BJT Transistor Modeling

Introduction
The basic construction, appearance, and characteristics of the transistor were introduced in Chapter 3. The dc biasing of the device was then examined in detail in Chapter 4. We now begin to examine the small-signal ac response of the BJT amplifier by reviewing the models most frequently used to represent the transistor in the sinusoidal domain. One of our first concerns in the sinusoidal ac analysis of transistor networks is the magnitude of the input signal. It will determine whether small-signal or large-signaltechniques should be applied. There is no set dividing line between the two, but the applicationand the magnitude of the variables of interest relative to the scales of the device characteristicswill usually make it quite clear which method is appropriate. The small-signal technique is introduced in this chapter, and large-signal applications are examined in Chapter 15. There are two models commonly used in the small-signal ac analysis of transistor networks: the re model and the hybrid equivalent model. This chapter not only introduces both models but defines the role of each and the relationship between the two. BJT Small-Signal Analysis

Introduction
The transistor models introduced in Chapter 7 will now be used to perform a small-signal ac analysis of a number of standard transistor network configurations. The networks analyzed represent the majority of those appearing in practice today. Modifications of the standard configurations will be relatively easy to examine once the content of this chapter is reviewed and understood. Since the re model is sensitive to the actual point of operation, it will be our primary model for the analysis to be performed. For each configuration, however, the effect of an output impedance is examined as provided by the hoe parameter of the hybrid equivalent model. To demonstrate the similarities in analysis that exist between models, a section is devoted to the small-signal analysis of BJT networks using solely the hybrid equivalent model. The analysis of this chapter does not include a load resistanceRL or source resistance RS. The effect of both parameters is reserved for a systems approach in Chapter 10. The computer analysis section includes a brief description of the transistor model employed in the PSpice and Electronics Workbench software packages. It demonstrates the range and depth of the computer analysis systems available today and how relatively easy it is to enter a complex network and print out the desired results. FET Small-Signal Analysis

Introduction
Field-effect transistor amplifiers provide an excellent voltage gain with the added feature of a high input impedance. They are also considered low-power consumption configurations with good frequency range and minimal size and weight. Both JFET and depletion MOSFET devices can be used to design amplifiers having similar voltage gains. The depletion MOSFET circuit, however, has a much higher input impedance than a similar JFET configuration. While a BJT device controls a large output (collector) current by means of a relatively small input (base) current, the FET device controls an output (drain) current by means of a small input (gate-voltage) voltage. In general, therefore, the BJT is a current-controlled device and the FET is a voltagecontrolled device. In both cases, however, note that the output current is the controlled variable. Because

of the high input characteristic of FETs, the ac equivalent model is somewhat simpler than that employed for BJTs. While the BJT had an amplification factor (beta), the FET has a transconductance factor, gm.

The FET can be used as a linear amplifier or as a digital device in logic circuits. In fact, the enhancement MOSFET is quite popular in digital circuitry, especially in CMOS circuits that require very low power consumption. FET devices are also widely used in high-frequency applications and in buffering (interfacing) applications. Table 9.1, located in Section 9.13, provides a summary of FET small-signal amplifier circuits and related formulas. While the common-source configuration is the most popular, providing an inverted, amplified signal, one also finds common-drain (source-follower) circuits providing unity gain with no inversion and commongate circuits providing gain with no inversion. As with BJT amplifiers, the important circuit features described in this chapter include voltage gain, input impedance, and output impedance. Due to the very high input impedance, the input current is generally assumed to be 0 A and the current gain is an undefined quantity. While the voltage gain of an FET amplifier is generally less than that obtained using a BJT amplifier, the FET amplifier provides a much higher input impedance than that of a BJT configuration. Output impedance values are comparable for both BJT and FET circuits. FET ac amplifier networks can also be analyzed using computer software. Using PSpice or Electronics Workbench, one can perform a dc analysis to obtain the circuit bias conditions and an ac analysis to determine the small-signal voltage gain. Using PSpice transistor models, one can analyze the circuit using specific transistor models. On the other hand, one can develop a program using a language such as BASIC that can perform both the dc and ac analysis and provide the results in a very special format. Systems Approach

Introduction
In recent years, the introduction of a wide variety of packaged networks and systems has generated an increasing interest in the systems approach to design and analysis. Fundamentally, this approach concentrates on the terminal characteristics of a package and treats each as a building block in the information of the total package. The content of the chapter is a first step in developing some familiarity with this approach. The techniques introduced will be used in the remaining chapters and broadened as the need arises. The trend to packaged systems is quite understandable when you consider the enormous advances in the design and manufacturing of integrated circuits (ICs). The small IC packages contain stable, reliable, self-testing, sophisticated designs that would be quite bulky if built with discrete (individual) components. The systems approach is not a difficult one to apply once the basic definitions of the various parameters are correctly understood and the manner in which they are utilized is clearly demonstrated. In the next few sections, we develop the systems approach in a slow deliberate manner that will include numerous examples to make each salient point. If the content of this chapter is clearly and correctly understood, a first plateau in the understanding of system analysis will be accomplished. BJT and JFET Frequency Response

Introduction
The analysis thus far has been limited to a particular frequency. For the amplifier, it was a frequency that normally permitted ignoring the effects of the capacitive elements, reducing the analysis to one that included only resistive elements and sources of the independent and controlled variety. We will now investigate the frequency effects introduced by the larger capacitive elements of the network at low frequencies and the smaller capacitive elements of the active device at the high frequencies. Since the analysis will extend through a wide frequency range, the logarithmic scale will be defined and used

throughout the analysis. In addition, since industry typically uses a decibel scale on its frequency plots, the concept of the decibel is introduced in some detail. The similarities between the frequency response analyses of both BJTs and FETs permit a coverage of each in the same chapter. Compound Configurations

Introduction
In the present chapter, we introduce a number of circuit connections that, although not standard commonemitter, common-collector, or common-base, are still quite important, being widely used in either discrete or integrated circuits. The cascade connection provides stages in series, while the cascode connection places one transistor on top of another. Both these connection forms are found in practical circuits. The Darlington connection and the feedback pair connection provide multiple transistors connected for operation as a single transistor for improved performance, usually with much larger current gain. The CMOS connection, using both p-type enhancement and n-type enhancement MOSFET transistors in a very low-power operating circuit, is introduced in this chapter. Much of the newest digital circuitry uses CMOS circuits either to permit portable operation at very low battery power or to allow very high packing density in integrated circuits with lowest power dissipation in the small space used by an IC chip. Both discrete circuits and integrated circuits use the current source connection. The current mirror connection provides constant current to various other circuits and is especially important in linear integrated circuits. The differential amplifier is the basic part of operational amplifier circuits (to be covered fully in Chapter 13). The basic differential circuit connection and its operation are introduced in this chapter. Although placed at the end of the chapter, it is nevertheless a most important circuit connection. A bipolar-JFET circuit used in ICs is the BiFET connection, while the bipolar-MOSFET connection is called a BiMOS connection. Both of these are used in linear integrated circuits.