

=
n
po p p
n
p
n n
n n
dx
dn d
D
dx
dn
qAD I
t

The general solution of the equation is
n n
L
x
L
x
po p
e K e K n n
2

1
+ =


Where
length diffusion = =
n n n
D L t
The appropriate boundary conditions are
0 ) (
) 0 (
~ = =
= =
po B p
kT
qV
po p
n X x n
e n x n
BE


|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
B
n
B
kT
qV
po p
L
X
L
X X
e n n
BE
sinh
sinh
1
Substitute into
dx
dn
qAD I
p
n n
=


current) (emitter 0 = X
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
B kT
qV
n
po n
nE
L
X
e
L
n qAD
I
BE
coth 1 current into base
B
X X =
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 7

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
B kT
qV
n
po n
nC
L
X
e
L
n qAD
I
BE
csch 1 current get out base

The ratio of these two currents is defined as the base transport factor
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
B
nE
nC
T
L
X
I
I
sech o

In modern BJT,
n B
L X <<
There is little recombination in the neutral base
2
2
2
1
1
n
B
T
L
X
= o , if
n B
L X <<
For typical BJT, if m 30 and m 1 = =
n B
L X
9994 . 0 =
T
o
A transport factor that is close to 1 and
1600
0006 . 0
9994 . 0
> =
B
C
I
I

T
o is not usually a limiting factor in current gain

The base current due to
T
o
T
2
to due current ion recombinat 1
2
1
2
o
t
t
t
B
kT
qV
n A
B i E
kT
qV
n
B E
n
E n
B
I e
N
X n qA
e
qX A
A Q
I
BE
BE
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

Where
n
t is the e
-
lifetime in the base.
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 8

B B. . H Ho ol le e i in nj je ec ct ti io on n i in nt to o t th he e e em mi it tt te er r

The dominant mechanism in limiting in modern BJTs is hole injection into the
emitter from base. Note that this process must occur because V
BE
decreases the barrier
to e
-
flow EB and also the barrier for hole flow BE.
The injected hole currents in each case come directly from our analysis of long base
and short base diodes.
|
|
.
|

\
|
= <<
|
|
.
|

\
|
= >>
1
1
2
2
kT
qV
E DE
pE
i pE pE E
kT
qV
pE DE
pE
i pE pE E
BE
BE
e
X N
D
qAn I L X
e
L N
D
qAn I L X


The injection efficiency of the emitter is defined as
tot
nE
pE nE
nE
I
I
I I
I
=
+
=

small) is if , (since 1
1
small) is if ,
1
coth (since 1
coth 1
2
y p
N
n p
N
n
e
X
p qAD
I
e
X
n qAD
y
y
y e
X
L
L
n qAD
L
X
e
L
n qAD
I
Eo
DE
Eo Eo
DE
i kT
qV
E
Eo pE
pE
kT
qV
B
po nB
kT
qV
B
n
n
po nB
n
B kT
qV
n
po nB
nE
BE
BE
BE
BE
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 9

nB
pE
DE
AB
E
B
AB Eo DE po
E
Eo pE
B
po nB
B
po nB
kT
qV
E
Eo pE
kT
qV
B
po nB
kT
qV
B
po nB
pE nE
nE
D
D
N
N
X
X
N p N n
X
p D
X
n D
X
n D
e
X
p qAD
e
X
n qAD
e
X
n qAD
I I
I
BE BE
BE
+
=
= =
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
=
1
1
) , (
1 1
1

If
p E n B
L X L X >> >> or ,
Then the long diode approximations replace X
B
or X
E
with L
n
and L
p
.

We can make close to unity by
A) Making
AB DE
N N >>
B) Making X
E
large or alternatively by preventing hole recombination at the emitter
contact.
C) Making X
B
small, this is also desirable from the point of view of increasing
T
o

Typically, 0.999 to 99 . 0 =
nB
pE
DE
AB
E
B
D
D
N
N
X
X
+
=
1
1

A current gain of 100~1000 should be achieved.
Such values are typically observed for BJT.
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 10

C C. . E E- -B B s sp pa ac ce e c ch ha ar rg ge e r re eg gi io on n r re ec co om mb bi in na at ti io on n

Note that both
T
o and are independent of V
BE
, implying that the ratio of
collector to base current is a constant, independent of V
BE
, i.e. current level.
In practice, the ratio of the two current (I
C
/I
B
) is not independent of I
C
at low levels,
the dominate reason is recombination in the E-B depletion region.


We saw in our PN junction discussion that some recombination of the carriers moving
through the depletion region will occur, and that
kT
qV
E i
c
BE
e
W qAn
I
2
0
Re
t
=
Where
0
t is the lifetime in the depletion region.
(1)
kT
qV
BE
e
2
dependence is important low current levels
(2) This current flows in the EB circuits and does not directly effect I
C
, thus as I
rec

becomes important, the ratio I
C
/I
B
will change.

Summarizing of these together the current gain

region depletion at
ion recombinat
Re
base at
ion recombinat
emitter at
ion recombinat
1
nE
c
nE
nC nE
nE
pE
C
B
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
+

+ = =

|

kT
qV
i n
E B A
n
B
n E D
p B A
BE
e
n D
W X N
L
X
D X N
D X N
2
0
2
2
2 2
1

+ + =
t |

This equation is only valid for larger .
Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 11


Note that
(1)
kT
qV
C
BE
e I over a wide range of I
(2)
kT
qV
B
BE
e I at moderate currents
(3)
kT
qV
B
BE
e I
2
at low level due to recombination at depletion region

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 12


High level effect
A. High level injection in the base
If injection levels are very high, the assumption n<<N
A
in the base is no longer valid.
In this case, for the base to remain quasi- neutral.
}
+ =
+ =
B
X
B
AB
pdx q Q
x n x N x
0
and
) ( ) ( ) (
|

B. High level injection in the collector

The collector is doped lightly to obtain reasonable B-C breakdown at high level
injection, the assumption of complete depletion in the B-C depletion is no longer
valid.
If the electrons are traveling at the saturation drift velocity,
sat
u , then at any given time,
the density of electrons in the depletion region is
sat sat
J
x N p
J
u u
= ) (
As a result, there is excess negative charge on the base side of the depletion region
and less positive charge on the collector side, the net result is to maintain charge
neutrality, the depletion region shrinks in the base side and widens in the collectors
side. As a result, the neutral base region widens ) region base ( , | + | |
B
X

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 13

Frequency limitation

A number of time constants inherent to the device may limit its frequency response.

1. Base transit time
In the absence of field in the base (N
A
=constant, love level injection) then the
injected e
-
concentration varies linearly across the base. The total charge in the base is
E B p B
A X qn q
2
1
=
The transit time across the base is simply
n
B
B
B
p
n
E B p
B
B
p
n C
C
B
B
D
X
X
n
qD
A X qn
X
n
qD I
I
q
2
2
1
current) (diffusion
2
=
=
=
=
t
t
t

D: average e
-
diffusion time in the base
If the base doping is graded, an aiding field speeds up the carriers, the
B
t is
reduced by at least 2 times.
B
t is not usually the dominate frequency limitation.

2. Emitter base capacitance charging time
From the earlier PN diode discussion
E E
BE
e
qI
kT
dI
dV
r = =
C
je
depends on the doping levels and current level (V
BE
) in the transistor. A rough
approximation is that
) 0 (
2
BE je
C C =
where C
BE(0)
is the zero voltage B-E
Junction capacitance
) 0 (
E
2
BE je e E
C
qI
kT
C r = = t

Solid State Electronic Devices (Prof. Edward Yi Chang) p 14

3. Collector capacitance charging time
The B-C junction is reversed biased and the junction impedance is very high

t C R
C C
=
where
e capacitanc region depletion C - B :
resistance series collector :

C
R
C


4. Collector depletion layer transit time
For moderate or high B-C reverse biases, the field across the depletion layer is high,
so the electrons can be assumed to move at
sat
u

width depletion C - B :
2
DBC
sat
DBC
D
X
X
u
t =


All of time delays we considered add.
We have
D C E B tot
t t t t t + + + =
Cutoff frequency of the device is
tot
t
f
tt 2
1
=