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Oceanography
GEO 009 Kirk Domke

Lectures 1-12
Summary

Fall 2011

The ocean supplies resources:

Lecture 1
Ocean Resources

1.

Physical Energy Biological Non-extractive

2.

3.

4.

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Renewable vs. Nonrenewable Resources

Depends on rate of use compared to rate
of regeneration
- Time scale counts!

UN Draft Convention, 1982 The International Law of the Sea Territorial waters:
12 nautical miles from shore Nations have sole jurisdiction here.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Renewable use rate < regen. rate
200 nautical miles from shore (In 2009, 80 countries can apply to extend to 350 miles) Nations control resources here.

Nonrenewable use rate > regen. rate

High Seas:
Beyond 200 miles from any shore Common property of all people

Sustainable
use rate regeneration rate

1988 - legally binding (140 countries signed)

Garrison page 474 (Chapter 17 Marine Resources)

US did not sign treaty but instead declared in 1983:

US Exclusive Economic Zone :
200 miles from shore US controls resources and has jurisdiction here.

By most calculations, we have used more natural resources since 1955 than in all of recorded human history up to that time

Difference with International Law?

US does not recognize that high sea resources are shared by all people.
About 1/3rd may be unwanted bykill Drift net fishing (50 mile long nets)
Fig. 17-21, p. 490

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History of Marine Science

Lecture 2
Intro to the Ocean

The earliest widely made measurements of the ocean were of its depth
Depth Sounding - using a weighted line that has distances marked

History of Marine Science

It was the need for submarine detection tools that led to the major tools of modern oceanography after WWII.
In addition to waves bouncing off the submarine, they bounced off the seafloor We can use that information - echo sounding

History of Marine Science

V = sound wave velocity T = round-trip time

SONAR

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History of Marine Science

Small variations (up to 200 m) of the oceans height are created by gravitational attraction of local topographic variations
Satellite altimetry uses radar (microwave and radio waves)

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

The highest elevation Mt. Everest is NOT as high as the ocean is deep. We also learn that the oceans cover about 70% of the Earths surface

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Ocean basin
Ocean ridge - usually in center where oceanic crust is created

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Ocean basin
Abyssal plain - broad, flat, bounded by continental shelves, ridges, trenches

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Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Ocean basin
Trench - usually at margin where oceanic crust returns to the mantle

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Continental margin - part of continent, not ocean (slope + shelf)

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Active margins are coincident with plate boundaries
Have volcanic and earthquake activity Pacific-type

Anatomy of the Ocean Floor

Passive margins do not coincide with plate boundaries
Geologically speaking, theyre more boring Atlantic type

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Ocean Formation
Oldest sedimentary rocks from Isua, Greenland 3.8 billion years old (3,800 million years)
a. b. c. d. Pillow lava Banded iron Red beds Uraninite

Assumptions
What assumption are we making when we state that the sediments in the 4 Gyr old rocks were formed at the ocean bottom because they look like sediments we see at the ocean bottom today?

Uniformitarianism
The present is the key to the past.

Assumptions
Physical and chemical processes in the past behaved as they do in modern systems Physical laws of nature havent changed through time

Lecture 3
Planetary View of Earth and Water

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Universe = everything that physically exists (matter and energy)

Formation of the Universe

The Big Bang
Expanding Universe
redshift

Cosmic Microwave Background

afterglow

Theory + Observation

Andromeda Galaxy, 2.5 Million light years away

Redshift
A doppler effect indicating objects moving away

Cosmic Microwave Background

The space between stars and galaxies (the background) is completely dark, right? Wrong. A decent radio telescope can detect a faint background glow. This glow is uniform and not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.

Frequency of light shifts as the light propagates through a gravitational field

Absorption spectrum of sunlight (left) vs. light from distant galaxy (right)

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Galaxies
A huge rotating aggregation of stars, dust, gas and other debris Stars and planets are contained within galaxies Stars are massive spheres of hot glowing gases Stars convert hydrogen (H) and helium (He) to heavier elements by nuclear fusion as they age (nucleosynthesis)

Milky Way

The Solar System

Solar System is 8.4 billion years old

Condensed from a cloud of gas and dust, including remnants of older exploded stars (Supernovae)

Fig. 2-1, p. 41

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A nebula (a large, diffuse gas cloud of gas and dust) contracts under gravity. As it contracts, the nebula heats, flattens, and spins faster, becoming a spinning disk of dust and gas. Hydrogen and helium remain gaseous, but other materials can condense into solid seeds for building planets. Solid seeds collide and stick together. Larger ones attract others with their gravity, growing bigger still.

Star will be born in center. Planets will form in disk. Warm temperatures allow only metal/rock seeds to condense in the inner solar system. Cold temperatures allow seeds to contain abundant ice in outer solar The seeds of system. gas giant planets grow Terrestrial planets are built large enough to from metal and rock. attract hydrogen and helium gas, making them into giant, mostly gaseous planets; moons form in disks of Terrestrialplanetsremainin dust and gas inner solar system. that surround Gas giant planets remain in outer the planets. solar system. Leftovers from the formation process become asteroids (metal/rock) and comets (mostly ice). Not to scale

Configuration of Planets

The strong thermal and pressure gradient developed by the early sun evaporated the volatile elements in the inner (terrestrial) planets and condensed them in the colder outer (gaseous) planets. The chemistry of the planets is related to their distance from the sun.

Planetary Processes
Accretion Growth vs Fragmentation Heating Accretionary and Radioactive Heat Melting Sphericity + Differentiation (density) Atmosphere Acquisition
PRIMARY ATMOSPHERES
H (hydrogen) + He (Helium) from Pre-Solar Nebula

SECONDARY ATMOSPHERES
Accumulate after Nebula has dispersed Gas from Comet Ice H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, NH3, etc. Erupting Volcanoes H20, CO2, N2, H2S, SO2, etc. Heavy Molecules held by Gravity of Planets >0.1 Earth Mass

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LOSS OF GAS TO SPACE

Volatiles from mantle or from comets
Molecular Weight

H2 He 2 4

CH4 NH3 H2O 16 17 18

N2 CO2 28 44

Modern atmopsheric composition

PHOTODISSOCIATION UV light
2H2O CH4 2NH3
UV

2H2 2H2 3H2

+ O2 + + C

enriched

UV

CO2
High P (90 atm) P = 1 atm Low P (0.007 atm)

UV

N2

Ocean Formation
Water vapor was an original component of the Earth
Outgassing of lightest fraction (water, carbon dioxide, other gases)

Ocean Formation
Alternative suggestion:
Icy comets hit Earth

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Transitions less well known

Concentration of Atmospheric Gases (%)

Ocean formed early (4.0 billion years ago) Water is natures universal solvent Carbon dioxide (CO2) is dissolved into carbonic acid in the ocean And is removed as carbonate rock (limestone) in the Earths crust (sediments). A potentially massive CO2 atmosphere like that on Venus was converted into rock, leaving a thin atmosphere. But this does not finish explaining our current nitrogen/ oxygen atmosphere (O2 accumulated later as a result of biology)

100 Methane, ammonia

75 Atmosphere unknown Nitrogen

50

Water Carbon dioxide Oxygen

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0 4.5 3 4 Time (billions of years ago) 2 1

Fig. 2-11, p. 49

PLATE TECTONICS

Lecture 4
Plate Tectonics

(or the theory of just about everything in geology..)

The theory: The Earths surface is covered by a series of rigid slabs (plates) that move in relation to one another and interact at the margins of the plates. Why is this a theory and not a fact in science? Facts are observations, theories are attempts to explain those observations.

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The Earth is layered.

Solid inner core Molten outer core (16% vol)

Finally, in 1965, John Tuzo Wilson puts continental drift and sea floor spreading together into the theory of plate tectonics

Shapes of coastlines

Fossils Past climates

Continental Drift
Similar rock types

Plate Tectonics

Paleomagnetism patterns of sea floor

Sea Floor Spreading

Solid mantle (83% vol) Solid crust (1% vol)

Age of sea floor

Ridges, trenches

Why are the continents (and continental shelves) so much higher than the ocean basin?

Shelf

The tectonic system is powered by heat (convection currents)

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Oceanic crust is about 8 km thick

Continental crust can be up to 65 km thick

Three kinds of interactions:

1. Move away from one another: divergent margin (aka ocean ridge, spreading center) 2. Move toward another: convergent margin (aka subduction zone, collision zone, trench)

3. Slide past one another: transform margin (aka transform fault)

These observations support our hypothesis that ocean floors are lower because the oceanic crust is denser.

Actually, 2 different sets of terms for layering: Mechanical:

Lithosphere- rigid outer layer, plates Asthenosphere - weak, flowing layer Lower mantle - rigid lower layer Outer core - dense liquid Inner core - dense solid

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past. Do you think that the ocean basins have always been the same shape? 600Ma

Chemical Composition: Crust - granite, light (continental) basalt, dense (oceanic) Mantle - Fe, Mg silicates Core - Fe, Ni Crust + upper mantle = lithosphere (upper 100-200 km) Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

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and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

500Ma

430Ma

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

340Ma

260Ma

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

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and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

200Ma

120Ma

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

and one last item concerning oceans in the geologic past.

065Ma

020Ma

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

Movement of continents has been significant over geologic time

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Origin of sediments

Lecture 5
Sediments

Sources of ocean sediment are: A. Materials derived from land (terrigenous) B. Materials produced by organisms (biogenous) C. Minerals precipitated directly from seawater (hydrogenous or authigenic) D. Particles from space (cosmogenous) (E. Anthropogenic)

A. Terrigenous sediments are the most aboundant marine sediments by volume (>87% volume, 45% of area).

B. Biogenous sediments are the most abundant marine sediments by area (55% of area). Come from: - sea shells - skeletons - microscopic algae

5 cm

0.0002 cm

0.02 cm

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Oozes are a type of biogenous sediment (>30% biological material) that form from accumulations of plankton tests (microscopic shells). Silica (SiO2) Siliceous Ooze

Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD)

As we'll see: colder water and water at higher pressures can dissolve more CO2, making the water slightly acidic.

Diatoms & Radiolarians Below the CCD, (avg. 4500 m) calcium carbonate dissolves! Does that mean we can use the presence of carbonate/calcareous ooze to estimate water depth? What is the average depth of the ocean? What type of sediment is likely dominant over much of the ocean?

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Calcareous ooze

Coccolithophores & Foraminifera

C. Hydrogenous sediments are formed in place precipitated directly from seawater *

Precipitation: chemical process in which ions in solution combine and produce a solid.
For example: Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3 or: Na+ + Cl- NaCl

D. Cosmogenous particles constantly rain down from space but are a very small proportion of marine sediment (<<1%). These are mostly interplanetary dust and micrometeorites. Some are microtectites, rare, glassy particles formed during a meteor impact. Generally raindropshaped, <1.5 mm long.

(*Technically, this does include biogenous sediments, but manganese nodules, phosphorites, and evaporite deposits are the main examples.)

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Since particle size tells us so much about depositional environment, it is one of the ways we classify sediments:

Relative dating relies on the Principle of Original Horizontality

- gravity requires that stuff is deposited in generally horizontal layers.

... the Principle of Superposition

- in a normal setting, the stuff on the bottom was deposited first and the layers of stuff on top get successively younger

and the Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships

- stuff that cuts across other stuff must be younger than the other stuff Which of these make it to the ocean?

Absolute dating is quantitative: my dog is 2 yrs old

Sometimes sediments have annual layers (varves) that can be counted like tree rings but usually only in particular environments (e.g. glacial lakes)

Radioactive elements are unstable and decay:

The half-life is the amount of time for of the radioactive parent element to decay into its daughter product

Absolute ages for marine rocks are usually derived from radiometric dating performed on volcanic ashes.

Radiometric dating cannot be performed on sediment particles themselves. To explain why, let's look at how radiometric dating is done...

Parent Isotope Uranium 238 Potassium 40 Carbon 14

Daughter isotope Lead 206 Argon 40 Nitrogen 14

Half-life 4.5 Gyr 8.4 Gyr 5,700 yr

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Lecture 6
Water

* Earths main energy source is solar radiation Incident light from the Sun heats the surface.
*Waters high heat capacity allows it to absorb or give up this energy without too much temperature change *Circulation in the ocean and atmosphere redirects energy from regions of excess (tropical zones) to regions of deficit (polar zones) moderating temperatures in both.

+
H O H

Leads to hydrogen bonding - intermolecular bonds

Electrostatic interactions (like charges repel, opposites attract)

Water is a polar molecule (one end is more negative and the other is more positive).

H and O from different molecules form intermolecular bonds (hydrogen bonds) that make water a liquid.

H2O- liquid at room temp H2S- gas (no H bonding)

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The polar nature of water also makes it a VERY good dissolver of salts etc.A good solvent

This polar nature also makes water wetit adheres (sticks) well to things

Pure water

Temperature (F)

But the ocean is NOT pure water. What is the principal difference between water and seawater?
Density (g/cm3)

30 1.0300

35

40

45

50

Salinity = 35 1.0200 1.33C (29.61F) Salinity = 24.7

Its salty!!!
Average sea water contains about 3.5% dissolved solids and 96.5% water

1.0100

Salinity = 15

1.0000 Same as B in Figure 6.3 0.9900 4 2 0 Salinity = 0

2 4 6 8 Temperature (C)

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Fig. 6-9, p. 163

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Heat capacity is how much heat one gram of a material can absorb before its temperature changes by 1 C. Water has one of the highest heat capacities of any known substance.
This is because the hydrogen bonds in liquid water are so strong that lots of heat (vibrational) energy is required to break these intermolecular bonds, (and remember, the hydrogen bonds are a consequence of the polar nature of water molecules).

D-C = 80 cal/g (ice->water @ 0oC) C-F = 100 cal/g (heat water 0-100oC) F-G = 540 cal/g (water->steam @ 100oC)

E-D - all ice, adding heat raises temperature of ice to 0 C (melt point)
D-C - ice + liquid water, constant T because all heat going to melt ice C-F - all liquid, heat raises temperature of water by 1 C for each calorie added per gram. F-G - liquid + vapor, water boiling, constant T because heat added goes to breaking H bonds and allowing molecules to escape (boil)

The ocean acts as a thermal buffer: water resists rising in temperature as heat is added or removed Sahara Desert (50 C) to Antarctic continent (-90 C) on continents 140 C range Ocean changes from freezing (-2 C) to the tropics (34 C) 36 C range

Why is this important to you?

1. In hot climates, evaporating water absorbs LOTS of heat energy that could go to heating you up! (the water in your perspiration gets some of that energy from your skin, cooling you). TROPICS 2. In cold climates, freezing water gives up heat to keep the air from getting any colder than 0 C. POLAR REGIONS 3. In your cold drink, melting ice absorbs heat that could go to warming the liquid. This is why your drink stays cold!

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Pycnocline Pycnocline 0 1 Depth (km) 2 3 13,124 4 Density Temperature ( C) Density Depth (ft) 6,562 Deep zone 9,843 is also a Surface zone Pycnocline 3,281 Thermocline

can also be a

Halocline

Depth

Halocline

Vertical density and temperature profiles compared

Salinity

Vertical density and salinity profiles compared

Temp differences are most common source of stratification

e.g. Arctic Ocean (freshwater in upper layers from rivers)

Fig. 6-18c, p. 169

A Few Ions Account for Most of the Oceans Salinity

Lecture 7
The Salty Ocean
A representation of the most abundant components of a kilogram of seawater at 35 salinity. Note that the specific ions are shown in grams per kilogram, equivalent to parts per thousand ().

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A salt is an ionic compound (contains two or more elements) - an inorganic solid Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Residence time =

Amount of an element or ion in ocean Rate at which this element or ion is added or removed

In solid
Na wants to give up an electron to Cl, making Na positively charged and the Cl negatively charged in the solid. They attract to form an ionic bond. Water, a polar molecule, pulls the Na+ and the Cl- apart. Conservative elements - do not change much over time Nonconservative elements change over short time (usually tied to biological or seasonal processes)

NaCl does NOT exist in seawater, only Na+ and the Cl- do.

Ocean mixing time is around 1,600 years

Where did the oceans salts come from?

Given that a water molecule is recycled every 4100 years and the age of the oceans is 4,000,000,000 years old, each molecule has been recycled almost 1,000,000 times!
i) Erosion of continents via rain, glaciers, rivers ii) From Earths interior (mantle)

Point i)

Waters great ability to dissolve solids allows it to carry ions from the continents in runoff to the oceans.

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back to sodium chloride:

erosion of continents followed by river transport outgassing of volcanos and black smokers

How can we determine salinity?

1. Measure all ion concentrations. Sum. OR 2. Use Principle of Constant Proportions and measure only a few ion ( mostly chloride*, Cl-).
Ions occur in seawater in constant ratios, or proportions. Total concentation may vary but ratio does not.

Na+

Cl-

NaCl
(important for preserving food, human health)

This is because the ocean is in chemical equilibrium.

Salinity = 1.80655 X Chlorinity in Average Salinity = (1.80655 X 19.2) = 34.7

(* F-, Br- and I- also contribute to chlorinity)

Oxygen: made by photosynthesizing plants, used by animals, plants to respire

CO2 is a greenhouse gas atmospheric abundance has risen by 33% in 300 yrs. BUT, there is 60 times more CO2 in oceans than in the atmosphere. >40,000 times as much carbon stored in sediments (as CaCO3 ) than is present in ALL life on Earth.

Carbon dioxide: made by respiration, used by plants Nitrogen: dissolved from atmosphere

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Last piece of carbon puzzle:

The result is an ocean with a remarkably stable pH:

precipitate CaCO3 CCD Precipitation/dissolution of carbonate sediments: deep water is slightly acidic (higher CO2 and thus carbonic acid), so carbonate sediments from plankton shells slowly dissolve, adding carbonate ion to deep water. dissolve CaCO3

Calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD)

Calcareous ooze is NOT found everywhere because deep seawater contains more carbon dioxide (CO2) which makes the water slightly acidic. Below the CCD, calcium carbonate dissolves.

Lecture 8
Atmospheric Circulation

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The amount of heat (solar radiation) at a point on Earths surface depends on the position of the Sun above the horizon:

We can see the effects of uneven solar heating as warmer and cooler regions

1 m2 of solar energy is distributed over a larger area at the poles than at the equator

Angle is greater near the equator, so heating is greater.

Energy density (watts/m2)

Satellite data showing water vapor in the atmosphere- red (high vapor pressure) blue (low vapor pressure)

The Earths axis of rotation is tilted 23.5 relative to its orbit around the Sun:
Polaris (sun aims directly at equator) Spring Winter (Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun) Summer (Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun) Fall (sun aims directly at equator)

If the peak solar heating occurs in June, why are our hottest months in July-September (and conversely, the coldest months after the minimum in December)?
(Hint: does a pot of water heat up instantly on the stove?)

Thermal inertia - the Earths surface takes time to absorb the heat and warm, especially the oceans. (WHY?) High heat capacity of water!
In December, the oceans are still losing heat and keeping the climate warmer than it would be without them.

Tilt causes seasons - NOT distance from the sun!!!

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A simple pattern of heat transfer would look like this:

Water vapor in cooling air condenses and voil, rain!

Warm, humid air rises and cools.

Heat is transferred by winds and ocean currents.

(We will look at the properties of gases & water to understand this better)

Dry air is more dense than humid air

but this is an oversimplification

Circulation cells are tilted instead of aligned N-S. H L The full picture H

Merry-go-round experiment

Coriolis Effect

H L H
Winds are named after the direction they come from! (orange arrow shows direction of surface winds)

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Everything on the Earth is moving eastward at a speed determined by its location north or south of the equator:
In fact, you are moving eastward in your seat RIGHT NOW at 1414 km/hr (848 mph)!

Extratropical cyclones Westerlies NE trade winds ITCZ SE trade winds Westerlies

ITCZ

but so is the Earth beneath you, so you do not notice it.

Extra-tropical cyclone

Summary so far: Uneven solar heating across Earths surface leads to an excess of heat at the ______ and a deficit of heat equator poles at the ______. Warm, humid air at the equator rises and circulates poleward in convection cells. These cells transfer heat from the equator towards the poles. This convection explains the high rates of precipitation at the ________ and at 60 latitudes, equator and the desert conditions at 30 and poles. _____ Summary:

Average wind directions are set by the interaction of two processes: _____________________________ transfer of heat from the equator to _______ and _________________. The latter rotation of the Earth the poles results in a Coriolis force that deflects moving air masses clockwise in the northern hemisphere and ________ counterclockwise ______________ in the southern hemisphere.

2/3 of heat transfer to poles occurs by air currents (one third by ocean curents- see next lecture)

On to the exciting repercussions of atmospheric circulation

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Storms are powered by solar energy! Two main types: 1.) Tropical cyclones (form in tropical regions) These result when a warm humid air mass acquires energy from warm water as it passes over. They occur within a single air mass. E.g. hurricanes (large tropical cyclones) 2.) Extratropical cyclones (extra = outside) These result when air masses (large volumes of air with distinctive temperature, humidity, and density) collide (between Ferrel and polar cells)

Tracks of tropical cyclones - breeding grounds in orange

Between 10 and 25 degrees latitude in either hemisphere

Deflection of winds approaching a centre of low P (Northern Hemisphere)

While the Coriolis effect does not easily predict the ccw rotation of the cyclone, it DOES predict its track:
Hurricane Georges

Note: air in cyclone storm turns in opposite direction to Coriolis

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Mass Flow of Ocean water

Lecture 9
Ocean Circulation

Driven by wind or gravity 2 main types of ocean currents: 1. Surface currents (wind-driven)
affects only 10% of total volume of ocean water

2. Thermohaline currents
depend on density differences from variations in temperature & salinity exist in other 90%

Surface ocean currents driven by wind and deep currents driven by density differences (thermohaline) in water masses

Surface currents driven by wind affect only about 10% of the oceans water (upper 400 m)

Combine to transport 1/3 of total heat transferred from the equator to the poles

(other 2/3 transferred by air currents- last lecture)

Thermohaline currents affect the other 90% volume of the water.

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A geostrophic gyre is an oceanwide circular current bounded by the continents, westerly winds, and the trade winds
gyre
How to remember? Gulf Stream goes north, cold water on CA coast comes south. Southern hemisphere is opposite.

North Atlantic

Geostrophic gyres result from a balance of forces: 1. Wind friction (in direction of wind) 2. Coriolis effect (as for air currents)

Equator 3. Pressure gradient effect gravity opposing water piling up downwind

South Atlantic The gyres gyre circulate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.

The net result is current flow at 45 relative to the wind direction.

In the northern hemisphere, the western edge of the gyre is a northbound current transporting warm water northward.

Western boundary currents are fastest, deepest and narrowest (< 100 km wide)

The Gulf Stream moves ~2 m/s, extends to a depth of 450 m, and is 70 km wide.

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Eastern boundary currents carry cold water southward.

Linking the eastern & western boundary currents: transverse currents

They are slower, wider, and shallower.

Steadily blowing westerlies and trade winds continually provide energy for the ocean currents.

The Canary Current moves ~0.5 m/s and is 1000 km wide.

Interplay between ocean currents and atmospheric circulation is responsible for El Nio and La Nia events

NORMAL YEAR: (Tropical Pacific)

Trade winds blow E-->W due to high pressure off S. America and low pressure near Australia/Indonesia

L
H

Wind-driven equatorial currents push water west and develop pool of warmest water in world

Upwelling (deep water) brings nutrients for fish (happy fishermen!)

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EL NIO YEAR: (Tropical Pacific) H L

Pressure over Australia changes to high every 3-8 years, weakening winds moving westward.

Normal: Warm water in western Pacific

Lack of wind blowing west lets warm water flow east to arrive at Peru around Christmas

Downwelling shuts off nutrients for fish (sad fishermen!)

EL NIO: Trade winds slow and warm water starts moving.

EL NIO CONSEQUENCES:
Warm water (towards west coast of South America) Increased evaporation Increased precipitation (rain) Flooding and all sorts of other nasty stuff

Usually lasts 1 year (as does La Nia)

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Surface currents driven by wind affect only about 10% of the oceans water volume

North Atlantic Deep Water

{
Thermohaline currents affect the other 90% of the water volume

Antarctic Bottom Water Deep circulation conveyer belt

Lecture 10
Waves
Simplified Thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic

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Wave terminology:
wavelength (L) distance between adjacent crests

height - size of wave cycle - one repetition of wave pattern period (T) = time it takes for adjacent crests to pass one point in space (time taken for one cycle)

Waves behave differently, according to water depth:

How big can waves get?

Stable waves have a maximum height of 1/7th their wavelength (but they can be smaller):

Longer wavelengths travel faster, but C = L/T ALWAYS!

Deep water (depth > L/2)

C gL 2 1.25 L

transitional waves

Shallow water (depth < L/20)

g *d 3.1* d

speed depends on wavelength only

speed depends on depth only

Above that height, the crest becomes unstable and forms whitecaps (break up). but waves rarely reach their max possible height

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To get REALLY big waves, you need interference:

Waves can cancel each other out (as one moves water up, the other moves it down)

Destructive interference

Interference is the combination of two or more waves into a single resulting one.

Constructive interference
Waves can also add to one another (both trying to move the water up at the same time)

The last type of wave for today: Tsunami

(correct name: seismic sea wave when triggered by earthquake)

Indian Ocean tsunami of Dec. 26th, 2004

Wave triggered by movement of seafloor (earthquake usually, but landslides, volcanoes also) rapidly displacing huge volumes of ocean water.

Rupture along a plate boundary lifted ocean floor

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Tsunami have periods of 1,000 sec and wavelengths of 200 km (200,000 m). Are these shallow or deep water waves?
What is L/2? Are there any ocean basins deeper than this? What is L/20? Are there any ocean basins deeper than this? Tsunami are ALWAYS shallow water waves! (behave as shallow waves but can occupy deep water)

Thus, we use

g *d

3.1* d

to find:

C = 3.1* 4600 m = 210 m/s (470 mph)

(4600m is a typical Pacific abyssal plain water depth)

This is FAST, but a ship sitting at sea would simply rise up and fall back down in about 9 minutes: not really noticeable because wave height might be only 0.5 m for large wave.

Dec 26, 2004: M9.1 earthquake in Indonesia

Lecture 11
Tides

Wave height in the open ocean was 1-2 m

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Tides are rhythmic variations of sea level with periods of 12 or 24 hours, depending on where you are on Earth.

6 hours later

Tides are caused by an imbalance* between the gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon (on Earth) and the inertia of water on a rotating Earth.
(inertia = resistance to change path)

* forces must be unequal or no movement -- Newtons 1st law (F=ma)

One bulge is due to gravity and the other is due to inertia (of water as Earth rotates) Inertia (resistance to changing direction of a moving mass)

The 12 hour period seen in tides is due to the spin of the Earth on its axis, one revolution every 24 hours. They are NOT due to the orbit of the Moon.

Moons gravitational pull

Combined Result = 2 bulges

Earth rotates beneath the water bulges

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Taking the ratio of the tidal force of the Sun to that of the Moon:
(msun = 27,000,000 x mmoon and rsun = 387 x rmoon): Tidalforcesun msun/rsun3 = Tidalforcemoon mmoon/rmoon3 (27x106xmmoon)/(387rmoon)3 27x106 .46 = = 0.46 3 mmoon/rmoon 3873 1 =

Only twice every 27.3 days are the tidal forces of the Moon and Sun aligned:

The Sun exerts a tidal force approximately half of that of Moon (on the Earth)

Spring tides occur at 2 week intervals (they dont just occur in springtime)

During neap tides, high tides are not very high and low tides are not very low Spring and Neap tides appear every two weeks

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Yet another complication: Yearly timescale

There is a seasonal dependence because Earth is 3,700,000 km farther from the Sun in summer than in Winter:

Are tides deep water or shallow water waves?

Consider wavelength = 20000 km For deep water, ocean depth > 20000/2 km
(max ocean depth = 11 km and average ~3.8 km)

For shallow water, depth < 20000/20 = 1000 km

Tides are shallow water waves!

Winter tides in the northern hemisphere tend to be larger than summer tides.

Tides have a lot of energy!

Dynamic Theory of Tides

Tides are shallow water waves and are forced waves because the driving forces are always there

Also LOCAL effects complicate things:

Tidal waves get reflected and deflected by land masses (continents), and these waves constructively and destructively interfere with each other. Ocean basin shape can oscillate water (rock back and forth similar to seiches).

But small wave height: solar

(theoretical max tidal range)

lunar 0.55 m

0.24 m

This leads to

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.. a complicated pattern of tides.

Lecture 12
Coasts
Semidiurnal - 2 high and 2 low per day (12 hr period) Diurnal - 1 high and 1 low per day (24 hr period) Mixed - unequal high and low (12 hr periods)

Coasts* are active places, so their temporary features represent a dynamic balance between several processes.

Processes that determine the location and nature of a coast:

Eustatic (global) sea level Erosion of rocks Deposition of sediments Tectonic Activity Biological Activity (coral reefs, mangroves)

* A coast is a strip of land in which the effects of the ocean are felt, while shoreline is the boundary between the ocean and land.

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Eustatic sea level (= global average sea level)

Amount of the liquid water can change -more ice(=less liquid water) in ice ages -volcanic outgassing (can add water and raise sea level) Volume of the ocean basins (container) change -plate motions, rapid seafloor spreading, -rapid sedimentation off continents Water expansion/contraction -warmer water expands, cooler contracts
More local changes from tectonic activity, winds, currents, storms.

What if all Arctic & Antarctic ice melted?*

60 m rise in sea level inundating coastal areas
18,000 years ago

5m sea level rise

*This is currently happening as global temperatures rise (predicted that a 1 m sea level rise would flood NYC subway)

Over shorter time scales, coasts are a balance between erosion and deposition:
Erosion wave action, rivers, longshore transport wave action, rivers, longshore transport. (net loss)

For civilizations time scales, the biggest global effect is probably glacial melting and freezing:

Deposition -

(net gain) last Ice Age

What do you notice about the processes?

Theyre the same!

Ranges from 6 m higher to 130 m lower

The yellow bar shows the last 10,000 years of human civilization. Sea level has risen an average of 0.5 cm/year (18.5 cm rise last century)

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Erosional coasts (deposition < erosion)

(can be made of igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rocks)

Features of an Erosional Coast

Wave-cut platform Original land surface Sea cliff

Wave action erodes rocks at shoreline:

Notch eroded by waves

However, water+sand scouring is more effective than water alone. (Think: does sandblasting work as well if no sand is used?)

Wave erosion produces a gently sloping wave-cut platform and steep sea cliffs

Depositional coasts: (deposition > erosion) (composed of sediments)

Key to understanding deposition: the ability of water to move sediment depends on its energy of motion (speed, volume) Faster water can move more sediment. As water slows down, sediment drops out and settles. Depositional beaches are where waves have lost enough energy to no longer carry their sediment!

Beaches form on depositional coasts:

finer particles

Particle size depends on slope: coarser particles

finer --> gentle slopes coarse -->steeper slopes

ENERGY LOSS FROM FRICTION

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Longshore Drift - movement of sediment parallel to coast

Deltas are the next most important feature of depositional coasts after beaches. They are accumulations of sediments at river mouths.

(In CA, up to 1.1 m/s)

Results from waves hitting at an angle and being reflected

Murky water with suspended particles

Gulf of Mexico

Estuaries are enclosed inlets where fresh water and salt water mix Chesapeake Bay, MD

Active reef formation in warm, clear water 5-10 m deep. Corals are killed by fresh water*, so the tops of the reefs are flat (max extent of rain penetration)
Fringing reefs at edges of continents:

Salinity ()

Largest structure on Earth made by organisms 1500 miles long

Types: drowned river mouths, fjords (glacial channels), lagoons behind barrier islands, fault controlled

Great Barrier Reef, Australia

* reefs do not like rivers - fresh water and sediment

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General features of U.S. Coasts shaped by tectonics:

Pacific coastnarrow margin, tectonic uplift

Atlantic coasttrailing edge of continent, wide margin

Gulf coast - small tides, small waves, lots of sediment

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