Flux Observer Enhanced with Low-Frequency Signal Injection Allowing

Sensorless Zero-Frequency Operation of Induction Motors

Marko Hinkkanen, Veli-Matti Lepp anen, and Jorma Luomi
Power Electronics Laboratory
Helsinki University of Technology
P.O. Box 3000, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland
AbstractIn sensorless induction motor drives, ux estimators
based only on the fundamental-wave motor model work well at
sufciently high stator frequencies, but they fail at speeds close to
zero. To solve this problem, a new observer structure is proposed,
combining a speed-adaptive full-order ux observer with a low-
frequency signal injection method. An error signal obtained from
the signal injection method is used as an additional feedback
signal in the speed-adaptation law of the observer, resulting in
a wide speed range, excellent dynamic properties, and zero-
frequency operation capability. The enhanced observer is also
robust against parameter errors. Experimental results are shown,
including very slow speed reversals and long-term zero-frequency
operation under rated load torque, as well as rated load torque
steps and fast speed reversals under rated load torque.
I. INTRODUCTION
The research of the speed sensorless vector control of in-
duction machines is motivated by the worth-coming benets in
the cost of hardware and installation work and the reliability of
the system. The estimation of the rotor ux is the crucial part
of the control algorithm. It can be based on the fundamental-
wave motor model leading to, e.g., the voltage model or the
full-order ux observer. As the frequency approaches zero,
however, the estimators based only on the fundamental-wave
motor model become increasingly sensitive to parameter errors
[1]. For solving this problem, various methods have been
presented where a high-frequency test signal is superimposed
on the stator voltage or current of the machine and information
of the ux direction or rotor position is obtained from the
response.
Most of the signal-injection methods assume a spatial
variation of the leakage inductance that is linked to the
orientation of the ux [2], [3], or rotor position [4]. The
rotor-position-dependent inductance variation can even be en-
hanced by design [5], [6], [7]. However, the signal carrying
useful information is often corrupted by other signals of the
same kind [8], [9], and additional machine-specic decou-
pling schemes must be devised [4], [7]. A hybrid scheme
combining a fundamental-wave ux observer with a high-
frequency signal injection method is proposed in [10]. Some
schemes employ the PWM switching waveform instead of
an additional signal for the excitation [11], [12]. In [13], a
resistance variation along the rotor periphery is introduced,
and a periodic high-frequency voltage burst injection is used.
Injecting a high-frequency voltage causes a high-frequency
zero-sequence voltage in a motor with main ux saturation.
The amplitude variation of the high-frequency zero-sequence
voltage can be used to track the air-gap ux [14].
In a recently introduced controller [15], a low-frequency
alternating current test signal is superimposed on the stator
current. The response of the mechanical system can be used
to adjust the test signal to coincide the direction of the rotor
ux, provided that the total moment of inertia is not too
high. Unlike the high-frequency signal injection methods, the
low-frequency injection method does not rely on magnetic
saturation or other parasitic phenomena in the motor, and
the standard fundamental-wave motor model is used. The
controller exhibits good steady-state performance down to
zero-frequency operation, and it is insensitive to parameter
errors. However, its dynamic response is only moderate.
In this paper, a fundamental-wave motor model based speed-
adaptive ux observer [16] with fast dynamic response is
enhanced by the low-frequency signal injection method of
[15] in order to obtain both the fast response and stable
zero-frequency operation despite of parameter errors. An error
signal obtained from the signal injection method is used as an
additional feedback signal in the speed-adaptation law. The
additional feedback signal also stabilizes the regenerating-
mode low-speed operation. Simulations and experimental re-
sults demonstrate the systems stability and robustness against
parameter errors.
II. INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL
The dynamic model corresponding to the inverse--
equivalent circuit of the induction motor will be used below.
In a general reference frame, the voltage equations are
u
s
= R
s
i
s
+
d
s
dt
+ j
k

s
(1a)
u
R
= R
R
i
R
+
d
R
dt
+ j (
k

m
)
R
= 0 (1b)
where
k
is the electrical angular speed of the reference frame,

m
the electrical angular speed of the motor shaft, u
s
and i
s
are the space vectors of the stator voltage and stator current,
respectively, and R
s
is the stator resistance. For the rotor, u
R
,
i
R
, and R
R
are dened similarly. The stator and rotor ux
linkages are

s
= (L

s
+ L
M
) i
s
+ L
M
i
R
(2a)

R
= L
M
(i
s
+ i
R
) (2b)
respectively, where L
M
and L

s
are the magnetizing inductance
and the stator transient inductance, respectively.
0-7803-7883-0/03/$17.00 (C) 2003 IEEE

d
q
d (estimated)
q (estimated)
Fig. 1. The estimated and true rotor ux reference frames. The test signal
alternates in the estimated d-direction.
When the stator ux
s
and the rotor ux
R
are chosen as
state variables, the state-space representation of the induction
motor can be written based on (1) and (2)
dx
dt
=
_

s
j
k
1

s
1

r
j (
k

m
)
_
. .
A
x +
_
1
0
_
..
B
u
s
(3a)
i
s
=
_
1
L

1
L

s
_
. .
C
x (3b)
where the state vector is x = [
s

R
]
T
, and the parameters
are = L

s
/(L
M
+ L

s
),

s
= L

s
/R
s
, and

r
= L
M
/R
R
.
The electromagnetic torque is given by
T
e
=
3
2
p Im
_
i
s

R
_
(4)
where the number of pole pairs is p and the complex conjugate
is marked by the symbol

. The equation of motion is
d
m
dt
=
p
J
(T
e
T
L
) (5)
where the total moment of inertia of the mechanical system is
J and the load torque is T
L
. The back-emf used in this paper
is dened by
e =
_
1

r
j
m
_

R
(6)
where the rotor time constant is
r
= L
M
/R
R
.
III. SIGNAL INJECTION AND ITS RESPONSE
In the following, the angle of the rotor ux reference frame
is
s
and the angle of the estimated rotor ux reference frame
is

s
. The error angle between the reference frames is =

s
as illustrated in Fig. 1. Since is not explicitly known,
an error signal F

that depends on will be introduced, ideally

with the following properties: F

= 0 for = 0, F

> 0 for
< 0, and F

< 0 for > 0.

A. Back-EMF Response in Rotor Flux Reference Frame
As shown in Fig. 2, an ac test signal Acos(
c
t) is su-
perimposed on the d-component of the stator current in the
estimated rotor ux reference frame, the d-axis of which is
at angle

s
relative to the stationary reference frame [15].
Thus the spatial angle of the ac test signal is in the rotor
ux reference frame, where the test signal appears as a vector
(cos + j sin ) Acos(
c
t).
Curr.
contr.
IM
Speed
contr.
Flux
contr.
Flux and
speed
observer
Error
signal
e
js
e
js
i
s
u
s,ref
i
s,ref

R,ref

s

m

m,ref

s F

+
+
Acos(
c
t)
Fig. 2. The rotor ux oriented controller using ux observer enhanced with
low-frequency signal injection. An ac test signal is superimposed on the d-
component of the stator current. The block Error signal is shown in Fig. 3.
If = 0, the test signal causes predominantly an alternating
component in the ux amplitude. This oscillation and its
effects are small, and they can be compensated [17]. If = 0,
the test signal has a true q-component which, according to (4),
creates a torque oscillation
T
ec
(t) =
3
2
p
R0
Acos(
c
t) sin (7)
where
R0
is the amplitude of the rotor ux at the quiescent
operating point. Based on (5), the oscillating torque causes an
oscillation in the rotor speed

mc
(t) =
3p
2

R0
2J
c
Asin(
c
t) sin (8)
and further an oscillation in the q-component of the back-emf
e
qc
(t) =
mc
(t)
R0
.
B. Error Signal in Estimated Rotor Flux Reference Frame
The previous analysis suggests that multiplying the back-
emf response e
qc
(t) by sin(
c
t) will give a signal that is
negative for a positive and positive for a negative . Since
is not known in practice, the true component e
qc
(t) is
not accessible. Instead, the corresponding q-component in the
estimated rotor ux reference frame (where the test signal
appears real) is used. The response in the estimated rotor ux
reference frame is approximately [17]
e

qc
(t) =
__
3p
2

2
R0
2J
+
R
R

r
_
+
m0
R
R
_
A

c
sin(
c
t) (9)
where
m0
is the rotor speed at the quiescent operating point.
In practice, the response is estimated from the stator voltage
and current using a band-pass-lter (BPF),
e

qc
(t)=BPF
_
u
sq,ref
+

s
di
sq
dt
+
s

s
i
sd
+(

R
s
+

R
R
)i
sq
_
(10)
where
s
is the angular speed of the rotor ux estimate
and parameter estimates are marked by the symbol . The
0-7803-7883-0/03/$17.00 (C) 2003 IEEE
BPF LPF
Limiter
Back-
emf
estim.
i
s
u
s,ref

m

s
F

+
+
sin(
c
t)

RRA
2c
e

qc
e

q
Fig. 3. Calculation of the error signal F.
q-component of the reference voltage u
sq,ref
and the stator
current components i
sd
and i
sq
are in the estimated rotor ux
reference frame.
The estimate of the part independent of in (9) is subtracted
from e

qc
(t) and the result is demodulated. Multiplication by
sin(
c
t) gives the function
f

(t) =
_
e

qc
(t) +
m0

R
R
A

c
sin(
c
t)
_
sin(
c
t) (11)
where
m0
is the estimated rotor speed at the quiescent
operating point. Low-pass ltering (LPF) of f

gives an error
signal voltage
F

= LPF
_
f

_

__
3p
2

2
R0
2J
+
R
R

r
_
+
m0
R
R

m0

R
R
_
A
2
c
(12)
which is constant in steady state. Fig. 3 shows the block
diagram of the error signal calculation, which will be explained
in more detail in Section V.
IV. SPEED-ADAPTIVE FLUX OBSERVER
The full-order ux observer using the ux estimates as state
variables corresponding to (3) is dened by
d x
dt
=

A x +Bu
s
+L
_
i
s

i
s
_
(13a)

i
s
=

C x (13b)
where the observer state vector is x = [

R
]
T
and the
system matrix is

A =
_

s
j
k
1

s
1

r
j(
k

m
)
_
(13c)
The observer gain
L =
_
l
s
l
r
_
=
_
1 + j sign(
m
)
1 + j sign(
m
)
_
(14a)
where
=
_

| m|

if |
m
| <

if |
m
|

(14b)
gives satisfactory behavior from zero speed to very high speeds
[16]. Parameters

and

are positive constants.

A. Conventional Speed-Adaptation Law
Conventionally, the rotor speed estimate
m
for the full-
order observer is obtained using the speed-adaptation law

m
=
p
Im
_
_
i
s

i
s
_

R
_

i
_
Im
_
_
i
s

i
s
_

R
_
dt
(15)
where
p
and
i
are positive adaptation gains. With accurate
motor parameter estimates, the adaptation law works well
except at low speeds in the regenerating mode. A modication
of the adaptation law (15) stabilizing the regenerating mode
can be found in [18]. However, an inaccurate stator resistance
estimate causes problems at low speeds. This well-known
problem is also encountered with other ux estimators based
on the fundamental-wave motor model. Especially, long-term
operation under full torque close to zero stator frequency
is difcult. Fortunately, the accuracy of the stator resistance
estimate is not that crucial during transients.
B. Adaptation Law Enhanced with Signal Injection
If the error angle were known, a robust speed-adaptation
law having good dynamics could be obtained by replacing
the error term Im
__
i
s

i
s
_

R
_
in (15) with . In practice,
the signal F

approximately proportional to is available.

However, F

has a limited bandwidth due to the delays and

ltering needed in the demodulation process.
Steady-state robustness of the low-frequency signal injec-
tion method and the fast response of the speed-adaptive
ux observer can be combined by replacing the error term
Im
__
i
s

i
s
_

R
_
in (15) with
Im
__
i
s

i
s
_

R
_
+

(16)
where

is a positive gain. This enhancement of (15) makes

long-term zero-frequency operation possible without losing the
dynamic performance. Furthermore, the feedback removes the
unstable region at low-speeds in the regenerating mode, even
with an inaccurate stator resistance estimate. It is to be noted
that the signal F

is not generally driven to zero with (16).

Steady-state robustness of (16) can be increased further by
driving the signal F

to zero using the error term

HPF
_
Im
__
i
s

i
s
_

R
_
_
+

(17)
where a rst-order high-pass lter (HPF) s/(s +
i
) having
the corner frequency
i
is used. In [10], the high-frequency
signal injection method was combined with a speed-adaptive
ux observer in a fashion similar to (17).
The high-pass lter in (17) may slightly deteriorate the
transient performance. This can be circumvented by using the
low-pass-lter-based realization of the high-pass lter
1

i
s +
i
. .
low-pass path
(18)
where the state of the low-pass path is reset and limited
suitably. Resetting is carried out in the beginning of transients,
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TABLE I
PARAMETERS OF THE 2.2-KW FOUR-POLE 400-V 50-HZ MOTOR.
Stator resistance Rs 3.67
Rotor resistance R
R
2.10
Stator transient inductance L

s
0.0209 H
Magnetizing inductance L
M
0.224 H
Total moment of inertia 0.0155 kgm
2
Rated speed 1 430 r/min
Rated current 5.0 A
Rated torque 14.6 Nm
which can be detected, e.g., by monitoring the error
m,ref


m
(where
m,ref
is the speed reference).
V. CONTROL SYSTEM
The control system used in the simulations and experiments
was based on rotor ux orientation. The simplied overall
block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2. The parameters
of a 2.2-kW four-pole induction motor given in Table I were
used.
A. Controllers and Flux Observer
A PI-type synchronous-frame current controller was used
[19]. The bandwidth of the current controller was 8 p.u, where
the base value of the angular frequency is 250 s
1
. The speed
estimate for the speed controller was ltered using a rst-
order low-pass lter having the bandwidth of 0.8 p.u., and
the speed controller was a conventional PI-controller having
the bandwidth of 0.16 p.u. The ux controller was a PI-type
controller having the bandwidth of 0.016 p.u. in the base-
speed region. The ux reference in the base-speed region was
0.9 Wb.
For the full-order ux observer, the parameters

= 10
and

= 1 p.u. were used. The speed-adaptation gains were

p
= 10 (Nms)
1
and
i
= 10 000 (Nms
2
)
1
. The observer
was implemented in the estimated rotor ux reference frame
using the digital implementation given in [20].
The sampling was synchronized to the modulation, and both
the switching frequency and the sampling frequency were
5 kHz. The dc-link voltage was measured, and the reference
voltage obtained from the current controller was used for the
ux observer. A simple current feedforward compensation for
dead times and power device voltage drops was applied [21].
B. Signal Injection
The frequency of the test signal was 25 Hz (i.e.,
c
=
0.5 p.u.), which gives, according to (12), F

/ 1.06 V/rad
in the experimental setup. In order to obtain a smooth transi-
tion between the low-speed signal injection region and normal
operating region, the signal injection parameters were varied
according to
A = f(
s
)A
0
,

= f(
s
)
0
,
i
= f(
s
)
i0
(19)
where A
0
= 1 A,
0
= 2 Nm/V, and
i0
= 0.16 p.u. The
function f is determined by
f(
s
) =
_
| s|

if |
s
|

0 if |
s
| >

(20)
PC with DS1103
IM
PM
servo
Freq.
converter
Speed for
monitoring
Freq.
converter
Fig. 4. The experimental setup. The PM servo motor was used as the loading
machine.

R
(p.u.)
L
M
/
L
M
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Fig. 5. Measured magnetizing inductance of the 2.2-kW motor. The base
value of the ux is 1.04 Wb and L
M0
= 0.224 H.
where

= 0.16 p.u. and

s
is the angular frequency of the
rotor ux estimate. The low-pass path of (18) was limited to
0.2 Wb|i
sq
|f(
s
), where i
sq
is the q component of the stator
current in the estimated ux reference frame. Furthermore, the
low-pass path was reset when |
m,ref

m
| > 0.03 p.u.
The error signal F

was calculated according to Fig. 3.

Instead of using a band-pass lter, the ltering of e

q
was
achieved by zero averaging and removing the trend over one
period of the injection signal [15]
e

qc
(t) = e

q
(t)
1
T
c
_
t
tTc
e

q
(t)dt
1
2
d
dt
_
t
tTc
e

q
(t)dt (21)
where T
c
= 2/
c
. The rst-order low-pass lter in Fig. 3 had
the bandwidth of 0.16 p.u. Prior to ltering, the amplitude of
F

was limited to 0.3 V.

VI. RESULTS
The operation of the enhanced observer using the adaptation
law (17) was investigated by means of simulations and experi-
ments. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 4. The 2.2-kW
four-pole induction motor was fed by a frequency converter
controlled by a dSPACE DS1103 PPC/DSP board. The total
moment of inertia of the experimental setup was 2.2 times the
inertia of the induction motor rotor. The MATLAB/Simulink
environment was used for the simulations. In the motor
model of the simulator, the measured magnetizing inductance
depicted in Fig. 5 was used, whereas other motor parameters
were constant. Constant-valued estimates of the motor param-
eters were used in all simulations and experiments.
The base values used in the following gures are: current

2 5.0 A and ux 1.04 Wb. Experimental results of slow

speed reversals are shown in Fig. 6. A rated load torque step
was applied at t = 5 s. The speed reference was ramped from
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m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

s
(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 50 100 150
0 50 100 150
0 50 100 150
0
0.5
1
0.1
0
0.1
0.1
0
0.1
Fig. 6. Experimental results showing slow speed reversals when the rated-
load torque is applied. The rst subplot shows the measured speed (solid) and
the estimated speed (dotted). The second subplot shows the angular frequency
of the estimated rotor ux. The third subplot presents the q component of the
stator current in the estimated ux reference frame.
0.06 p.u. (t = 10 s) to 0.06 p.u. (t = 80 s) and then back to
0.06 p.u. (t = 150 s). The drive operates rst in the motoring
mode, then in the regenerating mode, and nally again in
the motoring mode. This kind of very slow speed reversals
are possible due to the additional feedback signal F

. It can
be seen that the signal stabilizes the regenerating-mode low-
speed operation. On the other hand, the low-frequency signal
injection method without the full-order ux observer would
not tolerate the load torque step at t = 5 s.
An example of simulation results corresponding to Fig. 6
is shown in Fig. 7. An inaccurate stator resistance estimate

R
s
= 1.2R
s
was used. The magnetizing inductance estimate

L
M
becomes also inaccurate due to the incorrect ux mag-
nitude estimate (since saturation of L
M
is modelled). The
inaccurate parameter estimates cause the variations in the q
component of the stator current. The angle

s
of the rotor
ux estimate is approximately correct due to F

whereas
the ux magnitude estimate

R
is inaccurate (leading to an
erroneous ux level). However, the system remains stable
without problems. Simulations using inaccurate

L

s
and

R
R
were also successfully carried out.
Fig. 8 depicts experimental results of zero-frequency oper-
ation. The ux components in the stator reference frame are
marked by the subscripts and . The speed reference was
rst set to 0.033 p.u. and then a negative rated load torque
step was applied at t = 5 s. After applying the negative load,
the drive operates at zero frequency as can be seen from
the components of the estimated ux. The load torque was
removed at t = 50 s. It can be seen that stable zero-frequency
operation under load torque is achieved. The full-order ux
observer without the signal injection would collapse soon after
the load torque step (at t 6 s), whereas the low-frequency
signal injection method alone could not handle the load torque
steps.
Zero-speed operation during a slow load torque reversal is

m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

s
(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 50 100 150
0 50 100 150
0 50 100 150
0
0.5
1
0.1
0
0.1
0.1
0
0.1
Fig. 7. Simulation results corresponding to Fig. 6, except that

Rs = 1.2Rs.

m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1
0
1
1
0
1
0.2
0
0.2
Fig. 8. Experimental results showing zero-frequency operation when a rated-
load torque step is applied. The rst subplot shows the measured speed (solid)
and the estimated speed (dotted). The second subplot shows the q component
of the stator current in the estimated ux reference frame. The third subplot
presents the real and imaginary components of the estimated rotor ux in the
stator reference frame.
depicted in Fig. 9. The speed reference was set to zero and the
load torque was ramped from the positive rated-load torque to
the negative one in one minute. Due to the signal injection,
no problems were encountered. For observers without signal
injection, this kind of load torque reversals are usually more
difcult than load torque steps at zero speed. The reason is the
stator frequency remaining in the vicinity of zero for a long
time.
Fig. 10 shows a fast speed reversal under rated load torque.
The speed reference was initially set to 0.02 p.u. and the load
torque step was applied at t = 2 s. The speed reference was
stepped to 0.04 p.u. at t = 6 s while the load torque was still
applied. The system is stable in the motoring mode (t = 0 . . . 6
s), during the step change in the speed reference, and in the
regenerating mode (t = 6 . . . 20 s). The observer without
the signal injection could not operate continuously in the
regeneration mode due to low stator frequency (approximately
0.011 p.u.). The low-frequency noise in the regeneration mode
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m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 15 30 45 60
0 15 30 45 60
0 15 30 45 60
1
0
1
1
0
1
0.05
0
0.05
Fig. 9. Experimental results showing slow load torque reversal at zero speed.

m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 5 10 15 20
0 5 10 15 20
0 5 10 15 20
1
0
1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0
0.1
Fig. 10. Experimental results showing stepwise speed reference reversal
under rated-load torque.
was not seen in the corresponding simulations. The noise may
originate from the incomplete dead-time compensation. The
effect of the dead-time compensation is more signicant in
the regenerating mode than in the motoring mode since the
amplitude of the stator voltage is smaller.
A stepwise reversal of the load torque is shown in Fig. 11.
The speed reference was set to 0.02 p.u. Positive rated load
torque step was applied at t = 2 s and the load torque was
reversed at t = 8 s. The system is stable both in the motoring
mode (t = 0 . . . 8 s) and in the regenerating mode (t = 8 . . . 15
s), and also during the step change in the load torque.
Fast transitions between the signal injection region and the
normal operation region are shown in Fig. 12. The speed refer-
ence was initially 0.02 p.u. and it was changed to 0.6 p.u. at
t = 0.5 s and to 0.6 p.u. at t = 1 s. The rated load torque step
was applied at t = 1.5 s and the speed reference was lowered
to 0.02 p.u. at t = 2 s. No problems were encountered during
the transitions.

m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
1
0
1
1
0
1
0.3
0
0.3
Fig. 11. Experimental results showing stepwise load torque reversal.

m
(
p
.
u
.
)
i
s
d
,
i
s
q
(
p
.
u
.
)

(
p
.
u
.
)
t (s)
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
1
0
1
2
0
2
1
0
1
Fig. 12. Experimental results showing fast transitions between signal
injection and middle speed region. The speed reference (dashed line in the
rst subplot) and the d component of the stator current (in the second subplot)
are also presented.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A new observer structure was proposed, combining a speed-
adaptive full-order ux observer with a low-frequency signal
injection method. A low-frequency ac test signal is super-
imposed on the stator current. The response in the stator
voltage depends on the orientation of the signal relative to
that of the rotor ux. The dependency is due to the reaction
of the mechanical system, and it can be used to enhance the
low-speed operation of the full-order ux observer. An error
signal obtained from the signal injection method is used as
an additional feedback signal in the speed-adaptation law of
the speed-adaptive observer. Experimental results have shown
that the combination yields an observer exhibiting both fast
response and steady-state robustness against parameter errors
down to zero stator frequency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support
given by ABB Oy.
0-7803-7883-0/03/$17.00 (C) 2003 IEEE
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0-7803-7883-0/03/$17.00 (C) 2003 IEEE