ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRDUATE STUDIES

TEACHERS AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: THE CASE OF OROMO NATIONALITY ADMINISTRATION, AMHARA REGION BY GEBRE TAFERE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

ADVISOR: AKLILU DALELO (PhD)

FEBRUARY, 2010

ADDIS ABABA

Acknowledgements
I am very much grateful to many individuals for the support they provided me. I am particularly pleased to record my sincere thanks to my instructor and thesis advisor Dr. Aklilu Dalelo for his extensive support from the beginning to the final preparation of this Thesis.

Data collection would have been almost impossible without the help of the supervisors of the education offices of Dewa Chefa woreda, Artuma Fursi woreda and Kemissie town administration. I thank all these personnel with special thanks to Ato Teshome Kibert, Deputy Head of Artuma Fursi woreda Education office. My thanks also go to Ato Zinabu Belete, curriculum expert in the Department of Education of the Oromo Nationality Administration, who assisted me in the rating process of the textbook analysis.

I am also indebted to Ato Desalegn Mekonen who allowed me to use his PC until I completed my study. I also thank Ato Abebe Tesfaye, Ato Mohammmed Siraj, Ato Yohannes Simegn, Ato Wondowson Teka and Knife Tafa for their material support. I wish to say a big Thank you to Hussien Ali for assisting with the computer work.

G.T.

Contents
Page Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................1 Contents ......................................................................................................................................2 List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................5 List of Figures .............................................................................................................................7 Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................8 Abstract ......................................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 10 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 10 1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 10 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 15 1.4 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................... 16 1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................. 16 1.6 Definition of Terms and Concepts ...................................................................................... 17 1.7 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 18 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................................. 18 2.1 Theoretical Framework of Environmental Education ........................................................... 18 2.2 Environmental Worldviews and their Educational Implications ........................................... 24 2.3 Information Sources on Environmental Issues and Environmental Education ...................... 29 2.4 Environmental Education in the Formal Education System .................................................. 31 2

2.4.1 Curriculum Content of Environmental Education ...................................................... 31 2.4.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies for Presenting Environmental Education .............. 32 2.4.3 Constraints to Effective Implementation of Environmental Education ....................... 34 2.5 Environmental Education in Ethiopia: Inception and Current Trends ................................... 36 2.6 Findings of Previous Studies ............................................................................................... 41 2.6.1 Studies on the Characteristics of Environmental Education ....................................... 41 2.6.2 Studies on Awareness, Attitudes and Practice of Environmental Education ............... 47 2.6.3 Studies in Ethiopia on Environmental Education ....................................................... 51 CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................... 56 DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODS .......................................................................... 56 3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area ..................................................................................... 56 3.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 57 3.3 Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................................. 58 3.3.1 Sampling .................................................................................................................. 58 3.3.2 Tools ........................................................................................................................ 61 3.4 Methods of Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 66 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 67 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 67 4.1 Integration of Environmental Issues into the Textbooks of Upper Primary Level ................. 67 4.1.1 Proportion of Environmental Issues .......................................................................... 67 4.1.2 Environmental Issues Covered .................................................................................. 68 4.1.3 The Balance among the Three Strands of Environmental Literacy: Knowledge, Affective and Skills. ................................................................................................ 71 4.2 Teachers Awareness about Environmental Issues and Environmental Education ................ 73 3

4.3 Teachers Environmental Attitudes ...................................................................................... 79 4.4 Teachers Attitudes towards Environmental Education ........................................................ 86 4.5 Teachers Actual Practice of Environmental Education ....................................................... 95 4.6 Awareness-Attitude-Practice Nexus .................................................................................. 100 4.7 Teachers Information Sources on Environmental Issues and Environmental Education .... 101 4.8 Teachers Feelings about their Competence to Teach Environmental Education ................ 102 4.9 Teaching Environmental Education: Opportunities and Constraints ................................... 104 CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 106 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 106 5.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 106 5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 108 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 109 APPENNDICES ..................................................................................................................... 121 Appendix A............................................................................................................................. 121 Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 133 Appendix C ............................................................................................................................. 134 Appendix D............................................................................................................................. 135 Appendix E ............................................................................................................................. 136 Appendix F ............................................................................................................................. 137 Appendix G............................................................................................................................. 138

List of Tables
Page Table 1 Number of Schools and Teachers by Woreda/ Town Administration (2008/2009 A.Y) . 59 Table 2 Number of Samples in each School by Woreda/ Town Administration ......................... 60 Table 3 Summary of the Demographic Characteristics of the Participants ................................. 61 Table 4 Proportion of Environmental Issues .............................................................................. 68 Table 5 Environmental Contents in the English Textbooks ........................................................ 70 Table 6 The Environment Focused Units and their Associated Ratings ...................................... 72 Table 7 Percentage of Teachers Giving Correct Responses ........................................................ 75 Table 8 Mean Scores and SD of Awareness Scores (raw scores) ............................................... 76 Table 9 Independent Sample t- test for Awareness Scores by Sex and School Location. ......... 77 Table 10 One-way ANOVA for Environmental Awareness Scores ............................................ 78 Table 11 Frequency Distributions of the Respondents for NEP Scale items ............................... 80 Table 12 Frequency of Percentage Responses of Pro and Anti NEP........................................... 82 Table 13 Mean Scores and SD of Environmental Attitude Scores by the Independent Variables 83 Table 14 Independent Sample t-test for Environmental Attitude Scores ..................................... 84 Table 15 Oneway ANOVA for Environmental Attitude Scores ............................................... 86 Table 16 Frequency of Percentage Distributions of Responses to EE Attitude Statements ......... 87 Table 17 Acceptance that EE should be Taught Across the Curriculum by Country (% of Respondents) ................................................................................................................. 90 Table 18 Mean Scores and SD of EE Attitude Scores ................................................................ 92 Table 19 Independent Sample t-test for EE Attitude Scores ....................................................... 93 Table 20 One-way ANOVA for EE Attitude Scores .................................................................. 94 Table 21 Rankings of EE Practices ............................................................................................ 96 5

Table 22 Mean and SD of EE Practice Scores ........................................................................... 98 Table 23 Independent Sample t-test for EE Practice Scores ....................................................... 99 Table 24 One-way ANOVA for EE Practice Scores ................................................................ 100 Table 25 Pearsons Product Moment Correlation ..................................................................... 101 Table 26 Mean Scores of Responses for the Various Aspects of EE ........................................ 103

List of Figures
Page Figure 1 European perspectives on environmental politics and resource management; contemporary trends in environmentalism ................................................................... 25 Figure 2 The contemporary dynamics of environmentalism, social change and environmental management ............................................................................................................... 27 Figure 3 Aspects of environmentalism- organized along the single dimension of ecocentricity/anthropocentricity ....................................................................................... 29

Acronyms
ANRS DSP EE EEP ELA EPA FDRE GEQAEA HPE ICDR IEEP MEDaC MOA MOE NEP NGO NSW SDP SIDA TTI UNEP UNESCO Amhara National Regional State Dominant Social Paradigm Environmental Education Environmental Education Project Essential Learning Areas Environmental Protection Authority Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia General Education Quality Assurance and Examinations Agency Health & Physical Education Institute of Curriculum Development and Research International Environmental Education Program Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Education New Environmental Paradigm/New Ecological Paradigm Nongovernmental Organization New South Wales Societys Dominant Paradigm Swedish International Development Agency Teacher Training Institute United Nations Environment Program United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization 8

Abstract
This study focuses on the Upper Primary level teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education with particular reference to the Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara Region. It also comprises an assessment of the integration of environmental issues into the textbooks of Upper Primary level; examination of the extent to which various experiences contributed to the teachers environmental education knowledge, attitude and skills; and identification of the opportunities and constraints for teaching environmental education. Qualitative data generated from textbook analysis of two subjects and quantitative data gathered by a questionnaire from 120 participants randomly selected from 30 schools of three woredas were used for the study. The textbook analysis showed that environmental issues conceptually linked to environmental education are adequately integrated in the textbooks of civics and ethical education and most of the environmental issues of Ethiopia are covered in the English textbooks though the three strands of environmental literacy are not sufficiently balanced in both subjects. The study also revealed that teachers possessed positive attitudes towards both environmental issues and environmental education though there are indications that they lack the necessary awareness about several issues related to the environment and environmental education. It is evident that environmental education practices are limited to routine classroom activities. Extracurricular and out of school activities are almost neglected. The study further showed that the media and personal reading are the most important sources of information for the teachers knowledge, attitudes and skills of environmental education. The study revealed teachers pre-service training has inadequately prepared teachers for EE as a result of which, along with other factors, teachers feel less competent to teach EE. Even though there are several opportunities for teachers that enhance their EE, this study made it clear that teachers didnt use all the opportunities effectively. It appears that heavy workload, lack of teaching resource materials, lack of training and time constraints are the major obstacles that hindered environmental education. In light of these findings, recommendations have been suggested for future improvement.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study

The ultimate goal of environmental education is to promote the development of responsible environmental behavior (Hungerford and Volk, 1990). At the formal level of education, the responsibility for environmental education mainly rests with schools, colleges, and universities and other tertiary institutions (Palmer, 1998). There is also a general perception that schools should be instrumental in realizing the goals of environmental education (Lee and Williams, 2001) because they provide the largest organized base for environmental education and action.

Schools offer an effective instrument for embedding in them the desirable environmental ethics. For this reason, the appropriate preparation for taking rational actions to protect the environment as well as the solving of environmental problems resulting from the actions of people are necessary elements of contemporary school education (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004). In school system, teachers are important factors which are bound to affect such a program. They can provide a vital link in the delivery of the necessary environmental knowledge, skills, attitudes/values, its associated problems and their solutions. Moreover, their positive influence is not limited within the school. Spreading the environmental sensibility and awareness all over the society can only be achieved by conscious environmental educators (Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu, 2008).

The successful implementation of environmental education programs within

the formal

education system and the extent to which it is adopted outside this sector is therefore likely to 10

depend on teachers with a good understanding of environmental issues, their desirable attitudes towards the environment in general and environmental education in particular and their commitment to act responsibly. Taking this into consideration, this study is conducted to assess the upper primary teachers awareness, attitude and practice of environmental education with reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara region.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Our worldview influences to a great extent the way in which society relates to nature and the environment (Andersson, Folke and Nystrom, 1995). The dominant worldview of humans as superior to the rest of nature has dominated for thousands of years (Devall and Sessions, 1985). This worldview led to escalation of the impacts of human activities and influences as well as the risks and threats associated with those impacts (Palmer, 1998).

Environmental Education has been seen as a basic tool to contribute to the change of conceptions, values, and attitudes (Tracana, Ferreira, Caravalho, and Ferreira, 2008). That is why it is getting attention from people who are concerned with the problem of a sustainable environment (Rii, 2000). That individuals must learn in a formal way to reflect on the implication of their actions and act in positive ways that support and enhance the quality of life and the environment has been advocated by environmentalists, politicians, educationalists; and environmental education (both formal and informal) emerged as a response to this (Lee and Williams, 2001). In formal system of education, teaching of environmental education depends not only on curriculum and other facilities provided to the students, but also the quality of teachers in terms of knowledge, awareness, attitudes and skills relating to environmental education (Larijani and Yeshodhara, 2008). 11

Currently, environmental pollution and global warming (climate change) and improvement of the human environment are the major global concerns. In the developing countries like Ethiopia, poverty, pollution of air and water, overpopulation and degradation of the environment are at the forefront of environmental problems. Box 1 below shows a well summarized view of the major environmental problems of Ethiopia by Eco-Consult (1994); cited in Laekemariam (2001).

Box 1. Major Environmental Problems of Ethiopia There is serious deforestation caused by expansion of agricultural land, utilization of forests as sources for fuel wood and construction material with little replacement. As a result, there is serious loss of biodiversity as well as vegetation cover; Land degradation (soil erosion, nutrient depletion) is the major environmental problem occurring mainly in the highlands. Contributing factors include torrential rainfall, loss of vegetation cover and the disruption of the nutrient cycle (as a result of burning dung and crop residues). There is limited land degradation due to salinity and water logging in areas of irrigated agriculture; The most important source of water degradation is soil erosion. There is limited pollution by agricultural chemicals around large scale farms. There is considerable pollution in urban centers, especially in Addis Ababa, where most of the industries dump their waste directly into streams; Urban centers have very few sanitation facilities, and rural areas, where 85% of the population lives, have no sanitation facilities at all. In Addis Ababa (the capital city), about one million people have no toilet facilities, and most of the available facilities are shared. Defecation in the open is a common practice in rural as well as urban center;

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Box 1 continued The machinery and other equipment used in factories are old, technologies are obsolete and spare parts are hard to come by; hence their energy utilization is poor and are major causes of pollution; The major source of energy is bio mass energy, made up of fuel wood; charcoal, dung and crop residues, from which biomass energy pollutants (e.g. CO2, CH4) are produced. Biomass will continue to be the major source of energy for some time to come; Protected areas are encroached up on by communities living around them. These communities see no personal benefit from these resources, the pressure is normally increased during social upheavals; (Eco-Consult, 1994: cited in Laekemariam, 2001, pp.192-93).

The root cause of the problems is the low level of awareness of the general public about environmental problems, their causes and the appropriate solutions. Laekemariam (2001) summarizes the problem as follows: let alone the society at large, even the very people engaged in various scientific discipline dealing with the environment do not have a holistic approach for understanding environmental issues. They master their particular skills but do not see the interaction and the interrelation among the different components of environmental issues (Laekemariam, 2001, pp. 191-192). Realizing the urgent need for the protection and preservation of the environment, significant measures have been taken in Ethiopia since the change of government in 1991. The change of government in Ethiopia coincided with the period when environmental and development issues were deliberated up on at an international forum (the Rio-summit from June 3-14, 1992). The most significant outcome of this summit was the consensus reached by participant countries of 13

the integration of environment and development in decision making. Following this summit, the government has taken a number of steps towards alleviating the most pressing environmental problems of natural resource degradation (Getachew and Demele, 2001).

Above all, Article 92 of the constitution deals with the responsibilities and duties of the government and citizens to protect the environment. The official recognition for the Environmental Protection Authority and the subsequent enactment of the FDRE Environmental Policy are other important steps. The New Education and Training Policy is also an important development towards the improvement of the quality of the environment for it underlines the integration of environmental issues into the different levels of the education system. If environmental education is fully integrated into the formal curricula, the school can serve as a medium through which knowledge of environmental management and resource protection can be widely disseminated (ICDR, 1998). The issuance of the National Population Policy, which is believed to consider environmental issues along with population issues, is another significant achievement (Aklilu, 2006).

The above national policies and other measures imply that environmental issues in Ethiopia have been considered as important public duties. In spite of this, researches on public awareness, attitudes and practices of environmental and related issues are very much limited. Whereas educational institutions provide the largest organized bases for environmental education and action and teachers are important factors, researches on the teachers knowledge, attitudes, awareness, values, practices, etc. are very much limited. The results of a few of the studies that have been done so far in Ethiopia are not promising as far as environmental awareness and environmental education is concerned.

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The aim of this study is therefore to assess Upper Primary school teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education with reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara Region and to assess the integration of environmental education in the existing curricula of Upper Primary level.

1.3 Research Questions

This study is framed to answer the following questions:

1. To what extent is environmental education integrated into the existing curricula of Upper Primary level? 2. How aware are teachers about environmental problems and the role of environmental education in solving those problems? 3. What is the attitude of teachers regarding society nature relationships? 4. What is the attitude of teachers towards environmental education? 5. To what extent are teachers engaged in addressing environmental issues? 6. To what extent do teachers feel competent in and prepared for teaching environmental education? 7. What are the sources of information for teachers about environmental issues and environmental education? 8. What are the opportunities and constraints for the teaching of environmental education?

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1.4 Significance of the study

Generally, there has been very little research regarding environmental education issues in Ethiopia. Furthermore, the works that have been done so far have tended to focus on secondary school curriculum and students views (see for example Desalegn, 1998; Aklilu, 2001; Damtew, 2007; Asmare, 2007) with the consequences that the teachers views and practices of environmental education are not sufficiently investigated. Exceptions include Melaku (1994) who investigated pre-service teachers knowledge, attitude and skills, and Atlabachew (2007) who examined University instructors environmental knowledge, attitude, intention and behavior.

This study focuses on Upper Primary school teachers and analysis of Upper Primary level

curriculum; and hence responds to such a situation. Following the adoption of the new education and training policy of Ethiopia, environmental education is spreading from few subjects to almost all subjects of the new curricula. Since teachers are the prominent actors in the implementation of this new curricula, this study, which is about upper primary level teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education, will enable educationalists and other concerned bodies to become aware of teachers ideas and thoughts and the characteristics of environmental education practices.

1.5 Scope of the study

There are a number of issues in Ethiopia with respect to environmental education. This study will focus on teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education. Even though there are different levels in the Ethiopian education system, this study delimits itself to the Upper Primary level teachers of the Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara Region. 16

To improve the comprehensiveness of the study teachers environmental awareness and attitudes will be assessed and the place of environmental education in the existing curricula of the Upper Primary level will also be reviewed.

1.6 Definition of Terms and Concepts

Environmental Awareness: - descriptive and interpretive knowledge about separate facts and phenomena and cause - response in the environment; and understanding ecological problems and awareness of the effect of human beings on the environment.

Environmental Attitude: - feelings and thoughts towards human - environment interactions.

Environmental Education Awareness: - trust and understanding of the role of environmental education in solving environmental problems.

Environmental Education Attitude: - interest and concern for and understanding of environmental issues and involvement in environmental action and teaching.

Practice of Environmental Education: - teaching environmental issues, engagement in cocurricular activities and participation in environmental action in the community.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

Financial problems have limited the geographical area as well as the sample size of this study. Internet articles based on print sources were the most important references used in the study. However, the full text of latest journals was not easily accessed. Therefore, lack of related and latest articles has also limited the depth of argument in the study.

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CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Framework of Environmental Education
The standard reference point for a definition of environmental education is the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education held in Tbilisi in 1977 (Bell, 2004). Lucko, Disinger and Roth (1982) argued that to enhance environmental education efforts, a common, clear, comprehensive goal statement should be established. A commonly accepted statement about environmental education which has been repeated numerous times, with variations is:

Environmental education is process aimed at producing a citizenry that is: 1. knowledgeable about the biophysical and socio-cultural environments of which man is a part, 2. aware of managemental problems and management alternatives of use in solving those problems, and 3. motivated to act responsibly in developing diverse environments that are optimal for living a quality life (Lucko et al. 1982, p. 8). According to the Tbilisi Conference, the goals of environmental education are:

To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas;

To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment; and

To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the environment; (UNESCO, 1978. p. 8).

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The goals of environmental education are further reinforced by the following objectives:

Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.

Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experience in, and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associate problems.

Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the environment, and motivation for actively participating in environmental improvement and protection. Skills: to help social groups and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.

Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively involved at all levels in working towards resolution of environmental problems (UNESCO, 1978, pp. 26-27).

In spite of the fact that the goals, objectives and guiding principles of EE identified by the Tbilisi conference are still used as a reference for research, evaluation and curriculum development, environmental education has undergone important developments in theoretical foundation. For example, Hungerford and Volk (1990) suggested four levels of instructional goals which incorporate variables related to ownership and empowerment with the super ordinate goal being: to aid citizens in becoming environmentally knowledgeable and, above all, skilled and dedicated citizens who are willing to work individually and collectively, toward achieving and/or maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between quality of life and quality of the environment (Hungerford and Volk, 1990). 19

Based upon the theoretical underpinnings and results of their studies Jeronen and Kaikkonen (2002) suggested the following lifelong and hierarchic aims of EE:

To foster environmental sensitivity; To learn environmental awareness and knowledge; and To acquire readiness and responsibility to solve environmental problems through action for the environment (Jeronen and Kaikkonen, 2002, p.347).

Environmental sensitivity, awareness, knowledge and understanding, attitudes and values, skills, participation and action are the variables common to all the suggested goals and objectives. The basis for environmental sensitivity is feelings and emotions which are features of a life experience (Tanner, 1980). Jeronen and Kaikkonen (2002) argue that the development of the senses is crucial in environmental education. They further argue that the development of environmental awareness should be based on conscious experiences, ideas, beliefs and knowledge. Knowledge in this connection doesnt mean only facts and concepts but also an understanding of phenomena and their interrelationships. Slater (1996, cited in Seke, 2000) describes two ways of knowing and understanding, that is, knowledge as a product of the mind which is objective and natural and knowledge as a product of inner feelings and experiences which is subjective and value laden. People value what they consider to be worthwhile, significant and important and they give preferences and priority to those thoughts and ideas they value (Slater and Lambert, 1998). Values have to be developed and nurtured until they become deep seated in an individual (Seke, 2000). 20

A persons environmental attitude is connected with his values, outlook and knowledge, i.e. with the way he interprets and comprehends environmental matters (Aho, 1984). Hence, an understanding of environmental relationships may be complemented by a love of and respect for nature with feelings of interconnectedness with living things that can lead to motivation to act from a sense of responsibility and concern for environmental protection (Littledyke, 2008). Besides the necessary knowledge and attitude, participation and action on behalf of the environment requires the acquisition of essential skills. This include skills in the areas of communication, numeracy, information and problem solving, as well as self management and competitive skills, social and cooperative skills, physical skills and work and study skills (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008).

The endorsement of guiding principles of environmental education is another outcome of the Tbilisi conference. The following are some of the guiding principles identified by the conference.

consider the environment in its totality-natural and built, technological and social (economic, political, technological, cultural-historical, moral aesthetic);

be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the pre-school level and continuing through all formal and non-formal stages;

be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of each discipline in making possible a holistic and balanced perspective.

examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional and international points of view so that students receive insights into environmental conditions in other geographical areas;

focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into account the historical perspective;

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promote the value and necessity, of local, national and international co-operation in the prevention and solution of environmental problems;

explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for development and growth; enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an opportunity for making decisions and accepting their consequences;

relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-soloing skills and values clarification to every age, but with special emphasis on environmental sensitivity to the learners own community in early years;

help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems; emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills; and

utilize diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational approaches to teaching learning about and from the environmental with due stress on practical

activities and first-hand experience (UNESCO, 1978, p.27).

In addition to the above guiding principles the key aspects of environmental education are exhaustively outlined in the 41 recommendations of the Tbilisi conference. However, like the goals and objectives, the characteristics of environmental education have undergone significant developments. According to Hart (1981) a number of characteristics such as systems thinking of communications networking are relatively new to environmental education and are gradually receiving more widespread attention.

Tilbury (1994) argued that environmental education must consider the cultural and gender perspective. The author believes that the contribution of eco-feminism as well as the indigenous peoples cultural philosophy and practice must be explored through environmental education. 22

According to Littledyke (1997) environmental education which aims to foster understanding of the complexity of environmental issues needs to address social and ethical implications as well as the scientific principles which underpin the problems. Though the Tbilisi conference recommended that it is the right of every citizen to receive environmental education (UNESCO, 1978, p. 26), Bell (2004) argued that the language of rights might suggest that children should be entitled to the opportunity of environmental education but that it need not be compulsory. So Bell suggested that to realize its ultimate goal of protecting the environment it should be a universal and compulsory part of childs education (p.44).

With the emergence of the idea of sustainable development, new ideas have also emerged about environmental education. Fien (1995) argued that environmental education needs to reflect ways of knowing, identifies with the people and communities they purport to serve, and respects community based approaches to social change. According to him, one such reconceptualization of environmental education is education for sustainable living. Similarly, Taylor, Nathan and Coll (2003) argued that traditional environmental education is too limited in its scope to affect the necessary attitudinal changes needed if ecological degradation is to be reduced. Therefore, concerns regarding the shortcomings of traditional environmental education have seen it evolve to include a social dimension, and thus become known as education for sustainability. As such, it differs from commonly practiced environmental education approaches (informing people about the environment, sometimes in and for the environment) (Kennely, Taylor and Jenkins, 2008).

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2.2

Environmental

Worldviews

and

their

Educational

Implications
The study on human-nature relationships is fundamentally underpinned by a complex range of distinctive often competing worldviews (Kent, 2000). Different societies have experienced different orientations towards the environment at different times. For example, the set of beliefs and values that have dominated the American society for a considerable period of time was the Dominant Social Paradigm (DSP) (Albrecht, Bultena, Hiberg and Nowak, 1982). Among other things, this paradigm constituted:
1. A belief in limitless resource, continuous progress and the necessity of growth; 2. Faith in the problem solving abilities of science and technology; and 3. Strong emotional commitment to a laissez- faire economy and to the sanctity of private property rights (Albercht et al, 1982, p.39).

Gradually, new ideas emerged which differed dramatically from that provided by DSP. The new ideas according to Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) constituted mainly the following:
1. The inevitability of limits to growth; 2. The necessity of achieving a steady-state economy; 3. The importance of preserving the balance of nature; and 4. The need to reject the notion that nature exists solely for human use (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978, p. 10). They termed this new worldview the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP).

Similarly, ORiordan (1989, cited in Gough, Scott and Stables, 2000) developed a model on European perspectives of environmentalism. According to ORiordan the conception of environmentalism represented two major worldviews. First, there is techno-centric perspective which is a radical or manipulative perspective of society-nature relationships in which human 24

ingenuity and the spirit of competition dictate the terms of morality and conduct. Second, there is eco-centric perspective which is a conservative and nurturing view where nature provides a metaphor for morality and a guide to rules of conduct.

Gaianism

Ecocentrism Communalism

Technocenterism Accommodation Intervention

Faith in the rights of nature and of the essential need for coevolution of human and natural ethics.

Faith in the cooperative capabilities of societies to establish self reliant communities based on renewable resource use and appropriate technologies

Faith in the adaptability of institutions and approaches to assessment and evaluation to accommodate environmental demands

Faith in the application of science, market forces, and managerial ingenuity

Green, supporters Radical philosophers

Radical socialists; committed youth radicalliberal politicians; intellectual environmentalists

Middle ranking executives; environmental scientists; white collar trade unions; liberal socialist politicians.

Business and finance mangers; skilled workers, self-employed; right wing politicians; career-focused youth.

0.1-3 per cent of various opinion surveys

5-10 per cent of various opinion surveys

55-70 per cent of various opinion surveys

10-35 per cent of various opinion surveys

Demand for redistribution of power towards decentralized, federated economy with more emphasis on informal economic and social transactions and the point of participatory justice.

Belief in the retention of the status- quo in the existing structure of political power, but a demand for more responsiveness and accountability in political, regulatory, planning and educational institutions

Figure 1 European perspectives on environmental politics and resource management; contemporary trends in environmentalism Source: ORiordan, 1989; cited in Gough et al., 2000, p. 37

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In his own development of his ideas of 1989, ORiordan (1990) presented a slightly different model of society-nature relationships. He says that: Environmentalism is the clash of two worldviews. The simplest distinction lies between those who believe that the earth is capable of being improved or manipulated for the benefit both of human kind as well as for life on earth itself; and those who believe that human beings should at the best be only equal with other forms of life on the planet and that society must learn to adjust their economies and aspirations so as to cohabit with the imperatives for the survivability, or sustainability of the earth" (ORiordan, 1990, p.143). Though the nurturing and manipulative modes are retained the two worldviews are now labeled as earth-centered (eco-centric) and human-centered (anthropocentric). This model differs from the 1989 model in that it moves away from an overtly political/ideological analysis to one which involves environmental management strategies, emergent green issues, political structures and social movements. ORiordans techno-centrism / anthropocentrism can be seen as an extension of the Societys Dominant Paradigm (SDP) and eco-centrism as a challenge to it or as part of the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP).

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Management strategies geared to retaining global stability Earth-centered or nurturing mode deep green *green rights * earth survival first *global coexistence Millennial Concern

Eco-auditing for comprehensive accounting Human- centered or manipulative mode shallow green

Scientific credibility modeling and prediction

Environmental management strategies Environmental Philosophies

dry green *self regulation through enlightened use of unfettered economy

Green labels Green movement Characteristics

*new age economics *self reliant communities *developed power

*accommodation adjustments to management and business

decentralized society

environmentally friendly advances in science and technology Right to health

Political structures

Right to know Consumerism Pacifism Feminism Animal rights

Social movements

Figure 2 The contemporary dynamics of environmentalism, social change and environmental management Source: ORiordan, 1990, p.144, Table 1

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The nature and place of environmental education varies between these two worldviews. In his analysis of the three approaches of environmental education in relation to educational and environmental ideologies, Fien (1993) explained the educational implications of the two worldviews. According to him the focus of environmental education behind the techno-centric worldview is to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of science and technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation. Where as in the ecocentric view the focus is on the development of moral and political awareness as well as the knowledge, commitment and skills to analyze issues and participate in an informed and democratic way in environmental decision making and problem solving.

According to Bonnet (1997) the focus of environmental education in anthropocentric view would be to explore the consequences of actual and potential human activity in these terms i.e. to acquire specific data to discuss the balance to be struck between competing human interests, to establish human priorities, etc. As to him eco-centric view invites us to look well beyond utilitarian perspective and to take seriously the need for a radical change of outlook with regard to how we conceive our relationship to nature and what therefore our stance should be with regard to the environment. Even though ORiordans (1989, 1990) models are influential in the development of conceptualizations of environmental education (Kent, 2000), Gough, Scott and Stables (2000) argued that ORiordans analysis is flawed in so far as (1) it takes insufficient account of cultural pluralism; (2) misplaces socialist positions within its overall conceptual frame, and (3) is generally incomplete by virtue of failure to incorporate a position which balances the anthropocentric and the eco-centric. Their last argument is particularly important. They believe that there is a blurring of the extremes of the eco-centric/anthropocentric polarity rendered 28

necessary partly by an acceptance that all human worldviews are in some sense anthropocentric; and that this raises significant issues for the purposes and practice of environmental education. Therefore, even though much of ORiordans original structure remains; they outlined another possible way of looking at the relationships of different aspects of environmentalism as presented in the figure below.

Eco-centric Gaianism Trust Gaia Accommodation Value life

Anthropocentric Communalism Value fairness Intervention Value progress

above all

Above all

Above all Above all

Figure

Aspects of environmentalismcentricity/anthropocentricity

organized

along

the

single

dimension

of

eco-

Source: Gough et al., 2000, p. 45-Figure 6

2.3

Information

Sources

on Environmental

Issues

and

Environmental Education
To achieve the effective development of environmental education, full advantage must be taken of all public and private facilities available to society for the education of the population: the formal education system, different forms of non-formal education and the mass media (UNESCO, 1978, p. 26). Non-formal environmental education involves all educational processes conducted outside of schools directed to all age groups, especially mature people who have finished their studies (Wojcik, 2004). According the Sheleicher (1989), the development of a future oriented sense of environmental responsibility depends largely on the formal education (school teaching). He argues that the comprehension of ecological interdependencies requires 29

more systematic insight than the media or public opinions can offer and attitudinal changes towards nature and natural resources are psychologically easiest with young people.

Lee and Williams (2001) noted that even though the importance of school curricula is unquestionable, the substantial contribution made to environmental education by a number of other formal and informal agencies, including films and television, environmental youth organizations, and a variety of projects mounted by local, national and international organizations shouldnt be underestimated.

The main aim of non-formal environmental education, according to Wojcik (2004), is to prepare society for the understanding of proper actions for environmental protection and management in conformity with principles of sustainable development. And the main role is played by;

- Mass media: TV, radio, press, the internet; - Organizations and civic associations working for the environment; - Institutions supporting and co- financing environmental education; - Religious institutions and organizations of religious character;r - Family; and - Work places (Wojcik, 2004, p. 291).

The importance of different sources of information varies from society to society. A study conducted in Japan (Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto, 2002) showed that the main information sources for the young people in Japan were television followed by newspapers and school where as family and friends played a lesser but still important role.

The importance of peer groups, the popular media, well informed teachers and well structured and accurate texts are the general conclusions reached by the considerable amount of researches 30

carried out into environmental knowledge in England (Chambers, 1999). A study conducted in Brunei Darussalam (Odihi, 2000) showed that despite differences in their relative importance, print media, broadcast media, family, religious organs, interpersonal communications, society /club/ were sources of information for the status of environment, material environmental actions for the environment and spiritual environmental actions.

An international study conducted by Ballantyne (1999) showed that the experiences which are more likely to have contributed to teachers knowledge /skills/ in environmental education are video /films/, recreation/leisure activities/, prepared teaching materials, conferences,

environmental groups, in-service course, curriculum guides, the mass media, involvement in community groups and activities and participation in field excursion with students.

Wojcik (2004) suggests that the perfection of the existing means of environmental education is a necessity through the coordination of complementary actions conducted as part of formal and non formal education as well as the still unappreciated incidental education ( the effects of the daily activities of people).

2.4 Environmental Education in the Formal Education System

2.4.1 Curriculum Content of Environmental Education
In the formal school sector the approach recommended by the Tbilisi conference is to integrate environmental education in the curriculum through infusion into existing school disciplines and areas of study (UNESCO, 1978). For environmental education in the school curriculum many scholars refer to it as education about, in/ from and for the environment (Lee and Williams, 2001).

31

This three-fold structure was first formalized and published in 1974 in the UK Schools Councils Project Environment (Palmer, 1998). According to Project Environment:

... education about the environment seeks to discover the nature of the area under study; education from the environment uses the environment as a medium for enquiry and discovery and as a source of material; education for the environment emphasizes on developing an informed concern for the environment ( Schools Council, 1974, cited in Palmer, 1998). Inextricably woven with these three threads of learning are the three dimensions of learning process; knowledge, affective and skills which are described by Lee and Williams (2001) as the three strands of environmental literacy.

In determining environmental contents, the environment should be seen in its totality (UNESCO, 1978, p. 27). Hence the contents of environmental education should include four areas; natural, cultural, aesthetic and ethical (Jeronen and Kaikkonen, 2002). They emphasized that since ethical issues form the core of environmental education, they have to be reflected in every area of the contents.

2.4.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies for Presenting Environmental Education

Strategies refer to the process used to present environmental issues to the learners (Ombech, 1991). Researches on teaching learning strategies in environmental education reveal that there are no standardized systems for classifying methods and there are many methods available from which to choose (Caduto, 1983). Whatever methods are selected by a teacher, Ombech suggests, depends on the specific environmental problem, the learners involved, the objectives to be 32

achieved, the teachers competence and the resources available. He adds that any strategy has to be practically feasible, meaningful, stimulating to the audience, and able to promote maximum use of the knowledge and skill acquired.

UNESCO-UNEP IEEP (International Environmental Education Program) (1991) suggested the different methods of teaching which are used in isolation or in combination with others for teaching environmental education and have been proved quite effective. The potential methods recommended are problem solving, experimentation, case studies, out of classroom activities, projects, surveys, simulations and role playing, buzz sessions, brain storming, discussions and debate (p. 59).

All the above recommended strategies are active learning methods which give learners wider opportunities to consolidate learned or study associated knowledge and concepts, operate environmental experiments and to think broadly of various factors that influence a certain issue from the environmental perspective, with appropriate environmental values and attitudes. They are constructivist in nature, providing students with opportunities to engage in the personal experience to build knowledge (Ballantyne and Packer, 1996). The methods also open up the space of learning through variation to bring about effective and meaningful environmental learning. Being aware of the qualitatively different ways in which students see or learn an object of learning, and through careful reflection and compassion with the teachers ways of seeing or teaching that object, the students come to a focal awareness of different aspects (dimensions of variations) of the object and so are able to discern more critical features of that object simultaneously (Kwan and Chan, 2004). As a result the students are able to reach a deeper understanding of such an object of learning.

33

Ballantyne and Packer (1996) argued that as effective learning in environmental education involves not only a change or growth in understanding, but also a willingness to depart from previously held attitudes and beliefs and to make commitments to new ways of interacting with the world, it is necessary to employ a range of teaching strategies that address students knowledge, attitude/values, and behavioral orientations as part of an integrated long-term program. A school based environmental field project in Hong Kong which integrated learning strategies of field work, class room discussion and role play and photograph exhibition for reflection appeared to be good to achieve meaningful and effective environmental education in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes /values (Kwan and Chan, 2004).

To change learner behavior through environmental education, Hungerford and Volk (1990) suggested two methodological strategies, namely the issue investigation and the extended case study model. In the issue investigation and action model, each student chooses an issue of particular interest to him/her and investigates that issue in depth and reports to his/her instructor and to his/her peers. The extended case study model is similar to the other model except that the issue is predetermined, sometimes chosen by the class but most often chosen by the instructor.

2.4.3 Constraints to Effective Implementation of Environmental Education

Based upon previous researches, Ham and Sewing (1987/88) identified four broad categories of barriers that impede the successful implementation of environmental education in the formal school sector. These are:

1. Conceptual barriers that stem from a lack of consensus about the scope and content of environmental education;

34

2. Logistical barriers those stemming from perceived lack of time, funding resources, suitable class sizes, and so forth; 3. Educational barriers that stem from teachers misgivings about their own competence to conduct environmental education progress; and 4. Attitudinal barriers stemming from teachers attitudes about environmental education and science instruction (pp.17-18).

Other studies carried out across the world have also shown that the problems lie within these four categories. In his study of primary teacher perspectives and practices of environmental education in England, Littledyke (1997) found out that lack of scientific understanding of environmental issues, lack of curriculum time, lack of coordinator and teaching support, poor approaches to teaching and poor resourcing in schools were the major factors which deter environmental education.

Poor approaches to teaching as a problem are also recognized in Poland (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004) and Korea (Rii, 2000). In Poland the educational tools teachers use to convey environmental content are dominated by talks and lectures; only a few teachers make use of field lessons and active methods of teaching. Similarly, teaching and learning in environmental education are accomplished in the classroom than in field work in Korea.

An international study by Ballantyne (1999) which included 419 geography educators from 18 countries showed that time constraints, work load considerations and lack of knowledge/ training in environmental education were the major obstacles to the inclusion of environmental education in geography classes. The same study showed that pre-service training has inadequately prepared teachers for teaching environmental education. This is consistent with many studies undertaken

35

in Poland (Tarabula-Fiertak, Gajus-Lankamer and Wojcik, 2004) where many teachers considered their preparation for conducting environmental education to be insufficient.

A study conducted in Albania (Sokoli and Doka, 2004) showed that insufficient qualification of teachers and lack of auxiliary environmental literature such as books, leaflets, magazines or video tapes have limited the implementation of environmental education projects.

The lack of funds to support environmental activities and an apparent deficiency in well organized civic education which would support environmental education are obvious explanations for the lagging behind of environmental education in south Eastern Europe (Papadimitriou, 2004).

In New Zealand the challenges against which teachers should struggle to create a sustainable environmental education program are the absence of a school-wide approach to environmental education, a perception of an over-crowded curriculum, resourcing challenges and difficulties creating and maintaining productive links with environmental education (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008).

2.5 Environmental Education in Ethiopia: Inception and Current Trends

The Tbilisi conference in its declaration, among other things, appealed to member states to include in their educational policies measures designed to introduce environmental concerns, activities and contents into their education systems on the basis of the objectives and characteristics of environmental education identified in the conference (UNESCO, 1978).

36

Even though Ethiopia was not represented in the conference it is almost after a decade that environmental education is introduced to the Ethiopian scene as a pilot project. The pilot project in environmental education started in Ethiopia in September 1985, at a time when northern part of Ethiopia was hard hit by severe drought (Beletu and Yosef, 1990). The project was carried out by the Ministry of Education (MOE) with financial and technical assistance from Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) (MOE, 1988).

In accordance with the agreement reached, first between the government of Ethiopia and Sweden and later between MOE and Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) the pilot project started in Semien and Debub Wello where recurrent drought had occurred (Beletu and Yosef, 1990). A year later the project extended to Semien Shewa where land degradation and excessive soil erosion was severely felt. In 1989 the project extended its sphere to Sidamo and Hararghe regions (Aklilu, 2006). At the outset of the project a preliminary study was conducted by a joint Ethiopia SIDA team to find out whether or not there is a real need for such a program on the part of the local population (MOE, 1988). The study carried out in this and other closely related aspects of the program has shown the following, among others;

i.

The greater majority of the respondents (87%) expressed they do face serious environmental problems;

ii.

96.2% of those who suggested solutions to environmental problems thought in terms of practical measures; and

iii.

87% of the respondents believed that education focused to environmental problems and their solutions is necessary (MOE, 1988, p.44).

37

The results of the study indicated two important things. First, it was probable that the environmental education program would be accepted as a necessary component by a large

majority of the people of Wollo. Secondly, although it was likely that the environmental education program would be accepted by most of the local population, its potentiality in bringing about sustainable land use practices seemed to be not yet recognized by the vast majority. This is initiated by the fact that of those who gave suggestions to the solutions of environmental problems, only 3.8% combined mass education with practical measures (MOE, 1988). This is a good indicator that much was expected from the project in promoting public awareness of the necessity of environmental education in the overall effort to bring about sustainable use of the natural resources.

When the project was envisaged as part of an integrated plan of action, emerging from conservation based development strategy adopted for the highland areas of Ethiopia; it was thought that the practical activities would be better combined with theoretical knowledge (Beletu and Yosef, 1990). Dessie and Debere Birhan Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs) in Debub Wollo and Semin Shewa administrative regions, respectively, were selected by MOE as focal points of the project to disseminate environmental education to other areas. It was believed that when teachers develop a clear concept of environmental education and start to undertake some practical activities related to environmental conservation and protection, the very idea of environmental education will go far beyond the school compound. In 1989, the project extended its sphere of influence further south and eastwards to include Awassa and Harrar TTIs in the then Sidamo and Harraghe regions, respectively (Aklilu, 2006). A few primary and senior secondary schools were also selected as project schools from the same regions of Wollo, North Shewa, Harrarghe and Sidamo. 38

The goals and objectives of the project were in line with the goals and objectives of EE endorsed at the Tbilisi conference. The goals of the environmental education pilot project were:

To create awareness of environmental problems in urban and rural areas especially in the drought stricken and degraded areas;

To help people, living in areas with serious environmental problems, acquire basic knowledge and skills in minimizing environmental problems;

To help local communities raise the general awareness and understanding of the consequences of natural resource depletion and the need to conserve, protect and rationally utilize their natural assets;

To support the existing education system through the dissemination of technical information and through training staff; and

To support the formal and non- formal education system in organizing and starting community based development (Beletu and Yosef, 1990).

Despite some limitations, the project attained several achievements. Aklilu (2006) identified the following:

More emphasis given to environmental issues by project schools;

Awareness creation through panel discussions, during flag ceremonies etc. were initiated;

The project enhanced elementary research activities; It attracted the attention and got the appreciation of the local people which led to cooperation between schools and the communities; and

The introduction of gardening activities into the communities by certain schools.

Aklilu also identified some limitations of the project which includes: 39

Extremely limited geographical coverage which undermines its significance to bring about a nation-wide impact on the deteriorating environment;

Its heavy dependence on external assistance; and The little effort made to integrate it into the secondary school curricula and the tertiary level.

Despite the above limitations, several lessons have been drawn from the project and, above all, it has heralded the beginning of the new practice of environmental education in Ethiopia (Aklilu, 2006). It is also possible to assume that the lessons learnt from the project have contributed to the current status of environmental education in Ethiopia especially in the formal education system. One indicator of this is that the focus given to environmental education in the new education and training policy of Ethiopia. Of the general and specific objectives of the policy those that are directly related to the environment are:

1. Bring up citizens who can take care of and utilize resources wisely, who are trained in various skills by raising the private and social benefits of education. 2. Cultivate the cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative potential of citizens by appropriately relating education to environment and social needs. 3. To develop and enrich students inquisitive ability and raise creativity and interest in aesthetic (MOE, 1994, P.7-10).

The role of education is further strengthened by the environmental policy of Ethiopia enacted on April 2, 1997. The policy statement on environmental education and awareness reads as to promote the teaching of environmental education on multi-disciplinary bases and to integrate it into the ongoing curricula of school and colleges and not treat it as a separate or additional subject, though this should also be done at the tertiary level (EPA, MEDAC, 1997, p.24). 40

To achieve policy objectives related to environmental education, attempts have been done to integrate environmental education /issues/ in all subjects of the primary and secondary levels (Sitotaw, 2002). However, no comprehensive and systematic assessment has been made to see the extent to which environmental issues are integrated into the existing curricula (Aklilu, 2006). Nevertheless, the Federal Ministry of Education General Education Quality Assurance and Examinations Agency (FDRE GEQAEA) (2008) in its Ethiopian Third National Assessment of Grade Eight students found out that students are positive towards protection of historical heritages, beautifications of the school, reforestation, and prevention of drought and planting of flowers.

As a response to one of the major limitations of the EEP and the recommendations of the environmental policy, there is a tendency to integrate environmental education in the tertiary level. The newly established department of geography and environmental education in the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Addis Ababa University is one best example. A number of theses have also been produced examining environmental teaching and learning practices and their impacts or outcomes for learners engaged in environmental education. This reflects a significant growth in post-graduate studies in environmental education with an increasing number of graduate students seeking to undertake academic research to inform and further develop environmental education practice.

2.6 Findings of Previous Studies

2.6.1 Studies on the Characteristics of Environmental Education
Despite the generally agreed goals and principles of environmental education, a reading of the literature on the features of environmental education reveals that the forms, purposes and 41

contents of environmental education vary from country to country. Studies show that environmental education has at least three different forms; as a cross curricular theme, as a separate subject or both.

A study which was funded by the European Commission Environment Directorate General to assess the status of environmental education in the educational systems of the European Union has been done by Stokes, Edge and West (2001). The study has revealed a diversity of ways in which member states of the EU address environmental education in the primary and secondary school systems. Environmental education is a compulsory area of the curriculum in primary and lower secondary education. It is taught using a range of different approaches, the most common being that it is embedded in other subject areas, in particular geography and the sciences (notably biology). In some countries an interdisciplinary thematic approach is used in a number of cases this is combined with other approaches, notably the embedding of the subject material in other subject areas. It is interesting that in addition to broad areas of knowledge in relation to environmental education, the importance of values, ethics attitudes and behaviors in the curriculum emerges, thus giving the teaching of environmental education a perspective not always found in other areas of the curriculum. The study further showed that general concerns about the environment and sustainability are being taken seriously by policy markers striving to inculcate attitudes and values that will result in environmentally responsible behavior by young citizens of Europe.

In 1990 environmental education was designated one of the five cross-curricular themes by the national curriculum council of England (Chambers, 1999). The same is true for New Zealand. In New Zealand, environmental education is integrated into the seven Essential Learning Areas

42

(ELAs) of the curriculum (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008). The ELAs are English, science, mathematics, technology, social studies, the arts and health and physical education.

In Poland it is given as a separate subject (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004). The subject nature combines content and skills from different fields of knowledge; biology, geography, chemistry and physics. Similarly in Korea environment or environmental science became a separate but elective subject in secondary education in 1992 (Rii, 2000). But it has been taught with other subjects especially geography from the early 1990s due to shortage of teachers majoring environmental education and because of the assumption that other disciplines like geography might cover environmental education. Another example of this category is Turkey. According to Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu (2008), environmental education in the primary level are presented in lessons of science and nature knowledge in nature conservation chapter. In the secondary level environmental education lesson is called environment and human and it is optional.

Albania uses both forms at different levels. As described by Sokoli and Doka (2004) the preprimary and primary level environmental education is integrated into the entire system not as a separate subject in which geography, civic education and health education are the most important subjects. Where as in the 9th and 10th grades of high school it is given as a separate subject entitled knowledge of the environment.

Variations also exit in the statements of the purpose of environmental education. According to Chambers (1999) the ultimate objective of environmental education in England is to achieve sustainable development and the development of responsible global citizenship.

43

As described by Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak (2004) accepted as the main educational aims of the environmental education subject nature in Poland are:

(1) An interest in the world, its diversity, wealth and beauty; (2) An understanding of the relations existing in the natural environment; (3) Acquiring abilities of observing and describing natural phenomena; (4) Recognizing patterns of behavior of favoring the safety of people and nature; and (5) The development of a sense of responsibility for the environment.

The curriculum developers of Albania, from pre-school to high school have established concrete objectives of environmental education the most important of which are the following:
1. Consolidating and developing the students education and culture at all levels of primary and secondary education; 2. Elaborating the foundations for theoretical and practical formation and linking them to environmental education; 3. Creating a system for environmental education, integrating scientific and practical knowledge; and 4. Giving the basics of scientific methodology and increasing the level of qualification of teachers, concerning environmental problems (Sokoli and Doka, 2004, p. 68).

The environmental education policy of New South Wales, Australia, aspired to:
enable students to participate actively in improving the school environment, address local environment issues, from sound judgments on global environmental issues, play an active role and participate actively as global citizens in protecting the environment (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2001; cited in Kennelly, Taylor and Jenkins, 2008).

44

The five Aims of environmental education in New Zealand are based on the goals promulgated by the Tbilisi declaration (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008), i.e., develop students:

Awareness and sensitivity to the environment; Knowledge and understanding about the environment; Attitudes and values towards the environment; Skills in identifying and solving environmental problems; and A sense of responsibility through participation and action.

As the purpose of environmental education the range of its contents are obviously varied among countries. In England, the concepts of sustainable development and responsible global citizenship are emphasized (Chambers, 1999).

In the primary level schools of Poland the content of environmental education is generally on the complexity of the phenomena and processes occurring in the environment (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004). Whereas in the training of teachers of all subjects the issues taken into account are:

1. The environment as a natural, social and cultural system interrelations and determinants; 2. Contemporary environmental threats-local and global attempts to overcome them; 3. Promotion of environmental values, eliminating the waste of natural resources by individuals, social groups, the community and the society; 4. Ecological and health problems in Poland; and 5. Education for sustainable development-goals, methods and means (Tarabula-Fiertak,GajusLankamer and Wojcik, 2004, p.286).

45

According to Sokoli and Doka (2004) environmental education in the various curricula of Albanian schools include environmental resources and their usage, pollution of all kinds, biodiversity and sustainable development, negative influences on the environment and precautions for prevention and improvement and environment and society.

In Korea, among the generally used concepts for environmental education, five concepts natural environment, human environment, population, industrialization and resources are dealt in geography which is the most important subject where environmental issues are discussed (Rii,2000).

The four key concepts that underpin environmental education in New Zealand are interdependence, sustainability, biodiversity and personal and social responsibility for action (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008). According to them, the worldviews embedded in these concepts have synergies with international environmental education ideals. These worldviews

include a strong connection to the environment, both physically and spiritually, a belief in the interconnectedness of the physical, living and spiritual worlds and traditional conservation practices.

The work of Wong Bing Kwan and Stimpson (2003) assessed the nature of environmental education in Singapore. The study showed that the approach in the formal school sector broadly follows views expressed at various UNESCO conferences to integrate environmental education into the curriculum through infusion into existing school disciplines and areas of study. This is primarily through geography and through biology in secondary schools and through social studies in primary schools. The overall goal is to cultivate amongst the population awareness and understanding of the environment and to encourage them to take an active role in the 46

protection and maintenance of the environment (Ministry of Environment, 1993, cited in Wong Bing Kwan and Stimpson, 2003, p.125).

2.6.2 Studies on Awareness, Attitudes and Practice of Environmental Education

Studies across the world on teachers and students awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental issues and environmental education have shown varied results. After extensive review of selected studies on environmental education, Lee and Williams (2001) summarized that students levels of knowledge tended to be low: and despite having positive attitudes, they tended to have relatively low personal ecological involvement and they expressed powerlessness in solving environmental problems.

A study conducted by Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto (2002) explored the environmental knowledge, attitude and behavior of young people in Japan. The findings of the study showed that whilst it is true that young Japanese are becoming increasingly familiar with concepts commonly used by the international community; such as global warming or the ozone layer, their knowledge is poor. The study further revealed that young people in Japan are tied into a form of environmentalism that reflects the more widespread adoption of NEP (New Environmental Paradigm). The same study also showed that even though young Japanese had the desire and capability to protect the environment, for a number of complex reasons they appeared unable to move from understanding to action.

A similar study done by Ehrampoush and Baghiani Moghadam (2005) showed that the knowledge, attitude and practice of medical sciences students of Yazd University of Iran was not

47

appropriate and recommended that it is necessary to contribute in the development of long- term environmental awareness programs.

A study has also been conducted by Larijani and Yeshodhara (2008) to assess the level of environmental attitude among Indian and Iranian higher primary school teachers. The six areas dealt with the Likert scale of the study were attitudes towards 1) Health and Hygiene; 2) Wildlife; 3) Forests; 4) Polluters; 5) Population explosion; and 6) Environmental concern. The study revealed that Iranian teachers have more positive environmental attitude than their Indian counterparts except in one subscale, wildlife. Irrespective of their countries, female and male teachers didnt differ significantly in total attitude scores.

Ndaruga and Irwin (2003) studied how primary school teachers in Kenya perceived wetlands. The idea that triggered the authors to study the issue was that there is a possibility that teacher perceptions about the local wetlands may have an influence on frequency of their mention in the classrooms and in the community, and also teacher involvement in activities to safeguard the value of wetlands that he/she perceives positively. The study revealed that teachers have close and interactive relationships with wetlands and are aware of their wetland and have some well developed perceptions of their value and threats. Furthermore, the study showed that teachers recognized the economic, regulatory or ecological, socio-cultural and political functions of wetlands.

An earlier case study conducted in a rural school in Ontario, Canada (Samuel, 1993) showed that only few teachers were aware of what environmental education was or how it could be implemented in their subjects. Although teachers exhibited a range of attitude towards the

48

environmental education project, only 10% were negatively inclined, 20% were neutral, and 70% were positively inclined.

The study conducted by Taylor, Nathan and Coll (2003) indicated that there is clearly a body of teachers in regional NSW with sufficient knowledge and commitment to education for sustainability and had an intuitive understanding of the concept of education for sustainability. The study further showed that there was general consensus that education for sustainability should be delivered across the curriculum. The same study revealed that there were no indications that the teachers were deficient in their understanding of key environmental and social issues and how those might be interrelated. Furthermore, the study indicated that teachers appeared to embrace the notion that education shouldnt simply focus on environmental knowledge and attitudes, but should influence students decision making in relation to the environment.

The research done by Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu (2008) in Turkey was made in order to assess the views of the classroom teacher candidates related to the environmental science course and environmental sensibility. Regarding the results of the research, it is stressed that the environmental sensibilities of the classroom teacher program students show discrepancies with regard to their follow up status for the program and articles about environment on media. However, no statistically significant alteration has been determined among the students environmental sensibilities taking into account their genders, ages, membership status in an institution related to environment. The environmental science course within the curriculum of classroom teacher program positively affects the students sensibilities and ideas about environmental education related to air, water, soil, pollution, ecological balance and birth control. Additionally, the students who take the course are more sensitive to the environment and 49

have developed a positive idea about the sufficiency of the environmental education given at the faculty.

One of the focuses of a recent study in New Zealand by Eames, Cowie and Bolstand (2008) was to investigate teachers perceived purposes of environmental education. The study showed that 68% of the respondents viewed environmental education as education about the environment, 34% of them as development of attitudes and values towards the environment and fewer respondents (18%) included taking action for the environment in their description. The result is a good indicator that most teachers are not aware of the main dimension of environmental education-education for the environment which involves action that will contribute to a more sustainable future.

Littledyke (1997) studied the relationships between experience, attitudes and practice of primary teachers in science and environmental education in England. The study revealed that many teachers regarded promoting environmental education as important and included it in their teaching. More over the study identified two interrelated groups of attitudes; 1) interest in environmental issues and action; and 2) interest in environmental education. According to the study teachers in the first group were actively involved in environmental teaching and those in the second group showed interest, concern for and understanding of environmental issues, and were involved in environmental action and teaching. An international study to investigate geography educators perceptions of the aims of environmental education and its place in the teaching of geography was conducted by Ballantyne (1999). The result of the study indicate that geography educators clearly supported the inclusion of environmental education in geography classes, in most cases believing it should be the focus 50

of at least half of geography lessons. They had also a strong commitment to teaching of environmental knowledge, attitudes / values and responsible environmental behavior and mostly prefer to promote an environmental ethic rather than an attempt to display a neutral stance. However, the study showed that there was some reticence both to encourage active involvement in local environmental issues and to use this as a teaching method.

2.6.3 Studies in Ethiopia on Environmental Education

Researches with respect to environmental education issues in Ethiopia are generally limited. As Aklilu (2001, p.110) puts it though education is believed to be among the most decisive instruments for environmental protection and resource management, the extent to which this instrument has been used and results of such a use have not been systematically investigated. Furthermore, the few researches conducted so far focused solely on assessment of the integration of environmental education curricula and students views. Most of the conclusions made indicate that environmental education is not on the right track in the Ethiopian context and the level of awareness of the subjects studied is not promising though three decades passed since the introduction of environmental education to Ethiopia.

Melaku (1994) attempted to determine whether the social studies courses in the TTIs of Ethiopia helped the trainees to develop environmental education competencies (knowledge, attitude and skill). His study suggested that objectives and contents related to environmental education in the social studies courses were scattered and diffused; and hence inefficient in developing knowledge. Some studies blame the method of environmental education more than the curricula. For example, Aklilus (2001) investigation revealed that there were opportunities for addressing environmental issues on the geography syllabi but the opportunities have been largely misused or totally lost. One indicator of this is that students awareness of some key environmental issues is 51

found to be too low to be tolerated. A similar study done by Damtew (2007) revealed that environmental education was not integrated into grade nine and ten biology and geography curriculum guides revised in 2004 and students textbooks written in 2005 /2006 in line with the objectives, contents, teaching methods and evaluation techniques that prepare students to contribute to sustainable development in Ethiopia. The work of Asmare (2007) showed that the objectives related to environmental issues in the new education and training policy of Ethiopia are well integrated and adequate environmental issues were integrated in geography. However, the same study further revealed that there were very few environmental objectives set for the level in chemistry though there are serious issues related to the effects of use of chemicals.

There were also some attempts to investigate environmental knowledge /awareness/ and attitudes. The study done by Melaku (1994) showed that nearly half of the trainees in the TTIs appeared to be incompetent as far as their environmental knowledge is concerned. With respect to knowledge, other studies also showed similar results. Aklilus (2001) study observed that students awareness of key environmental issues like the impact of population growth on resource use and management and about the resource base of the country and their knowledge about the size of cultivable land and distribution of natural vegetation is surprisingly low. Similarly, the study done by Asmare (2007) showed that only 24% of the participants were found to have the expected knowledge. The work of Atlabachew (2007) about learners and academic staffs environmental knowledge, attitude, intention and behavior of Adama University revealed a similar result with regard to environmental knowledge. Even though the respondents confirmed that general education at school is the major source of their environmental knowledge, learners and academic staffs environmental knowledge is not promising.

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With respect to environmental attitudes, studies show varied results. Melakus (1994) study pointed out that in spite of their low level of environmental knowledge, the vast majority of pre service teachers showed a very highly desirable inclination towards environmental problems, environmental education and environment in general. A similar study done by Aklilu (1998) showed similar results. The study showed that on the whole, educators manifested favorable views regarding the use and protection of natural resources. The finding of Aklilu (2001) is also supportive of Melakus. The study found out that students had a favorable attitude (view) as to the values of natural resources and potential contribution of the community to natural resource management. On the contrary, the studies done by Asmare (2007) and Atlabachew (2007) revealed that the participants of their studies had unfavorable environmental attitudes.

Attempts have also been made to investigate environmental practices. Amazingly, the findings are all frustrating. Asmare (2007) found out that only 46% of the students in the study showed interest in environmental action. Similarly, Atlabachew (2007) noted instructors lack commitment to take part in environmental protection activities and both students and instructors experienced an infrequent habit of pro-environment actions.

Some studies have also attempted to show variations in knowledge /awareness/, attitude and behavior/ action/ based on variables like residence, sex, academic stream, religion etc. Aklilus (2001) study showed that male students tended to be more knowledgeable in environmental issues than female students. Asmare (2007) concluded that though the overall performance in knowledge, attitude and practice was low, males and rural students were more knowledgeable. He further pointed out that rural students have poor attitudes to environmental education compared to urban students. Regarding academic stream, Atlabachew (2007) reported that business students showed better performance than technical students in environmental 53

knowledge, intention and practice. Furthermore, as the findings of other studies, Atlabachews study observed that rural students are more knowledgeable than urban students. His investigation shows that regarding environmental knowledge, intention and practice, no difference is shown as a result of religious affiliation.

Still some studies attempted to investigate the relationships between the different variables of environmental education goals-knowledge, attitude, skill and action. The work of Melaku (1994) obtained positive significant relationships between environmental knowledge and environmental attitude even though the relationships were not highly positive in most cases. The same study observed that no significant relationship existed between environmental knowledge and environmental skills and between environmental attitudes of the different cases and environmental skills. Nevertheless, Atlabachew (2007) obtained that the variables (knowledge, attitude, intention and practice) displayed significant positive relationships having different strength. Based on the relationships, Atlabachew concluded that respondents who have high level of environmental knowledge are likely to have high environmental attitude, intention and practice or the vice versa.

A slightly different study was conducted by Desalegn (1998). His study focused on the extent to which students disseminate environmental education to their surrounding community. His expectation was that as students are relatively more accessible to environmental education through the subjects they learn and the clubs in which they participate (particularly in environmental education clubs), they can play significant roles in raising the awareness of the people in their localities. The study revealed that participation in environmental education club appears to have a positive impact on dissemination of environmental information even though it has been experienced on a limited scale. 54

Some authors have also tried to identify the possible constraints in environmental education practice. According to Melaku (1994) lack of elaborated statement of objectives and contents, lack of staff, time, resources, methods and techniques of teaching, faculty cooperation, and insistence on completion of the syllabus were the problems frequently cited by the instructors. Poor content of the textbooks (of Geography) and the inability of teachers to handle the subject matter sufficiently and properly have also been reported (Aklilu, 2001).

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CHAPTER THREE DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODS 3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area
The Oromo Nationality Administration, which is one of the three Nationality Administrations of the Amhara Region, is located between 10o, 0', 00'' - 11o, 25', 45''N latitude and 39o, 44', 0'' E40o, 26', 00'' E longitude. According to the Nationality Administrations Agricultural & Rural Development Department, the altitude of the area ranges from 600 meters- 3200 meters above sea level. Accordingly, three agro- ecological zones are distinct, namely Dega (highland) (1%), Woina Dega (Semi highland) (21%) and Kola (lowland) (78%). The lowland has plain topography with silt loam soil deposits brought as a result of erosion from the highlands. On the other hand, the highlands are with sloppy rugged terrain features and highly degraded as a result of severe deforestation and inappropriate land use which has reduced soil fertility and land productivity.

Climatically, the Nationality Administration is characterized by relatively high temperature having two seasons: wet and dry. Rainfall pattern in the area is bi-modal; the small rains during belg season in the months of March to April and the Kiremt rains from July to mid-September. The average rainfall does not exceed 900mm. The mean and maximum temperatures are 25oc and 35oc, respectively (World Vision Ethiopia, 2002).

According to the Amhara National Regional State Bureau of Finance and Economic Development, the major land use pattern in the Nationality Administration include cropping areas (both rain fed and irrigable), grazing lands, woody vegetation (bush and shrub), swampy

56

areas and others such as settlements (Amhara National Regional State Bureau of Finance and Economic Development, 2009).

According to the recent census, the Nationality Administration has a population of 459, 847 (228, 450 males and 231 397 females) (FDRE, Population Census Commission, 2008). Majority of the people belong to Oromo ethnic group and the rest are Amhara, Argoba and Afar. The greatest majority of the population professes Islamic religion.

The majority of the population in the rural areas depends on agriculture practicing mixed farming, livestock husbandry and crop production simultaneously. Small business and manufacturing are the major economic activities in the urban areas.

Environmental problems like massive soil erosion in the highlands and water logging in the lowlands due to the flood that comes from the highlands are common despite the efforts being made to improve the situation. The problem of erosion is aggravated by excessive deforestation. The hot temperature and humidity of the areas makes it ideal for the multiplication of disease causing and transmitting agents which affects both humans and animals.

3.2 Methodology
Research methodology in environmental education is based on three paradigms (Palmer, 1998). These are positivist, interpretivist and critical paradigms. The simplest distinction among the three is that the positivist tradition is quantitative, instrumental and objectivist; the interpretivist is qualitative, illuminative and subjectivist; and the critical approach is qualitative, dialectical and emanicipatory (Lee and Williams, 2001).

57

Another distinction among the three approaches is that positivism sees reality as external to the individual, interpretivism sees it as internally constructed where as advocates of the critical paradigm argue that our subjective views are not only internally constructed but also influenced by persuasive social forces (Palmer, 1998).

Recently, a fourth paradigm: that of mixed methods is suggested (Lindstone and Stoltman, 2008). According to Lindstone and Stoltman, the strength of mixed methods research is that data from a well designed study can be used to validate the response to a research question in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. In this study this mixed methods research is employed.

3.3 Methods of Data Collection

3.3.1 Sampling
For an assessment of the extent to which environmental education is integrated into the existing curricula of the primary level, the textbooks of two subjects were selected. The two subjects that were dealt are Civics and Ethical Education and English. These subjects were selected purposefully for it was assumed that despite their high coverage of environmental issues, they are not adequately investigated. To investigate the teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education, a total of 120 participants were selected through multistage sampling technique. When the study was conducted, there were 794 teachers in the 144 upper primary level schools in the seven woredas/ town administrations of the Nationality Administration who were teaching in the upper primary level (5-8). Of the 794 teachers, 290 certificate graduates were teaching above their levels. These teachers were purposefully excluded in the study.

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Table 1 Number of Schools and Teachers by Woreda/ Town Administration (2008/2009 A.Y)

No

Woreda/Town administration

No of schools M Certificate F 14 21 17 1 2 4 1 60

No of teachers Diploma T 63 65 72 9 24 44 13 290 M 58 73 78 49 20 74 50 402 F 16 27 18 23 4 8 6 102 T 74 100 96 72 24 82 56 504

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Jile Timuga Artuma Fursi Dewa Chefa Kemissie Town Dewie Harewa Bati Bati Town Total

23 28 27 6 19 32 9 144

49 44 55 8 22 40 12 230

Source: - Oromo Nationality Administration Department of Education

The target groups in this study were the 504 diploma holder teachers who were teaching in their levels. After randomly selecting three woredas/town administrations, 30 schools were selected according to the number of schools in the woredas/town administrations/. Based on staff size 120 teachers were selected from the 30 schools.

The three woredas were Artuma Fursi, Dewa Chefa and Kemissie town administration. The table below shows the number of diploma holder teachers and the number of samples in each of the 30 schools selected.

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Table 2 Number of Samples in each School by Woreda/ Town Administration

Dewa Chefa
Name of the school No of diploma holders* No of sam ples

Artuma Fursii
Name of the school No of No of diploma samples holders*

Kemissie town
Name of the school No of No of diploma samples holders*

Mukechicha Woledi Sertie Erensa Meti Selama Ruftsie Abilosh Gerbibabile Tsigie Gobeyo Gerbibetho Jirota Total

7 21 9 11 9 11 11 5 11 6 10 5 5 121

2 8 3 4 3 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 2 44

Odabela Ashewabishe Edomedinie Wadadar Fugnasule Shasho Chireti Bekeja Kichicho Chefa Robit Golbo Arba Harra Jarra

10 7 12 6 7 6 19 7 6 30 9 6 6 131

4 2 4 2 2 2 7 2 2 11 3 2 2 45

Kemissi e 01 Kemissi e 02 Kello Bilacha

50 26 11 4

17 9 4 1

91

31

*Data about the number of diploma holder teachers were gathered from the education offices of the respective woredas.

The table below shows summary of the demographic characteristics of the participants. As can be seen in the table, the majorities of them are males (80.83%) and lie in the age group of 35 years or below (62.40 %).

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Table 3 Summary of the Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Independent Category variable Sex Male Female <26 26-35 36-45 >45 Rural Urban <6 6-10 11-20 21-30 >30 Language Natural science Mathematics Social science HPE Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total

No 97 23 37 38 27 18 67 53 30 32 30 17 11 27 33 18 29 13 33 28 34 25 120

% 80.83 19.17 30.83 31.67 22.50 15.00 55.83 44.16 25.00 26.67 25.00 14.17 9.17 22.50 27.50 15.00 24.17 10.83 27.50 23.33 28.33 20.83 100

Age School location Years of teaching experience

Subject taught

Level taught

3.3.2 Tools
For textbook analysis qualitative data were gathered from the two subjects that were investigated (Civics and Ethical Education and English). Each environmentally focused unit was rated according to the extent to which it is related with the three strands of environmental literacy. These strands as operationalized by Lee and Williams (2001) include:

Knowledge- involves understanding of environmental concepts; 61

Skills- involves evaluating environmental problems and issues on the basis of available evidence (facts) and personal values and skills used in planning, implementing and evaluating solutions;

Affective- concerned with attitudes and values that indicate a valuation of the relationships between nature and society, a sense of commitment to and responsibility for and a willingness to participate in the resolution of environmental problems and issues (Lee and Williams, 2001, p. 225).

There were several elements such as objectives, contents, diagrams, exercises, etc. where the potential for environmental literacy could be assessed. However, the elements common to all textbooks are contents and exercises. Contents in this study refer to the environmental themes included in the text in order to achieve unit objectives. Exercises are all activities to be done by the students to assess whether the unit objectives are achieved or not. If the contents or exercises of a unit are related to only one of the three strands, it received a rating of 1; if it was related to two strands, a rating of 2 were allocated; and the highest rating of 3 was allocated to a content or exercise of a unit which was related to all the three strands.

The rating was done by the researcher and one curriculum expert in the Education Department of the Nationality Administration. Initially, the author and the assistant rater discussed the concepts of each strands of environmental literacy and agreed in advance on how to allocate 1, 2 or 3 to the contents and exercises of a unit and did the allocation separately. The reliability of the rating was checked using a simple correlation technique (Amare, 1998) and found to be 0.88 for the contents, 0.82 for the exercises and 0.85 for the contents and exercises combined. Differences on the ratings were resolved through discussion of the ratings and agreement was finally reached. 62

Data related to the teachers awareness, attitudes, practices and other issues were gathered by a questionnaire. To improve the quality of the questionnaire in all aspects, it was first administered to 20 teachers of Kemissie High School and was reviewed by subject specialists before it was administered to the actual participants. To investigate the teachers environmental and environmental education awareness, 20 self-made multiple-choice items containing 10 environmental awareness questions and 10 environmental education awareness questions were used. Since the teachers are obviously from different academic backgrounds, the questions related to environmental awareness focused more on concepts than facts. The questions related to environmental education focused on environmental education concepts, goals, and principles. The split-half reliability of this part of the questionnaire was 0.76. Both percentage scores and raw scores were used for analysis of the data.

Environmental attitudes, beliefs, values and worldview are in most cases measured by the NEP (New Environmental Paradigm) scale. The notion of this environmental paradigm emerging as a replacement to the contemporary dominant social paradigm was first proposed by Priages and Ehrlich (1974) (Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto, 2002). Sensing that environmentalists were calling for more far-reaching changes than the development of environmental protection policies and stimulated by Pirages and Ehrlichs explication of the anti environmental thrust of Societys Dominant Paradigm (SDP), Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) developed the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale . Even though Dunlap and Van Lieres New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale has become a widely used measure of pro-environmental orientation, Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig and Jones 63

(2000) revised it to improve the original one in several respects and developed a new scale with a very respectable internal consistency of coefficient alpha 0.83. To investigate the teachers environmental attitudes this new scale, termed New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale, with 15 items was used in this study. The scale ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree. For each statement points were assigned in such a way that 5 is to strongly agree, 4 mildly agree, 3 to unsure, 2 to mildly disagree and 1 to strongly disagree. According to the NEP scale agreement with the eight odd-numbered items and disagreement with the seven even numbered items indicate pro-environmental responses. Thus, points are reversed for even numbered items.

Likert type items with 5 responses (strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree) were prepared by the investigator to assess participants attitudes towards environmental education. Initially, an 18 item scale was constructed and administered to the 20 Kemissie high school teachers. The means and standard deviations of these items were calculated and 6 items with extreme means and / or low variability were eliminated indicating that every one answered almost the same (Musser and Malkus, 1994). The final version of the scale contained 12 items and its Cronbachs alpha was 0.65.

The items comprised both favorable and unfavorable attitudes. Each item alternative was assigned a weight ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree) for favorable items (Items 42, 45, 47, 50, 51 & 53). In case of unfavorable items (Items 43, 44, 46, 48, 49 & 52) the weight was reversed, i.e. from 1(strongly agree) to 5(strongly disagree). As the items were twelve the highest score a participant could get was 60 and the lowest 12. The higher the score would indicate the more favorable attitude towards environmental education and the vice versa. 64

Teachers environmental education practice was assessed by 21 items questionnaire consisting of three areas. The three areas that were dealt with were practices in (1) teaching environmental education; (2) extracurricular activities in school and (3) out of school activities. The purpose of these items was to measure teachers practice of environmental education and how often they practiced it. The items had five alternatives with a weight of 5 (usually), 4 (often), 3 (sometimes), 2 (seldom) and 1 (never). The score of an individual would be the sum total of item scores on all the three areas. The highest score would be 105 and the lowest 21. A higher score would be an indicator of a good practice of environmental education and vice versa. The test retest reliability of this part of the questionnaire is 0.69.

To investigate the importance of different sources of environmental and environmental education for teachers, a survey questionnaire was prepared that would require respondents to rate different aspects. A similar questionnaire was also prepared to identify the opportunities and constraints to teaching environmental education.

All the questions were presented in English, which is the language of instruction for several subjects in the upper primary level in the Amhara Region. The questionnaire was distributed, administered and collected by the researcher with the help of woreda/ town administration/ supervisors and school directors. To avoid any vocabulary problems in the test and conceptual misunderstandings in other items a half day discussion was made on the questionnaire with woreda supervisors so that respondents can ask for clarification. Teachers in the same school completed the questionnaire at the same time so that independent responses are ensured.

The study had a total of 94 items and 6 independent variables. The independent variables were sex, age, years of teaching experience, level taught, subject taught and school location. 65

3.4 Methods of Data Analysis

Both qualitative and quantitative data analyses were employed for the study. Percentages, means, modes, standard deviations were calculated. One-way ANOVA and independent sample t-tests were used to find out the significance of the difference among the independent variables in awareness, attitudes and practice scores. Pearsons product moment correlation was employed to examine the magnitude and strength of relationships among the dependent variables. These were analyzed using SPSS (Version 17.0).

Rankings were used to analyze the importance of different sources of information, the opportunities and constraints and teachers feelings about their competence to teach environmental education. The overall ranks and the ranks by the independent variables were manually calculated by multiplying the frequency for responses to each parameter by the coding numbers and the products per parameter were used to determine the ranks.

66

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Integration of Environmental Issues into the Textbooks of Upper Primary Level
In order to determine the extent to which the existing curricula offered teachers opportunities to deliver environmental education, the integration of environmental issues into the Upper Primary level is assessed taking two subjects as samples. The subjects selected for this purpose were civics and ethical education and English. All the textbooks of these subjects at all levels (grade 5-8) were used for the investigation. Analysis was done on the basis of three areas: proportion of environmental issues, environmental issues covered and the balance among the three strands of environmental literacy.

4.1.1 Proportion of Environmental Issues

The analysis of the textbooks showed that one unit (9%) in each of the four grade levels of the civics and ethical education contained environmental themes. Environmental issues occupy 9% of the pages of grade 5 and 6, and 10% of grade 7 and 8 civics and ethical education textbooks.

Except for grade 7 English textbook which has only one environment focused unit (6%) each of the other English textbooks of the upper primary level (grades 5,6 and 8) has 4 environment focused units which is 20% for grade 5, 17% for grade 6 and 27% for grade 8. 18% of the pages of the textbooks of grades 5 and 6 and 30% of the pages of grade 8 contain environmental issues, where as these issues occupy only 5% of the textbooks of grade 7 English.

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Table 4 Proportion of Environmental Issues

N0 of pages with Environmental issues 7 9 10 11 22 28 9 54

Grade 5 civics & Ethical Edu. Grade 6 civics & Ethical Edu. Grade 7 civics& Ethical Edu. Grade 8 civics & Ethical Edu. Grade 5 English Grade 6 English Grade 7 English Grade 8 English

11 11 11 11 20 23 16 15

1 1 1 1 4 4 1 4

9 9 9 9 20 17 6 27

78 95 104 109 120 160 164 183

9 9 10 10 18 18 5 30

4.1.2 Environmental Issues Covered

The analysis of the integration of environmental issues in the textbooks of Civics and Ethical Education shows that emphasis is given to the development of a sense of responsibility concerning environmental issues. In all the grade levels, environmental issues are covered under the units entitled Sense of Responsibility. For environmental issues to be integrated into a given subject matter, it should be conceptually related to the subject matter so that it makes sense pedagogically (Samuel, 1993). Sense of responsibility for the environment is strongly linked to the overall goals of citizenship education. Thus, though the number of pages devoted to these issues in the textbooks seems lower, as far as conceptual relation is concerned, environmental issues contained adequate spaces. The issues covered include the concepts of natural, cultural and historical resources and individual and social responsibilities to protect these resources. As the goal of environmental education is to empower present and future citizens to act responsibly 68

% of pages with Environmental issues

Textbooks

Total No of pages of the textbook

No of Environment

% of Environment Focused units

Total No of units

Focused units

on issues of importance and as citizenship education is an opportunity to achieve this (Lindstone and Stoltman, 2001), the inclusion of these issues is appropriate enough. As can be seen in Table 4, the number of pages devoted to environmental issues increases from 7 in grade 5 textbook to 11 in grade 8 textbook. This is a good indicator that the same issue is discussed in a greater detail with increasing level which in turn shows a good vertical relation among environmental contents. The civics and ethical education textbooks include not only clarification of contents but also the concepts that pupils should acquire (the general objectives) and the activities to be developed in or outside of the classroom.

The analysis also showed that most of the environmental issues of the country are included in the textbooks of English. However, less emphasis is given to global problems like climate change, ozone depletion etc. which undermines the global nature of environmental education. Nevertheless, as compared to civics and ethical education, the English textbooks cover wider range of environmental issues. Table 5 shows the contents covered in the environment focused units.

In addition to the clarification of contents, the textbooks of English included the general objectives (with the exception of grade 5 textbook), activities to be done by the pupils and illustrations. Most of the activities are prepared in such a way that students can relate their learning with their immediate environments. This indicates the relevance of environmental education in these subjects as it must encourage students to explore links between their personal lives and wider environmental and development concerns (Taylor, Nathan and Coll, 2003).

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Table 5 Environmental Contents in the English Textbooks Grade Unit 5 3 Title Wild animals and their use Caring for plants Environmental issues covered Facts and concepts about wild animals The use of wild animals Concepts and facts about trees The use of trees The need to care for trees The need for gardening, its importance and how gardening takes place The use of streams The need to keep streams clean how to make streams clean Facts and concepts about water The importance of water and water harvesting Facts about the Semien mountains Mammals that live in the Semien mountains of Ethiopia History of drought in Ethiopia how drought occurs The impacts of drought Factors of crop failure Ethiopian seasons and their associated farming activities How fruits, vegetables and cereals from plants are used for the making of bread in the different cultures The history of earth day how pollution causes health problems How Antsokia area of Ethiopia changed from dust bowl to a fertile area Tourist attractions in Ethiopia Facts and concepts about mountain Nyala, Chilada Baboon, Zebra and the Birds in Ethiopia Description of the Ethiopian National Museum The importance of museums Ethiopian Economy and areas of livestock and Crop production Why is education important for a farmer? The Ethiopian policy to make the environment better Differences between the urban and rural environments

10

5 6

20 4

Keeping the environment clean Water harvesting The highest mountain in Ethiopia Drought in Ethiopia Farming and the weather Food and plants A clean environment

6 6 7

18 20 13

8 8

5 6

Animals useful for tourism Our Museums An educated farmer

Everyday scenes in the environment

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4.1.3 The Balance among the Three Strands of Environmental Literacy: Knowledge, Affective and Skills.
The balance among the three strands of environmental literacy was analyzed based on the ratings given to each of the environment focused units. The contents of only 4 out of 17 units (23.5%) and the exercises of only 3 out of 17 units (17.6%) have contained all the three strands of environmental literacy. The contents of 6 units (approximately 35%) and the exercise of 4 units (23.5%) comprised only the two strands of environmental literacy. The remaining, 7 units (approximately 41%) have contents focused on only 1 strand and the exercises of 10 units (nearly 60%) are prepared to assess students performance in only 1 of the three strands of environmental literacy.

A more comprehensive view of environmental literacy focuses on stages of personal intellectual and operational development, taking into account progression of the learner from awareness through concern and understanding to action (Lee and Williams, 2002, p.225). This can be achieved when the three strands of environmental literacy are sufficiently balanced.

The rating process of the environment focused units of the subjects under consideration identified some similarities and differences between civics and ethical education and English. For example, in the environmental focused units of both textbooks the three strands of environmental literacy are not adequately balanced. They focused on only one strand. In civics and ethical education the affective strand is over emphasized i.e., both the contents and exercises are more concerned with attitudes and values that indicate the relationship between nature and society, a sense of commitment to and responsibility for, and a willingness to participate in the resolution of environmental problems and issues. The English textbooks, on the other hand, overemphasized on the knowledge of facts and concepts. The skills strand which involves 71

evaluating problems and personal values and skills used in planning, implementing and evaluating solutions is limited in the environmental focused units of the textbooks of both subjects.

Table 6 The Environment Focused Units and their Associated Ratings

Grade Subject 5 Civics and Ethical Education 6 Civics and Ethical Education 7 Civics and Ethical Education 8 Civics and Ethical Education 5 English 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 8 8 8 8 English English English English English English English English English English English English

Unit 6 6 6 6 3 5 10 20 4 9 18 20 13 3 5 6 9

Title Sense of responsibility Sense of responsibility Sense of responsibility Sense of responsibility Wild animals and their use Caring for plants Keeping the environment clean Water harvest The highest mountain in Ethiopia Drought in Ethiopia Farming and the weather Food and plants A clean environment Animals useful for Tourism Our Museums An educated farmer Everyday scenes in the environment

Contents Exercises 1 1 3 2 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

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4.2 Teachers Awareness about Environmental Issues and Environmental Education

Twenty items related to important environmental issues and environmental education were used to test the level of awareness of teachers. The results revealed that teachers are relatively more familiar with environmental and related issues like the impacts of rapid population growth, water security and the need to protect water resources, the impacts of climate change, the relationship between economic growth and environment and the actions to be taken to tackle environmental problems of Ethiopia. They are less familiar with issues like the relationship between human wellbeing and environmental quality, the primary causes of global warming and climate change, the indirect drivers of environmental damage and the concept of sustainable development (See Table 7). Teachers familiarity with the impacts of climate change may be attributed to the fact that it was a hot issue in the media during the study period when the UN Climate Change Summit was to be held in Copenhagen. However, there are indications that their knowledge of climate change is not deeper as more than half of the respondents failed to give correct responses to questions No 11 & 14 which required the understanding that combustion of the environmentally unfriendly fossil fuels and deforestation are the primary causes of global warming and climate change.

Though it is encouraging that more than 50% of the respondents are aware of the impacts of rapid population growth, water security and the wise use of water resources and corrective environmental actions to reduce environmental deterioration in Ethiopia, it is apparent that teachers awareness of complex interrelationships of environmental factors is limited. The majority of the respondents (nearly 60%) gave incorrect responses to questions related to the 73

factors that are responsible for the deterioration of the environment indirectly (Question No 12) and the link between human wellbeing and the well being of the environment (Question No 7). Even though teachers are aware of positive and negative impacts of economic growth on environment, it is frustrating that nearly 55% of the respondents held misconceptions about the notion of sustainable development.

The study observed that teachers are relatively more aware of the rationale for the need of environmental education, its goals and objectives and the integration of relevant environmental contents into the curriculum subjects. On the other hand, they are less familiar with the characteristics of environmental education, the best teaching strategies and the most appropriate instructional resources in environmental education (See Table 7).

Even though it is appreciated that teachers know the purposes of environmental education, the implementation is under question as they have limited knowledge of its features and the necessary skills to address environmental education. It is widely believed that quality of instruction in environmental education is maintained when it takes place in the environment i.e. the environment is the best instructional medium and resource in environmental education. It is amazing that only 40% acknowledged this.

The overall mean of correct responses to the 20 questions (49.58%) is much lower than their counterparts of Punjab whose mean score is 64.28% (Nagra, nd.). Even it is lower than the scores of students of some countries of Asia Pacific Region on similar environmental concepts (cf. Barett, et. al., 2002).

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Table 7 Percentage of Teachers Giving Correct Responses

Code*

Issues raised in the questions

Percentage of teachers giving correct responses

7 8 9

Human well being & environmental quality The impacts of rapid population growth Water security and the need to protect water resources

41.67 55.00 53.30

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

The impacts of climate change Environmental friendly / unfriendly energy resources Indirect drivers of environmental damage Economic growth and environment Deforestation and global warming Sustainable development Actions to tackle environmental problems The rationale for environmental education The goals of environmental education Categories of environmental education objectives Environmental education & global partnership Universality of environmental education Characteristics of environmental education Integration of environmental issues into curriculum subjects

52.50 46.70 47.50 52.50 46.67 45.80 55.00 53.30 53.30 53.30 41.67 52.50 46.70 51.70

24 25 26

Relevance of environmental education contents Teaching strategies for environmental education Instructional resources in environmental education Over all mean of correct responses

55.00 47.50 40.00 49.58

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

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Table 8 Mean Scores and SD of Awareness Scores (raw scores)

Independent Category variable Sex Age Male Female <26 26-35 36-45 >45 Rural Urban <6 6-10 11-20 21-30 >30 Language Natural science Maths Social science HPE Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total

Mean

SD

SE

School location Years of teaching experience

Subject taught

97 23 37 38 27 18 67 53 30 32 30 17 11 27 33 18 29 13 33 28 34 25 120

10.26 8.48 11.49 10.79 8.30 7.28 11.15 8.39 11.47 11.16 9.53 7.71 6.55 9.93 11.24 7.67 11.10 7.00 9.82 10.29 9.50 10.20 9.92

2.32 1.50 1.59 1.85 1.32 1.63 1.73 1.94 1.17 1.42 2.01 0.98 2.25 1.96 1.44 1.81 1.70 1.35 2.21 1.67 2.58 2.58 2.29

0.24 0.31 0.26 0.30 0.25 0.38 021 0.27 0.21 0.25 0.37 0.24 0.68 0.38 0.25

95% C.I for mean Lower Upper bound bound 9.78 10.74 7.84 9.12 10.96 12.02 10.18 11.40 7.79 8.55 6.48 8.03 10.73 11.57 7.84 8.93 11.04 11.90 10.65 11.67 8.78 10.28 7.20 8.22 5.03 8.07 9.15 10.71 10.73 11.75 8.58 11.76 7.81 10.62 10.95 10.40 11.27 10.32

Min.

Max.

5 5 8 5 5 5 5 5 10 8 5 6 5 8 8 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 5

15 13 15 14 13 10 15 13 14 15 15 10 13 15 15 13 15 10 14 14 15 15 15

0.43 6.76 0.32 10.44 0.37 0.39 0.32 0.44 0.50 0.21 6.19 9.02 9.63 8.60 9.13 9.50

Level taught

The mean raw scores of male teachers (10.26) is above the total mean score (9.92) and is much higher than female teachers (8.48) (See Table 8). The independent sample t-test calculated for the group revealed that there is significant difference between male and female teachers. Thet value calculated for the group difference was 4.54 which is significant at 0.001 level. Hence, male teachers are better informed about environmental issues and environmental education than female teachers. As far as sex is concerned, this finding is supportive of previous studies (Aklilu,

76

2001; Asmare, 2007) who reported that male students were more knowledgeable than female students. Similarly, rural teachers scored higher than urban teachers, 11.15 and 8.39, respectively. Thet value calculated for the group difference is 8.30 which is significant at 0.001 level. Thus, rural teachers are more aware of the issues raised than urban teachers which are, with regard to residential background, consistent with the findings of Asmare (2007).
Table 9 Independent Sample t- test for Awareness Scores by Sex and School Location.

Independent variables Sex School location

Category

Mean

SD

d.f.

Male Female Rural Urban

97 23 67 53

10.26 8.48 11.15 8.39

2.32 1.50 1.73 1.94

50 118

4.54** 8.30**

** Significant at 0.001 level

One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using raw scores showed statistically significant differences for independent variables age, years of teaching experiences and subject taught.

77

Table 10 One-way ANOVA for Environmental Awareness Scores

Independent variable Age

Source of variation Between groups Within groups Total Between groups With groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

D.F 3 116 119 4 115 119 4 115 119 3 116 119

Sum of squares 316.367 308.800 625.167 333.758 291.409 625.167 300.565 324.602 625.167 12.043 613.123 625.167

Mean square (variance) 105.456 2.662

F 39.614**

Years of teaching experience Subject taught

83.439 2.534

32.928**

75.141 2.823

26.621**

Level taught

4.014 5.286

0.76 0NS

NS-Not significant ** Significant at 0.001 level

Younger teachers achieved higher scores than older teachers. Surprisingly, teachers with lower years of teaching experience scored higher than teachers with a relatively longer teaching experience. Teachers teaching natural science subjects and the social sciences achieved better than the teachers teaching language, mathematics and health & physical education. So, despite the fact that there are indications that teachers lack proper awareness about some environmental and environmental education related issues, younger teachers, teachers with shorter experience and teachers of the natural sciences and social studies academic streams are relatively more aware of environmental concepts and aspects of environmental education. The relative emphasis given to environmental education in recent years is perhaps one of the reasons for the relatively better performance of younger teachers than older teachers. 78

4.3 Teachers Environmental Attitudes

A revised NEP scale with 15 items adopted from Dunlap et. al. (2000) was used to measure the environmental attitudes of teachers. The percentage distributions for responses to each of the items are presented in Table 11. Though the NEP scale has five scales (strongly agree, mildly agree, unsure, mildly disagree and strongly disagree), strongly agree and mildly agree; and mildly disagree and strongly disagree were combined for the presentation of the data.

The content of the scale has five facets: balance of nature, limits to growth, antianthropocentrism, human exemptionalism and the likelihood of ecocrisis. Statements 27, 32 and 37 are related to the reality of the limits to growth. The results show that the great majority of the respondents (73.73%) agreed to statement 27 which says we are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support. More than half of them (52.54%) disagreed to the unfavorable statement (Statement No 32) which says the earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them. To the statement which says the earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources (Statement No 37), 66.10% of the respondents agreed. These results indicate that the majority of teachers have a strong belief in the inevitability of limits to growth.

79

Table 11 Frequency Distributions of the Respondents for NEP Scale items

Code* 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

Statements We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support No 87

Agree % 73.73 10.17 75.42 19.50 51.70 22.03 46.61 13.56 61.02 13.56 66.10 21.19 58.47 17.80 72.03

No 24 21 20 26 40 30 35 27 31 24 26 24 28 27 21

Unsure % 20.34 17.80 16.95 22.03 33.90 25.42 29.66 22.88 26.27 20.34 22.03 20.34 23.73 22.88 17.80

Disagree No % 7 5.93 85 9 69 17 62 28 75 15 78 14 69 21 70 12 72.03 7.63 58.47 14.41 52.54 23.73 63.56 12.71 66.10 11.86 58.47 17.80 59.32 10.17

Humans have the right to modify the natural 12 environment to suit their needs When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not make the earth unlivable Humans are environment severely abusing 89 23

the 61

The earth has plenty of natural resources if 26 we just learn how to develop them Plants and animals have as much right as 55 humans to exist The balance of nature is strong enough to 16 cope with modern industrial nations Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to the laws of nature 72

The so-called ecological crisis facing 16 human kind has been greatly exaggerated The earth is like a spaceship with very 78 limited room and resources Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature 25

The balance of nature is very delicate and 69 easily upset Humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe 21 85

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

80

Anti-anthropocentric views are also reflected in the teachers responses. The three statements that are related to this view are statements 28, 33 and 38. For the anthropocentric worldview which says humans have the right to modify the natural environment (No 28), 72.5% of the respondents disagreed. For the eco-centric view that plants and animals have as much right as humans (statement No 33) only 23.73% of them disagreed. For the other anthropocentric view that humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature (statement No 38), 58.47 % of the respondents disagreed. Teachers beliefs on the fragility of the balance of nature were tested by statements 29, 34 and 39. The majority of the respondents believed that human interference with nature often produces disastrous consequences as 75.42% of them agreed to statement No 29. This belief of the respondents is reassured by the responses given to the unfavorable statements (Statement No 34) which says the balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of nature to which only 13.56 % agreed. Their belief on the fragility of the balance of nature is further strengthened by the responses given to statement 39 which states that the balance of nature is very delicate and easily up set to which 58.47 % of them agreed and only 17.80 % disagreed.

In addition, teachers believe that humans, like other species, are not exempted from the constraints of nature. This is evidenced by the responses given to the statements related to rejection of exemptionalism (statements 30, 35 and 40). For the unfavorable statements humans ingenuity will insure that we do not make the earth unlivable (statements No 30) and humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it (statement No 40), 58.47 % and 59.32 % of the respondents disagreed, respectively. For the favorable one which says despite our special abilities humans are still subject to the laws of nature (statement No 35 the majority of the respondents (61.02 %) agreed. 81

Unless appropriate measures are taken, teachers believe, there is a possibility of an ecological crisis as the responses given to the statements related to this issue (statements 31, 36 and 41) confirmed. For the statement which says humans are severely abusing the environment (statement No 31), more than half (51.70 %) agreed. However, it is also important to note that 33.90 % are unsure about the issue. For statement No 36 which states the so-called ecological crisis facing human kind has been greatly exaggerated 66.10 % disagreed. The possibility of an eco-crisis in the future is well stated by statement No 41. It says if things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe to which 72.03% agreed.

Generally, the percentage distributions of the respondents indicate that there is a tendency on the part of teachers to support pro-environmental beliefs. As can be seen in Table 12 below, 62.37% supported pro-environmental beliefs. It is even higher than those found elsewhere in Asia where most country responses were in a range of 51-61% indicating a pro-environmental behavior (Barett, Kuruda and Miyamoto, 2002). One concern here is that a considerable number of participants have held a neutral stance about each of the 15 statements which range from 16.95% to 33.90 %.

Table 12 Frequency of Percentage Responses of Pro and Anti NEP

No 1 2 3

Category Pro-NEP Anti-NEP Neutral

Percentage responses 62.37% 14.80% 22.82%

82

Table 13 Mean Scores and SD of Environmental Attitude Scores by the Independent Variables

Independent Category variable Sex Age Male Female <26 26-35 36-45 >45 Rural Urban <6 6-10 11-20 21-30 >30 Language Natural science Maths Social science HPE Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total

Mean

SD

SE

School location Years of teaching experience

Subject taught

95 23 35 38 27 18 65 53 28 32 30 17 11 27 33 18 27 13 33 26 34 25 118

56.14 51.57 58.86 56.92 50.93 51.17 58.05 51.81 59.21 57.63 53.37 48.94 53.09 53.59 58.06 50.83 58.07 51.77 55.12 55.19 54.47 56.52 55.25

5.21 4.47 4.44 4.07 4.14 4.11 4.54 4.66 3.07 4.26 4.45 5.33 2.88 6.02 4.12 4.17 3.85 3.65 4.93 4.20 5.76 6.48 5.38

0.54 0.93 0.75 0.66 0.80 0.97 0.49 0.67 0.58 0.78 0.81 1.29 0.87 1.16 0.72

95% C.I for mean Lower Upper bound bound 55.13 57.17 49.64 53.50 57.33 60.39 55.58 58.26 49.28 52.58 49.12 53.22 57.07 59.03 50.46 53.16 58.02 60.40 56.10 59.16 51.71 55.02 46.18 51.70 51.15 55.09 51.20 55.98 56.59 59.52 52.90 59.57 53.97 56.87 56.88 56.49 59.20 56.24

Min.

Max.

40 41 43 47 40 40 43 40 55 43 45 40 48 40 43 42 48 43 42 43 40 41 40

67 61 67 64 60 61 67 65 65 67 63 61 60 65 65 60 67 61 64 61 67 66 67

0.98 48.76 0.74 56.55 1.01 0.86 0.82 0.99 1.30 0.50 49.57 53.37 53.50 52.45 53.84 54.26

Level taught

For all the teachers participated in this study, the mean score of the summated ratings was 55.25 in the range of 15-75 which is 3.68 (above average) in the range of 1-5. Thus, as in past studies (Melaku, 1994; Aklilu, 1998), teachers endorsed pro-environmental views. It is also consistent with the study done by Larijiani and Yeshodhara (2008) who reported that Iranian and Indian teachers possessed favorable attitudes towards environment and sustainable development.

83

Independent sample t-test calculated for the independent variable sex revealed that male and female teachers differed significantly in their environmental attitudes in favor of male teachers. The mean score of males (56.14) is higher than females (51.57). The t value calculated for this group difference is 3.87 which is significant at 0.001 level. This finding is inconsistent with Larijianii and Yeshodharas study who reported that female and male teachers didnt differ significantly in their attitudes. It also deviates from the findings of Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu (2008) who observed similar approaches between male and female teacher candidates towards environmental sensibility. The methods employed and the number of

samples taken might have been the factors for these variations.

Table 14 Independent Sample t-test for Environmental Attitude Scores

Independent Variables Sex School location

category

Mean

SD

d.f T

Male Female Rural Urban

95 23 65 53

56.14 51.57 58.05 51.81

5.21 4.47 4.54 4.66

116 116

3.87** 6.65**

** Significant at 0.001 level

The mean environmental attitude score of teachers in rural schools (58.05) is much higher than in urban schools (51.81). The t value calculated for this group difference is 6.65 which is significant at 0.001 level. Hence, rural teachers have possessed better environmental attitude than their urban counterparts.

84

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with the attitude scores as the dependent variable against the four independent variables (age, years of teaching experience, subject taught and level taught). Table 15 shows the F-statistics and level of significance derived from the analysis. Statistically significant differences were found in all of the variables except for level taught. Teachers with less than 35 years of age scored higher than those with more than 35 years of age. Similarly, teachers with less than 20 years of teaching experience have scored better in the environmental attitude measurement than those teachers with more than 20 years of teaching experience. This indicates that younger teachers with lower years of teaching experience have better feelings towards the environment than experienced older teachers.

The statistically significant difference in environmental attitude scores among the teachers teaching different subjects shows that the subjects they teach affects the teachers orientations towards the environment. Hence, teachers of the social sciences and natural science subjects have possessed much more positive environmental attitude than their colleagues teaching other subjects.

85

Table 15 Oneway ANOVA for Environmental Attitude Scores

Independent variable Age

Source of variation Between groups Within groups l Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

D.F 3 114 117 4 113 117 4 113 117 3 114 117

Sum of squares 115.772 2266.101 3381.873 1331.908 2050.865 3381.873 1058.816 2323.057 3381.873 61.609 3320.264 3381.873

Mean square (variance) 37.924 19.878

F 18.710**

Years of teaching experience Subject taught

332.752 18.149

18.334**

264.704 20.558

12.876**

Level taught

20.536 29.125

0.705NS

NS-not significant **Significant at 0.001 level

4.4 Teachers Attitudes towards Environmental Education

Teachers views about the importance of environmental education in solving environmental problems, the role of schools in general and the roles of their students and themselves in implementing environmental education programs were assessed by self made 12 Likert scale items. For presentation of data strongly agree and agree; and strongly disagree and disagree responses are combined and the frequencies of percentage distributions are presented in Table 16 below. 86

Table 16 Frequency of Percentage Distributions of Responses to EE Attitude Statements

Code*

42

Agree No % There is a pressing need for teachers to 64 53.33 become better informed so that their students are given the most up-to-date information about environmental trends. The methods teachers use to convey 30 environmental content are less important than the curriculum as far as effective environmental education program is concerned. Since environmental degradation is 45 sometimes due to the absence of options for engaging in environmentally friendly activities, the role of environmental education for the solution of environmental problems is insignificant. Since many people do not know the full 64 consequences of their environmental actions, environmental education is important. As information and communication 35 technologies are developing faster, the role of schools in realizing the goals of environmental education is insignificant. Environmental education should be 48 delivered across the curriculum (should be part of all the subjects taught). Environmental Education in schools should 20 be left to interested teachers so that its implementation will become effective. The focus of environmental education 29 should be to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of science and technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation. The focus of environmental education 62 should be on how humans can live in harmony with nature. 87 25.00

Statements

Unsure No % 31 25.83

Disagree No % 25 20.83

43

33

27.50

57

47.50

44

37.50

34

28.33

41

34.17

45

53.33

28

23.33

28

23.33

46

29.17

33

27.50

52

43.33

47

40.00

38

31.67

34

28.33

48

16.67

35

29.17

65

54.17

49

24.17

42

35.00

49

40.83

50

51.67

33

27.50

25

20.83

51

Environmental knowledge should be 72 constructed, generated and initiated by the students themselves. Environmental teaching and learning should 33 be based on standardized outcomes (predetermined knowledge and attitudes of the students). Teaching about the possibility of a major 64 ecological catastrophe in the future will alert students for a responsible environmental action.

60.00

31

25.83

17

14.17

52

27.50

30

25.00

57

47.50

53

53.33

36

30.00

20

16.67

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

The study observed inconsistencies regarding respondents views about the importance of environmental education in solving environmental problems. For the unfavorable statement which says since environmental degradation is sometimes due to the absence of options for engaging in environmental friendly activities, the role of environmental education for the solution of environmental problems is insignificant (statement No 44), only 34.17 % disagreed and quite a considerable number of respondents (37.57%) agreed. This may lead to an interpretation that teachers believed that it is not lack of awareness through environmental education but it is due to the absence of options that the environment is deteriorating. In contrast, more than half of the respondents (53.30 %) believed that since so many people are ignorant of the environmental consequences of their actions, environmental education is important (statements No 45). The majority of the respondents also believed that responsible environmental action comes after successful environmental education programs as 53.33 % of them agreed to the statement which says teaching about the possibility of a major ecological catastrophe in the future will alert students for a responsible environmental action (statement No 53) .

88

The anti-anthropocentric environmental belief of teachers is reflected in their environmental education attitude. For the statement which promotes the anthropocentric environmental worldview (statement No 49) which states that the focus of environmental education should be to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of science and technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation only 24.70 % of the respondents agreed and the majority of them (40.83%) disagreed though still a considerable number of them (35 %) had a neutral position. Their anti-anthropocentric view is further reflected in their responses given to statement No 50 which says the focus of environmental education should be on how humans can live in harmony with nature to which more than half (51.67 %) agreed. This shows the majority of teachers believe that environmental education should not be underpinned by anthropocentric environmental worldview but on eco-centric views so that environmental education can promote how humans can live in harmony with nature.

The percentage frequency distribution of the responses showed that belief in the role of teachers in the implementation of environmental education programs is encouraging. For the statement which emphasizes on the pressing need for teacher to become better informed so that their students are given the most up to date information about environmental trends (statement No 42) more than half (53.33%) agreed. Similar attitudes are reflected in the responses given to statement No 43 which says the methods teachers use to convey environmental content is less important than the curriculum as far as effective environmental education program is concerned. Only 25% of the respondents gave responses in favor of the statement which implies that the majority of them believed that the role of the teacher is very important besides effective curriculum and other inputs in place.

89

Although it is much lower than in other studies, respondents showed support for the inclusion of environmental education in all the subjects taught as 40 % agreed , 28.33 % disagreed and 31.67 % could not decide for statement No 47 which says environmental education should be delivered across the curriculum. For the sake of comparison the result of an international survey conducted by Ballantayne (1999) is reproduced below.

Table 17 Acceptance that EE should be Taught Across the Curriculum by Country (% of Respondents)

Country Australia Canada Denmark Finland Germany Hong Kong Japan Korea Namibia New Zealand Poland South Africa Saudi Arabia Singapore Sweden Switzerland UK USA Ethiopia (Oromo Nationality Administration, Amhara Region

Agreed 65% 80% 68% 93% 77% 62% 80% 57% 80% 86% 71% 87% 73% 92% 75% 91% 61% 59% 40%

Undecided 9% 13% 19% 10% 10% 20% 21% 9% 15% 17% 32%

Disagreed 26% 20% 14% 7% 10% 19% 10% 33% 14% 7% 4% 27% 8% 25% 9% 24% 24% 28%

90

Divided views are also notable with regard to the role of schools in realizing the goals of environmental education as evidenced by the responses given to statement No 46 which states that as information and communication technologies are developing faster, the role of schools in realizing the goals of environmental education is insignificant to which 29.17%, 27.50% and 43.33% agreed, undecided and disagreed to the statement, respectively. This could imply that there are considerable numbers of teachers who believe that information sources other than schools are more important for environmental awareness.

The study also revealed that the majority of the respondents have a strong support for action oriented strategy for environmental education as 60 % of them agreed to the statement which says environmental knowledge should be constructed, generated and initiated by the students

themselves (statement No 51) whereas only 27 % agreed to the statement which says environmental teaching and learning should be based on standardized outcomes (statement No 52), a strategy which limits students to passive recipients.

The mean environmental education attitude score for the 120 participants is 40.38 in the range of 12-60. This is equal to 3.37(above average) in the range of 1-5. The result is similar to science teachers of England who scored 4.98 in the range of 1-7 (Littledyke, 1997). This indicates that respondents generally have positive attitudes towards environmental education which confirms the findings of Melaku (1994). The table below shows means and standard deviations of teachers EE attitude scores according to the six independent variables and the total sample.

91

Table 18 Mean Scores and SD of EE Attitude Scores

Independent category variable Sex Age Male Female <26 26-35 36-45 >45 Rural Urban <6 6-10 11-20 21-30 >30 Language Natural science Maths Social science HPE Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total

Mean

SD

SE

School location Years of teaching experience

Subject taught

97 23 37 38 27 18 67 53 30 32 30 17 11 27 33 18 29 13 33 28 34 25 120

41.13 37.17 42.78 42.47 37.00 36.06 42.76 37.36 42.53 43.25 38.53 36.35 37.36 39.11 42.70 36.28 42.79 37.38 39.70 42.12 40.03 39.80 40.38

4.09 3.35 2.83 3.58 2.59 3.32 3.02 3.62 3.05 2.93 3.93 3.39 3.17 4.34 3.34 3.41 2.50 3.12 4.22 4.23 3.81 4.41 4.28

0.42 0.70 0.47 0.58 0.50 0.78 0.37 0.50 0.56 0.52 0.72 0.82 0.96 0.83 0.57

95% C.I for mean Lower Upper bound bound 40.29 41.96 35.72 38.62 41.83 43.73 41.29 43.65 35.99 38.02 34.41 37.71 42.02 43.50 36.36 38.36 41.39 43.67 42.19 44.31 37.06 40.00 34.60 38.10 35.22 39.50 37.40 40.82 41.54 43.86 38.99 43.73 39.28 41.21 43.76 41.36 41.61 41.15

Min.

Max.

30 31 36 34 32 30 36 30 40 36 32 30 32 32 36 30 37 32 32 35 30 31 30

51 44 49 51 44 44 51 47 51 49 48 44 44 47 51 44 49 44 47 50 49 51 51

0.80 34.57 0.46 41.85 0.87 0.74 0.80 0.65 0.88 0.39 35.48 38.19 40.48 38.70 37.99 39.61

Level taught

The mean environmental education attitude score of male teachers (41.13) is higher than female teachers (37.17). The unrelated sample t-test calculated to analyze this group showed statistically significant difference (t=4.31, d.f. =118, p< 0.001).

92

Table 19 Independent Sample t-test for EE Attitude Scores

Independent variables Sex School location

category

Mean

SD

d.f.

Male Female Rural Urban

97 23 67 53

41.13 37.17 42.76 37.36

4.09 3.35 3.02 3.62

118 118

4.31** 8.91**

** Significant at 0.001 level

The mean score of teachers in rural schools (42.76) is also higher than their urban counterparts (37.36). The independent sample t-test calculated for this group showed statistically significant difference too (t=8.91, d.f=118, p<0.001). Hence both sex and school locations have affected teachers environmental education attitudes.

The results of this study showed that the arithmetic mean score of younger teachers is higher than that of older ones. Teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and teachers of social studies and natural science subjects scored higher than teachers in other fields; where as teachers teaching in the different grade levels had similar mean scores.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated with environmental education scores as the dependent variable against the independent variables age, years of teaching experience, subject taught and level taught. The F-statistics derived from this analysis is shown in Table 20.

93

Table 20 One-way ANOVA for EE Attitude Scores

Independent variable Age

Source of variation Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

D.F 3 116 119 4 115 119 4 115 119 3 116 119

Sum of squares 1025.437 1122.688 2148.125 880.764 1267.361 2148.125 809.042 1339.083 2148.13 111.506 2036.619 2148.125

Mean square (variance) 341.812 9.678

F 35.317**

Years of teaching experience Subject taught

220.191 11.021

19.980**

202.260 11.044

17.370**

Level taught

37.169 17.557

2.117 NS

NS Not significant ** Significant at 0.001 level

Except for level taught, statistically significant differences were observed among the various groups. So, younger teachers, teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and teachers of social studies and natural science subjects are more enthusiastic to environmental education than older teachers, teachers with longer years of teaching experience and teachers of languages, mathematics and HPE. Thus we can say that variables like age, subject taught and years of teaching experience affect the environmental education attitude of teachers.

94

4.5 Teachers Actual Practice of Environmental Education

One section of the survey asked respondents to rate how often they practice various environmental education activities related to three areas; 1) teaching of environmental education (items 54-60); 2) involvement in extracurricular activities in schools (items 61-67); and 3) involvement in community activities (items 68-74) (See Appendix A).

The mean score of the 120 participants for all the 21 items is generally low which is 2.50 (between seldom and sometimes) in the range of 1 (never) to 5 (usually). The average response for each item ranged from 1.13 for item No 64 which says I gather posters concerning environmental issues that students can learn to 4.23 for item No 55 which says I guide students to explore local environmental problems and solutions consciously.

EE should aim primarily at influencing student decision making and teaching approach should incorporate, beside classroom activities, action at home, school and community levels (Ballantyne and Packer, 1996; Ballantyne, 1999). Even though teachers practice of environmental education is generally inadequate, the rank order of items based on mean responses revealed that teachers emphasize most on class room activities. The result also showed that respondents are more reluctant to extracurricular activities related to environmental education than engagement in community based environmental actions. One concern here is that extracurricular activities in schools which are very important strategies to support environmental education are neglected by the teachers which undermine the successful implementation of environmental education programs in schools.

95

Table 21 Rankings of EE Practices

Code* Activities 55 I guide students to environmental problems consciously

Modal response explore local 4 and solutions

Mean response 4.23

Rank 1

54 56

I present environmental knowledge/concepts 5 in class I introduce my students to some general ways 4 of solving certain environmental problems and guide them to apply such methods to other problems I assign students to bring some materials 4 from the local environment to be used for teaching I read in class interesting articles about 4 environmental issues that I get from books, newspapers, magazines etc. I bring interesting pictures on environmental 3 issues and show to my students I evaluate the curriculum and text book of the 3 subject I teach with regard to environmental issues With regard to environmental behavior, I 2 attempt to be a role model for the community in my lifestyles I contribute articles concerning 2 environmental issues to regional and/or national mass media I give quick and positive response when I am 2 asked to contribute money for environmental protection I teach the local environmental issues community about 2 2 96

4.21 4.12

2 3

57

3.86

58

3.70

59 60

2.97 2.88

6 7

74

2.44

68

2.36

71

2.21

10

72 67

2.18 2.13

11 12

I plant trees in the school compound

70 73

I actively participate in local community 2 organizations working for the environment I use the religious institution to which I 2 belong to promote the desirable environmental ethic I conduct local researches environmental issues concerning 3

2.12 2.02

13 14

66 69 61 65 62 63

1.84 1.75 1.71 1.55 1.46 1.23

15 16 17 18 19 20

I actively participate in environmental actions 2 of the community of which I am a member I organize and lead environmental clubs in 1 school I write articles about the environment to be 1 read during the flag ceremony I organize question and answer program on 1 environmental issues I create links between my school and NGOs 1 and government offices which work for the protection of the environment I gather posters concerning environmental 1 issues and stick them in the school campus so that students can learn

64

1.13

21

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

Activities that are most frequently practiced by the teachers include presenting environmental concepts in class, guiding students to explore local environmental problems and solutions, introducing students to some general ways of solving certain environmental problems and guiding them to apply such methods to other problems, assigning students to bring some materials from the local environment to be used for teaching and reading interesting articles about environmental issues in class. The least frequently practiced activities include organizing and leading environmental clubs, writing articles on environmental issues to be read during flag ceremonies, organizing questions and answer programs, creating links between schools and 97

environmental NGOs or government offices and gathering posters concerning environmental issues and sticking them in the school campus. Mean of the sum of the ratings were also calculated for the whole sample and for each of the categories of the six independent variables.

Table 22 Mean and SD of EE Practice Scores

Independent Category variable Sex Age Male Female <26 26-35 36-45 >45 Rural Urban <6 6-10 11-20 21-30 >30 Language Natural science Maths Social science HPE Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Total

Mean

SD

SE

School location Years of teaching experience

Subject taught

97 23 37 38 27 18 67 53 30 32 30 17 11 27 33 18 29 13 33 28 34 25 120

52.41 53.30 53.03 52.45 52.85 51.56 52.67 52.47 52.83 53.34 51.57 52.65 52.36 53.07 51.82 53.17 53.59 50.46 52.76 52.04 52.79 52.68 52.58

5.57 5.55 5.97 5.43 5.42 5.45 5.36 5.66 5.77 5.67 5.99 5.27 4.20 5.96 6.24 5.81 4.51 4.45 6.33 5.33 4.68 6.02 5.55

0.57 1.16 0.98 0.88 1.04 1.29 0.65 0.78 1.05 1.01 1.09 1.28 1.27 1.15 0.84

95%C.I for mean Lower Upper bound bound 51.28 53.54 50.90 55.70 51.04 55.02 50.66 54.24 50.71 54.99 48.84 54.28 51.37 53.97 50.90 54.04 50.69 54.97 51.28 55.40 49.35 53.79 49.91 55.39 49.53 55.19 50.70 55.44 50.11 53.53 56.06 55.30 53.14 55.00 54.14 54.42 55.15 53.57

Min.

Max.

40 43 41 42 43 40 41 40 41 43 42 40 45 43 41 40 44 43 43 44 40 43 40

66 67 66 65 67 64 66 67 65 66 67 64 60 67 64 64 66 57 67 65 63 66 67

1.37 50.28 0.84 51.88 1.23 1.10 1.02 0.80 1.20 0.99 47.78 50.52 49.94 51.16 50.21 51.59

Level taught

The mean score of the 120 participants is 52.58 in the range of 21-105. The mean score of male teachers (54.41) is slightly lower than female teachers (53.30). The mean environmental education practice score of teachers in rural schools (52.67) is slightly higher than their urban counterparts (52.47) with a mean difference of only 0.20. Independent sample t-test calculated 98

for these groups confirmed no statistically significant differences. This implies that neither of these variables affects the environmental education activities of teachers.

Table 23 Independent Sample t-test for EE Practice Scores

Independent variables Sex School location

Category

Mean

SD

D.F

Male Female Rural Urban

97 23 67 53

52.41 53.30 53.67 52.47

5.57 5.55 5.36 5.66

118 118

0.72 NS 0.21 NS

NS- Not significant The mean environmental education practice score of the various age groups ranged from 51.56 for teachers with over 45 years old to 53.03 for teachers with less than 26 years old. Similar computations for teachers with different years of teaching experiences showed that the mean score ranged from 51.57 for teachers with 11-20 years of teaching experience to 53.34 for teachers with 6-10 years of teaching experience. The mean score of teachers teaching different subjects ranged from 51.82 for natural science subject teachers to 53.59 for social science teachers. This value is between 52.04 and 52.79, a mean difference of only 0.75, for teachers teaching in different grade levels.

One-way analysis of variance performed using environmental education practice scores as the dependent variable against the four independent variables (age, years of teaching experience, subject taught and level taught) revealed no significant differences in all of the variables. This implies that none of these variables affect the teachers environmental education activities. The F-statistics derived from ANOVA is presented in Table 24.

99

Table 24 One-way ANOVA for EE Practice Scores

Independent variable Age

Source of variation Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

D.F 3 116 119 4 115 119 4 115 119 3 116 119

Sum of squares 28.947 3642.220 3671.167 51.987 3619.1180 3671.167 119.640 3551.526 3671.167 5.187 3665.980 3671.167

Mean square (variance) 9.649 31.998

F 0.307 NS

Years of teaching experience Subject taught

12.997 31.471

0.413 NS

29.910 30.883

0.969 NS

Level taught

1.729 31.603

0.055NS

NS- Not Significant

4.6 Awareness-Attitude-Practice Nexus

Conventional thinking in the field of EE suggests a liner model for changing behavior as individuals become more knowledgeable, they become more aware of environmental problems and, thus become more motivated to act towards the environment in more responsible ways (Lee and Williams, 2001). An analysis of the relationships among the teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental issues and environmental education showed a moderate positive correlation between awareness and attitudes. Teachers with better knowledge and understanding have also possessed pro environmental beliefs and interest in environmental education. However,

100

their awareness and attitudes didnt provide the platform for their actual practice as it is associated with neither of them.
Table 25 Pearsons Product Moment Correlation

Awareness Scores Awareness Score Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Env. attitude Score Env. educ attitude score Env. educ.practice scores Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 120 .612 .000 118 .663** .000 120 .022 .812 120
**

Env. attitude Score 1 .612** .000 118 1 118 .594** .000 118 .033 .720 118

Env. educ attitude score .663** .000 120 .594 .000 118 1 120 .088 .342 120
**

Env. educ.practic e scores .022 .812 120 .033 .720 118 .088 .342 120 1 120

4.7 Teachers Information Sources on Environmental Issues and Environmental Education

Given six important sources of information for environmental issues and environmental education, teachers were asked to rate the degree to which each has been useful for their knowledge, attitude and skills. The five response options were greatly useful, considerably useful, somewhat useful, little useful and not useful with pints 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. The responses were used to rank the different experiences. The results are summarized in Table 27 (See Appendix B).

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The overall rank showed that electronics media was the most important source of information followed by personal reading and print media. However, personal reading was ranked highest by teachers aged 26-35, teachers with less than 6 years of teaching experience, teachers with > 30 years of teaching experience and grade 8 teachers showing that it is their most important source of information.

For environmental education program to succeed in schools, the fundamental ideas and practical procedures underpinning it should be incorporated into wider pre-service and in service teachers professional learning (Kennelly, Taylor and Jenkins, 2008). Against this idea, training (both preservice and in-service) and workshops (conferences) were ranked low in the list of information sources. This suggests that teachers lack sufficient training to implement environmental education programs in schools. The low rank of pre-service training is particularly important because it indicates that teachers college studies insufficiently prepared them for their environmental teaching. This result agrees with the result of the studies done by Ballantyne (1999), Tarabula et. al. (2004) and CutterMackenzie and Smith (2003) who reported that per-service training has inadequately prepared teachers for teaching environmental education. When in-service trainings and workshops were important to fill this gap (Ham, Rellergert Taylor and Krumpe, 1987/88; Aklilu, 2009) it is unfortunate that they are not serving this purpose as they were ranked low too.

4.8 Teachers Feelings about their Competence to Teach Environmental Education

Participants were also asked to rate whether they feel competent to teach five different aspects which are related to the general aims of environmental education. The alternatives provided were 102

excellent, very good, good, fair and poor with points 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. The mean scores of each item were calculated by dividing the summated ratings by the number of participants (120). Table 26 below shows the mean scores.

Table 26 Mean Scores of Responses for the Various Aspects of EE

Code* Aspects of environmental education 82 83 84 85 86 Total

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

Mean 3.19 3.28 2.55 2.12 1.73 2.58

Developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment Developing knowledge and understanding about the environment Developing attitudes and values towards the environment Teaching skills in identifying and solving environmental problems Developing a sense of responsibility through participation and action

The overall average is 2.58 (below good) showing that respondents generally felt less competent to teach environmental education. This could be due to, as reported above, the teachers lack of adequate training about the issue. This might also be one of the causes for the overall inadequate environmental education practice of teachers.

Even though teachers generally felt that they are less competent in teaching environmental education, they felt relatively most competent in developing knowledge and understanding about the environment and least competent in developing a sense of responsibility through participation and action.

The ratings were also used to determine the rank order of the various aspects of environmental education in accordance with the teachers feelings of their competence to teach them. The results are shown in Table 28 (See Appendix C). 103

The analysis of the ranks by the various categories of the independent variables further showed that there are similarities in their feelings among the different groups of teachers. The only difference observed is that female teachers, teachers with ages less than 26 years, teachers with 21-30 years of teaching experience, teachers in the language area and grade 7 teachers felt competent in developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment than developing knowledge and understanding about it.

4.9 Teaching Environmental Education: Opportunities and Constraints

In order to ascertain the extent to which teachers benefited from various factors for environmental education, they were given a list of four facilitating factors for which they were asked to rate against five options (greatly important, considerably important, somewhat important, little important and not important, coded 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively). The responses given to the items were used to rank these factors and are presented in Table 29 (Appendix D).

The result indicated that the textbooks are the most important enhancing factors followed by the curriculum, government policy and the school management. It is not surprising that textbooks are ranked highest because, obviously, they are the most immediate and easily accessed and readily available sources for teachers. What is surprising is that school management was ranked last almost unanimously by all the various categories of teachers. This is a major concern because without the full support of the school management cross-curricular themes like environmental education cannot be implemented successfully.

A similar analysis done to investigate the extent to which the different obstacles hinder the respondents environmental education activities revealed that heavy workload, lack of teaching 104

resources, lack of training and time constraints were the first four factors that constrained their activities. Whereas lack of school support, lack of teachers commitment, lack of funding and the low emphasis given to environmental education in the curriculum were the last four factors. Time constraints which were taken as the most serious in other studies (Ham and Swing, 1987/88; Ballantyne, 1999) were ranked 4th in this study.

It is paradoxical that lack of school support is ranked low among the obstacles despite school management support is considered least important in enhancing environmental education efforts. It is possible to say that teachers positive attitudes towards environmental education have to a certain degree contributed to their commitment for environmental education as lack of commitment as an obstacle is ranked low.

Efforts to integrate environmental education into various curricula seem to have been achieved as teachers had little complaints about the emphasis given to environmental education into the curriculum. Environmental education practices require resources which include funds to buy equipments, pay off site transport etc. if it has to be successfully implemented. Because the teachers EE activities are limited to classroom activities, it is not surprising that teachers didnt consider lack of funding as their serious problem.

As training was considered less important than other sources of information for environmental issues and environmental education for teachers, it is not surprising that lack of training is also considered one of the top three problems facing them in their environmental education activities. It is even rated as the most serious by teachers aged 36-45, those teachers with 11-30 years of teaching experience, teachers of HPE and teachers of grades 6 and 7 (See Table 30, Appendix E). 105

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from the findings of the study: 1. Environmental issues conceptually related to citizenship education are adequately integrated in the civics and ethical education of Upper Primary level. Even though global environmental issues are given less emphasis, most of the environmental issues of Ethiopia are included in the textbooks of the English subject. In spite of this the three strands of environmental literacy are not well balanced. The civics and ethical education subject emphasized on the affective strand whereas the English textbook over emphasized the knowledge strand. The skills strand is given less emphasis in both subjects. 2. Even though there are indications that teachers were deficient in their awareness and understanding of several issues related to environment and environmental education, they held pro-environmental beliefs and positive attitudes towards environmental education. In spite of this they felt that they are incompetent to teach environmental education especially in influencing students attitudes and behavior and in teaching environmental problem solving skills. Some of the explanations for this shortcomings are that teachers pre-service training inadequately prepared them for teaching environmental education and not less importantly they havent received sufficient in-service training which have also limited their overall environmental education practices.

106

3. It is evident that teachers actual practice of environmental education is generally low though they are not ignorant of their roles to promote environmental education and do not lack any commitment to it. Most of their practices are limited to routine class room activities. Extracurricular activities in schools and out of school activities are neglected. 4. Statistically significant differences were observed in the teachers environmental and environmental education awareness and attitudes in accordance with the variables sex, age, school location, years of teaching experience and subject taught. Male teachers, younger teachers, rural teachers, teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and teachers of natural science and social studies are more aware and held more positive attitudes to both the environment and environmental education indicating that these variables affect the teachers awareness and attitudes. However, no statistically significant differences were evident in the environmental education practice of teachers with regard to any of these variables. 5. Teachers with better knowledge and understanding have also possessed proenvironmental beliefs and interest in environmental education. However, their awareness and attitudes didnt provide the platform for their actual practice as it is associated with neither of them. 6. It is evident that the mass media (both electronics and print) and personal reading are the main information sources of teachers on environmental issues and environmental education. 7. The study also showed that teachers havent used all the opportunities that help to enhance their environmental education efforts. 8. The major obstacles that are hindering teachers environmental education activities include heavy work load, lack of teaching resources, lack of training and time constraints. 107

5.2 Recommendations
The following are the recommendations suggested on the basis of the findings of the study: 1. Integrating environmental issues into lessons shouldnt be limited to those issues raised in the curriculum or textbooks but it should be more of an effort for teachers to include more issues that have conceptual links with the subject matter they are teaching. 2. Pre-service teacher training programs should be reviewed in the context of environmental education so that they would adequately prepare teachers for environmental education teaching. 3. Short-term training on contemporary environmental issues and environmental education should be organized for teachers. Such training should focus on older teachers, female teachers, urban teachers and teachers in academic areas other than natural sciences and social studies. The contents should emphasize on extracurricular activities and community based environmental actions. 4. Environmental education programs should be widely disseminated through the mass media in which teachers are target audiences. 5. Teachers should be encouraged to use all the opportunities available to improve their environmental education. 6. The school management should play its coordinating role in enhancing environmental education. 7. All the necessary measures have to be taken to reduce the barriers for effective environmental education. These include, besides training, provision of good quality teaching resources and funding.

108

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APPENNDICES Appendix A Questionnaire

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Department of Geography and Environmental Education
Dear Teachers, This questionnaire is prepared to study the teachers awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education with particular reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara Region. I would appreciate it if you make it convenient for me by completing the questionnaire carefully. Thank you in advance! Gebre Tafere I. General Information: Please circle the letter that applies to you. 1. Sex: Male Female 2. Age: Under 26 A B A

26 35 B 36 45 C Over 45 D 3. Years of teaching experience:

1- 5 6 10 11 20 21 30 More than 30 Rural Urban

A B C D E A B

4. School Location

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5. Subject taught this year : Language (Amharic, English, Afan Oromo) Natural Science (Biology, Chemistry, Physics) Mathematics Social Studies (Geography, History, Civics) Health & Physical Education 6. Level taught this year (If you teach in more than one grade level,

A B C D E

II.

take the level that you have the highest load): Grade 5 A Grade 6 B Grade 7 C Grade 8 D For the following 20 questions choose the best answer and circle the letter of your choice. 7. Human wellbeing encompasses personal and environmental security, access to materials for a good life, good health and good social relations and it is closely linked to environmental quality. Which of the following statements justify this link? A. All food ultimately comes from the environment. B. Environmental degradation is adversely affecting human health in many ways. C. Unequal access to environmental resources remains an important source of inequality among individuals. D. All of the above. 8. The overall consequence of rapid population growth is: A. disputes over access to resources B. limited quality of life C. increased social costs of food production D. malnutrition 9. Water security like food security will become a major national and regional priority in the future. This is likely because: A. The world supply of fresh water cannot be increased. B. More and more people depend on the already fixed supply of water. C. More and more of the fixed supply of water is being polluted. D. All of the above. 122

10. Climate change from human influences results in all of the following except: A. A shifting of climate zones. B. An increase in species diversity and the productivity of ecosystems. C. An increase in extreme weather events. D. Negative impacts on human health. 11. Which of the following sources of energy is environmentally unfriendly? A. Fossil fuels B. Wind power C. Hydroelectric power D. Solar energy 12. Which of the following is wrong? A. Adoption of new technologies is not necessarily a cause of environmental damage. B. Market changes always promote the sustainable use of resources. C. Human migration causes considerable damage to the environment. D. Demographic changes tend to increase pressure on the environment. 13. Which of the following is wrong about economic growth in relation to the environment? A. Economic growth intensifies over appropriation of resources. B. Economic growth can bring investments in environmental improvement and cleaner technologies. C. Economic growth reduces land cover change. D. Economic growth results changes in production and consumption patterns. 14. One of the recommended strategies for a global sustainable environment is discontinuing deforestation. This is because: A. Loss of trees results in a reduction in the earths capacity to absorb carbon dioxide which eventually causes global warming. B. Destruction of forests results in the depletion of the ozone layer which leads to an increase in dangerous ultraviolet rays reaching the ground. C. Firewood and charcoal are alternative energy sources of the future. 123

D. All of the above. 15. Which of the following is true about sustainable development? A. It is a process of change with the future in mind. B. It is similar to sustainable economic growth. C. It is preserving the earths resources for the use of future generations. D. It is a development model which can only be practiced by the developed nations of the world. 16. Which of the following is not an appropriate action in order to correct the continuing disastrous trend of the Ethiopian environment? A. Transforming the agricultural sector to make it more productive. B. Utilizing the renewable resources without fear of exhaustion. C. Pursuing accelerated economic development to provide basic needs and alternative economic opportunities. D. Reducing the high rate of population growth. 17. Which of the following is the logical sequence for the rise of environmental education? A. Environmental concern Environmental crisis B. Industrialization and urbanization Environmental concern Industrialization and urbanization Environmental education Environmental crisis Environmental education

C.

Environmental crisis

Industrialization and urbanization

Environmental concern Environmental education D. Environmental crisis Environmental concern Industrialization and urbanization 18. The ultimate goal of environmental education is: A. Awareness about environmental problems. B. Knowing how to improve environmental quality. C. Possessing the necessary skills to protect the environment. D. Taking decisions and actions in favor of the environment. 124 Environmental education

19. The achievement of a learner after an environmental education program on global warming was to the extent that he/she could believe that reduction in carbon dioxide would reduce global warming. To which level of the environmental education objectives is his/her achievement categorized? A. Awareness B. Knowledge C. Attitude D. Skill 20. Decisions and actions by the different countries of the world can have international repercussions. This idea gave environmental education to have the following characteristics: A. Interdisciplinarity B. Totality C. Global views D. Cultural and gender perspectives 21. Environmental education is : A. less important to females than males. B. equally important to all citizens regardless of any variables. C. more important to farmers than engineers. D. equally important to all students of the developing world but not in the developed world. 22. Which of the following is not the characteristic of environmental education? A. It focuses on past environmental situations and historical perspectives. B. It is a right of every citizen. C. It is interdisciplinary in its approach (should be part of every subject taught). D. It considers the environment in its totality (natural, cultural, aesthetic and ethical). 23. Which of the following is a relatively wrong combination as far as the integration of environmental issues and curriculum subjects of primary schools of Ethiopia are concerned? A. Constitutional rights and responsibilities of citizens concerning the environment Civics and Ethical Education 125

B. Letter writing to manufacturers about packaging English C. Measuring and recording the number and size of trees in a school compound Social studies D. Solid waste disposal Chemistry 24. Which of the following contents of environmental education can be considered as irrelevant in the Ethiopian context? A. The impacts of rapid population growth. B. Environmental refuges of Bangladesh. C. Food habits and cultural taboos. D. Problems of poverty. 25. Environmental sustainability through environmental education is maintained best if one of the following approaches of teaching is applied. A. Teachers transmit knowledge and students are passive recipients B. Teachers act as facilitators and students participate actively C. Teachers play a collaborative inquirer role and students as active generators of new ideas D. Students are active participants and teachers as passive listeners to the students views 26. As far as environmental education is concerned which of the following is the best instructional resource? A. Video B. The environment itself C. Written materials D. Museums

126

III.

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below by putting a mark in the appropriate box. Mildly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree Unsure Mildly Agree

No

Statements

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not make the earth unlivable Humans are severely abusing the environment The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them Plants and animals have as much right as humans to exist The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with modern industrial nations Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to the laws of nature The so-called ecological crisis facing human kind has been greatly exaggerated The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset Humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe 127

IV.

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below by putting a mark in the appropriate box. Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree 128

42

There is a pressing need for teachers to become better informed so that their students are given the most upto-date information about environmental trends The methods teachers use to convey environmental content are less important than the curriculum as far as effective environmental education program is concerned Since environmental degradation is sometimes due to the absence of options for engaging in environmentally friendly activities, the role of environmental education for the solution of environmental problems is insignificant Since many people do not know the full consequences of their environmental actions, environmental education is important As information and communication technologies are developing faster, the role of schools in realizing the goals of environmental education is insignificant Environmental education should be delivered across the curriculum (should be part of all the subjects taught) Environmental Education in schools should be left to interested teachers so that its implementation will become effective The focus of environmental education should be to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of science and technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation The focus of environmental education should be on how humans can live in harmony with nature

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

Agree

No

Statements

51 52

Environmental knowledge should be constructed, generated and initiated by the students themselves Environmental teaching and learning should be based on standardized outcomes (predetermined knowledge and attitudes of the students) Teaching about the possibility of a major ecological catastrophe in the future will alert students for a responsible environmental action Please indicate how often you practice the following activities by putting a mark in the appropriate box.
Sometimes

53

V.

Usually

Seldom

54 55 56

I present environmental knowledge/concepts in class I guide students to explore local environmental problems and solutions consciously I introduce my students to some general ways of solving certain environmental problems and guide them to apply such methods to other problems I assign students to bring some materials from the local environment to be used for teaching I read in class interesting articles about environmental issues that I get from books, newspapers, magazines etc. I bring interesting pictures on environmental issues and show to my students I evaluate the curriculum and text book of the subject I teach with regard to environmental issues I organize and lead environmental clubs in school I organize question and environmental issues answer program on

57 58

59 60 61 62

129

Never

No

Activities

Often

63

I create links between my school and NGOs and government offices which work for the protection of the environment I gather posters concerning environmental issues and stick them in the school campus so that students can learn I write articles about the environment to be read during the flag ceremony I conduct local researches concerning environmental issues I plant trees in the school compound I contribute articles concerning environmental issues to regional and/or national mass media I actively participate in environmental actions of the community of which I am a member I actively participate in local community organizations working for the environment I give quick and positive response when I am asked to contribute money for environmental protection I teach the local community about environmental issues I use the religious institution to which I belong to promote the desirable environmental ethic With regard to environmental behavior, I attempt to be a role model for the community in my lifestyles To what extent do you think have the following experiences been useful to your environmental & environmental education knowledge, attitude and skills? Put a mark in the appropriate box.
Considerably Useful Little Useful Not Useful Somewhat Useful

64

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74

VI.

75

Pre-service training 130

Greatly Useful

No

Experiences

76 77 78 79 80 81

In-service training Workshops/Conferences Personal reading Electronics media Print media Others (please specify)

VII.

How do you rate your competence to teach the following aspects of environmental education? Put a mark in the appropriate box.

No

Aspects of Environmental Education

Very Good

Excellent

Good

82

Developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment

83 84 85 86

Developing knowledge and understanding about the environment Developing attitudes and values towards the environment Teaching skills in identifying environmental problems and solving

Developing a sense of responsibility through participation and action

131

Poor

Fair

VIII. How important are the following in enhancing your environmental education activities? Put a mark in the appropriate box.

Considerably Important

Somewhat Important

Greatly Important

Little Important Little

No

Items

87 88 89 90 91

Government policy The curriculum The textbooks The school management Others (please specify)

IX. To what extent do the following obstacles hinder your environmental education activities? Put a mark in the appropriate box.
No 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 Obstacles Time constraints Lack of teaching resource materials Lack of training Heavy workload Lack of school support Lack of commitment The less emphasis given to environmental education in the curriculum Lack of funding Others (please specify) Somewh at Conside rably Greatly Not all at

132

Not Important

Appendix B Table 27: Rankings of the different experiences that have been useful for the teachers knowledge, attitudes
and skills about environmental issues and environmental education.
No

sex

Rank by independent variables Age (in School Years of teaching years) location experiences

Subject taught

Level taught

Over all rank

Natural sciences

Language

Grade 5

Grade 6

Grade 7

79 78 80 76 75 77

Electronics media Personal reading Print media In-service training Pre-service training Workshops/ conferences

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 6 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6

2 1 3 5 4 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 3 4 2 5 6

1 2 4 3 5 6

1 2 3 5 4 6

2 1 3 4 5 6

2 3 4 1 5 6

1 2 3 6 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6

2 1 3 5 6 5

1 2 3 5 4 6

3 1 4 2 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 5 4 6

2 3 4 1 5 6

2 1 3 4 5 6

133

Grade 8

Female

Urban

26-35

36-45

11-20

21-30

Rural

Male

6-10

HPE

<26

>45

>30

<6

Experiences (sources of information)

Social sciences

Mathematics

Appendix C Table 28 : Rank of teachers competence to teach the various aspects of environmental education
No sex Over all rank Aspects of environmental education Rank by independent variables Age (in School Years of teaching years) location experiences

Subject taught
Natural sciences Social sciences

Level taught
Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8

Mathematics

Language

Female

Urban

26-35

36-45

11-20

21-30

Rural

Male

83

82

84

85

86

Developing knowledge and understanding about the environment Developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment Developing attitude and values towards the environment Teaching skills in identifying and solving environmental problems Developing a sense of responsibility through participation action

1 1

HPE

6-10

<26

>45

>30

<6

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

134

Appendix D Table 29 : Rankings of the various opportunities for EE

No

sex Over all rank Male

Rank by independent variables Age (in School Years of teaching years) location experiences

Subject taught

Level taught

Natural sciences

Mathematics Social sciences

21-30 >30 Language

Grade 5

Grade 6

Grade 7 1 2 3 4

Female

Urban

26-35 36-45 >45

11-20

Rural

89 88 87 90

The textbooks The curriculum Government policy The school management

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

2 1 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 4 3

2 1 3 4

1 2 3 4

2 1 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

2 1 3 4

1 2 3 4

2 1 3 4

1 2 3 4

HPE

6-10

<26

Factors

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

135

Grade 8

<6

Appendix E Table 30: Rank order of the various obstacles that hinder teachers environmental education activities
No

sex

Rank by independent variables Age (in School Years of teaching years) location experiences

Subject taught

Level taught

Over all rank

Natural sciences

Grade 5

Grade 6

Grade 7

95 Heavy workload 93 Lack of teaching resources materials 94 Lack of training 92 Time constraints 96 Lack of school support 97 Lack of commitment 99 Lack of funding 98 The less emphasis given to EE in the curriculum

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 2 4 5 6 8 7

1 2 1 4 5 6 7 8

1 3 1 4 5 6 8 7

5 1 1 2 2 3 3 6 2 4 5 6

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8

4 1 2 3 5 6 7 8

1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8

1 4 1 3 5 6 7 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8

1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8

3 1 1 4 5 6 8 7

8 7 7 8

136

Grade 8

Female

Urban

26-35

36-45

11-20

21-30

Rural

Male

6-10

HPE

<26

>45

>30

Obstacles

Social sciences

Mathematics

Language

<6

Appendix F The New Ecological Paradigm Scale Items (Dunlap et al., 2000, p. 433)
Strongly Agree Unsure Mildly Agree Mildly Disagree No Statements Strongly Disagree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs When humans interfere with nature it often produces disastrous consequences Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not make the earth unlivable Humans are severely abusing the environment The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them Plants and animals have as much right as humans to exist The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with modern industrial nations Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to the laws of nature The so-called ecological crisis facing human kind has been greatly exaggerated The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset Humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe

137

Appendix G Map of the Study Area

Source: ANRS Finance & Economic Development Bureau

138