Cold RegTons Science and Technology, 5 (1981) 67-75 Elsevier Sc/entlfic Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed m The Netherlands

67

THE THERMAL Omar T. Faroukl

P R O P E R T I E S O F S O I L S IN C O L D R E G I O N S

Department of Civil Engmeenng, The Queen's Un/verstty of Belfast, Belfast (U K J

(RecemvedMarch 2, 1981, accepted m revzsedform May 6, 1981)

ABSTRACT

A summary ts gTven o f some o f the main features associated with the thermal properties o f sods tn coM regions as described m a USACRREL monograph and report The main effects o f the freezing process tn sods are noted and its analog), with the drymg process zs emphasized It ts shown that the unfrozen water present tn frozen fine-gramed sods plays an important and effective role tn facthtattng heat transfer The influence o f the degree o f saturatton ts described and the concept o f a "critical" degree o f saturatTon mtroduced The methods for calculatmg the thermal conducttvlty o f frozen sods are compared and some o f their trends indicated The results o f an evaluation o f these methods show whwh gives the best agreement with measured thermal conducttvtty values under certain conditions

could have serious engineering and ecological maphcatlons Knowledge of the thermal behavlour is essential In ensuring that such a disturbance does not occur Indeed the thermal properties are required in any problem Involving a study of the heat exchange at the ground surface or of the penetration, amplitude and effects of the dally and seasonal temperature variations Some important aspects of the thermal proper. ties and behaviour of freezing and frozen sods wlU be briefly outlined here This summary is extracted from a comprehensive description of the thermal properties of sods given in a USACCRREL monograph (Farouki, 1981 a) An accompanying USACRREL report (Faroukl, 1981b) evaluates the methods for calculating sod thermal conductivity The mare results of this report, as they apply to frozen softs, wdl be summarised showing the best method(s) to use for certain conditions

INTRODUCTION

THE FREEZING PROCESS

In cold regions, permafrost is generally overlain by an active layer which alternates between the frozen and the unfrozen condition The properties of this layer are important since it may be the foundation material for buildings, roads or other types of structure Frost heave of this material, or its subsequent thaw, could lead to damage or loss of stability Values of the thermal properties of the active layer are required in calculating the depths of frost and thaw The thermal states of ice-rich permafrost soils are In delicate balance and disturbance of this regune

The freezing of sod generally produces significant changes in its structural, mechanical and thermal properties Depending on the sod type, availability of water and rate of freezmg, three distinctive types of frozen sod structure (or 'texture') are formed homogeneous, layered or lattice, many gradations may occur in between These structural differences may be expected to produce differences in thermophysical characteristics and behaviour In particular, layered structure is associated with considerable moisture migration to the freezing front as may occur in a frost-susceptible silt soil having

0165-232X/81/0000-0000/$02 50 1981 Elsevler Sclentlfic Pubhshmg Company

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access to groundwater from below As a result both moisture and heat flow occur simultaneously They are considered to be coupled processes interacting together In consequence, changes occur In the properties of both the freezing layer and the underlying unfrozen zone For saturated softs the thermal conductivity of the frozen soft, kf, is greater than the thermal conductivity of the soil In the unfrozen condition, ku, because ice has a thermal conductivity about four times that of water In the case of coarse soil, hke gravel, the thermal conductivity may be considered to increase abruptly as the gravel freezes On the other hand, some unfrozen water remains in finegrained softs as the temperature drops below 0C so that the increase in the thermal conductivity is gradual When the degree of saturation is low, however, kf may actually be less than ku as explained in a following section The permeability of frozen soil IS less than that of the unfrozen soil because the pore ice formed has an effect similar to that of air bubbles in unfrozen water flow The freezing process is analogous to the drying process which occurs in soils above 0C The unfrozen water present In frozen softs is comparable to the adsorbed water contained in air-dry softs at temperatures above freezing (Tyutyunov, 1963) Indeed it has been shown that the amount of unfrozen water present In a free-grained soft at a certain negative temperature may be estimated by first determining the suction corresponding to this temperature and then deducing the water content related to this suction value from the drying curve for this soil (Wllhams, 1964) The water content so determined for the drying situation is then taken to be equal to the unfrozen water content m the frozen soil The ice crystals in frozen soil 'substitute' for the air pockets in air-dry unfrozen soft The soft-freezing characteristic is analogous to the soft-drying characteristic and cycles of freezing/thawing are like cycles of drying]wetting (Koopmans and Miller, 1966) A similar cohesive soft structure results in either case with a disturbance of the natural structural bonds in the sod thereby adding thermal resistance

THE T H A W I N G PROCESS

Increase in the ice content decreases the thawing rate which also depends on the size and orientation of the ice pockets If these are smaller, they have a greater contact surface per unit weight leading to a greater heat input to the ice and a quicker phase transition (Bakulin et al, 1973) Vertically oriented ice streaks accelerate the thawing process but this is retarded by ice velnlets that are horizontal A frozen soft having a homogeneous structure retains essentially the same structure on thawing However, if the soil has a layered or lattice structure, this wftl change when an external load is applied during thawing When a frozen soft thaws, the liquid water formed rehydrates the particles and the aggregates causing them to swell The migration and redistribution of the water after thawing depend on the type of soft and on the boundary conditions

U N F R O Z E N WATER IN FROZEN SOILS

The importance of the presence of unfrozen water in frozen free-grained soils has been acknowledged The 'driving force' causing water migration to the freezing zone is connected with the unfrozen water The properties of this unfrozen water affect the thermal properties and behavaour of the frozen soft According to recent Russian concepts (Dostovalov and Lomonosov, 1973), the unfrozen water is visuallzed as consisting of three zones Nearest to the soft particle surface is zone I called a 'hot Ice' containing molecules which behave hke atoms In a crystal This IS followed by an Intermediate mobile 'detached layer' (zone II), beyond which the water IS almost free (zone III) The decrease In the unfrozen water content with decreasing negative temperatures is well documented At very low temperatures, the continuity of the Interconnected unfrozen water films may be disrupted The unfrozen water appears to play a strategic and effective role in improving heat transfer m frozen softs as discussed by Farouki (1981a) This conclusion resulted from the observation that the thermal con-

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ductlVlty of certain frozen sods decreased as the temperature decreased, In spite of the fact that the ice content increases and the thermal conductivity of this ice also increases with decreasing negative temperature The decrease in the overall soil thermal conductivity was attributed to the reduction in the unfrozen water content It appeared that this unfrozen water may have a thermal conductivity higher than that of Ice In addition, or alternatwely, the unfrozen water may play an important part in faclhtatmg heat transfer The former posslblhty conforms with the concept of Dostovalov and Lomonosov (1973) that the above mentioned zone II water has a decreased activation energy and an increased mobility and thermal conductivity by comparison with free water The beneficial role of the unfrozen water in finegrained sods as regards Improving heat transfer may be contrasted with the contact thermal resistance which was noted by McGaw (1968) to be present in sand/ice mixes where, of course, no unfrozen water exists at negative temperatures The adsorbed layer system possesses hereditary creep which is a sort of 'memory' This gives rise to hysteresis effects as is evident from the specific heat cycle observed when freezmg is followed by thawing Analogous hysteresis effects occur m association with wetting/drying cycles

1973) In peat soils, salts were found to lead to Increased aggregation and lntensaficatlon of phase transformations with a reduction in the active soil surface and the assocmted amount of unfrozen water (Pavlova, 1970)

EFFECT OF DEGREE OF SATURATION The observations of Lange and McKtm (1963) on a freezing-soft model showed that there exists a critical degree of saturation which, if exceeded, gives rise to a 'jump' In the percentage of water frozen It may therefore be suggested that, in a soil having a degree of saturation larger than a certain 'critical' value, the water near the air interface is sufficiently removed from the soil mineral surface so that Its conversion to ice becomes easier and the propagation of ice structure 'rewards' towards the soil partlcle surface is facilitated The remalnmg unfrozen water has a different structure, being very much under the Influence of the particle surface A study of the thermal conductivity data, obtamed on frozen fine-grained soils at decreasing negatwe temperatures by Wolfe and Thleme (1964), Kersten (1949) and Haynes et al (1980), also points to the existence of a critical degree of saturation In such soils If the actual degree of saturation is below this value, the observed thermal conductwlty is found to decrease continuously with decreasing temperature This appears to be due to the further conversion of the unfrozen water to ice with the consequences discussed in a previous section To reiterate, the effectiveness of heat transfer appears to be diminished on account of the loss of part of the strategic function played by this unfrozen water and because this water may have a higher thermal conductivity than the ice replacing it When the degree of saturation is hagher than the critical value, the large amount of Ice formed and the increase in its thermal conductwlty with decreasing temperature appear to have an over-riding effect with a consequent Increase in the overall thermal conductlwty of the sod as its temperature drops well below 0(2 In the case of freezing coarse soils, it was noted by Penner et al (1975) that, at low degrees of saturation, the freezmg process apparently draws water

EFFECTS OF IONS AND SALTS In unfrozen sods, a greater amount of swelhng occurs if the valence of the exchange cations is lower Slmdarly for frozen sods, the amount of unfrozen water increases as the valence decreases (Nersesova and Tsytovlch, 1963) With mcreasmg valence of cations, the associated mineral surfaces are characterized by a larger surface energy As a result clays with a calcium ion, for example, undergo more water migration during freezing than those with a sodium ion The multlvalent cation thus leads to increased frost susceptibility and heaving of the clay (Tsytowch, 1975) During the freezing process salts can have an unportant effect on the structural properties of a sod, causing Intense particle aggregation, especially when multlvalent cations are present (Tsytovach et al,

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away from the contact bridges between the particles so as to form ice in the pores This results m a lower thermal conductlwty of the frozen soft as compared with the unfrozen soil

ICE-RICH PERMAFROST SOILS

Permafrost is often ice-rich while seasonally freezing sod may be oversaturated with ice due to moisture migration and subsequent freezing Ice crystals vary m size and orientation whfte ice banding may decrease contacts of particles The data of Slusarchuk and Watson (1975) on undisturbed ice-rich permafrost show a decrease m the thermal conductwlty as the ice content increases This trend was attributed to the presence of many small air bubbles and discontinuities m the naturally occurring ice-rich permafrost The unportance of various contact resistances and dlscontinult~es was shown by McGaw (1968) in his experunents on the thermal conductivity of sand/ice mixtures

Johansen (1975) analysed this data and, comparing it w~th his geometric mean equation, showed that Kersten's equations Lmply a solids thermal conductivity, ks, of about 5 W/mK for the sandy softs and about 3 W/mK for the silt/clay group The method of Mlckley (1951) is based on his concept of a umt cube of soil consisting of a certain monohthIc arrangement of the soil solids and an associated ldeahzed arrangement of the pore water and air The following expression for the thermal conductivity of saturated soil, ksat, was derwed ksat = kwa 2 + ks(l--n) 2 4 kskw(2a-2a2) ks(a) + kw(1 - a ) where k w is the thermal conductivity of the water and 'a' is calculable from the fractional porosity, n, by means of the relationship 3a 2 - 2a 3 = n While Mlckley's method was intended for unfrozen soils, it was used to calculate the thermal conductwlty of frozen sod simply by considermg the water to be replaced by ice (Faroukl, 1981b) De Vrles (1963) also developed his equations for unfrozen sod which was imagined to consist of sohd particles and air voids distributed in a contmuous water medmm For such an unsaturated sod, the thermal conductivity is given by the equation k= w w k w + F a xaka + Fsxsk s x w + Fax a + Fsx s where Fs-- 3 1 1 + [(ks/kw)

METHODS FOR DETERMINING SOIL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

The well-known method of Kersten (1949) has been generally used in determining the thermal conductivity of soils It may be noted that, while Kersten extenswely tested nineteen natural soils and crushed rocks, each of the four resulting empirical equations for thermal conductwlty is based on the data for just four or five different softs His equations and charts apply to two groups of softs l e. silt/clay materials and sandy soils, for the frozen and unfrozen conditions In the case of frozen Slit/clay softs, Kersten obtained the foUowlng equaUon for the thermal conductwlty k k = 0 001442 101 3"r~d + 0 01226 10 499-rd w which gwes k m W/mK, 7d being In g/cm a and the moisture content w in percent For frozen sandy softs, the equation is k = 0 01096 10aI16~d + 0 00461 10 911s'tdw While Kersten did not test softs in the saturated state, he extrapolated his data to full saturation

1] 0 125

and

1
1 + [(ks/kw)- 11 0 75

Fa= 3

1 + [ ( k a / k w ) - 1] ga

1
1 + [ ( k a / k w ) - 1)gc

and x is the volume fraction in umt soft volume, the subscripts w, a and s referring to the water, air and solids components respectively The air pore shape

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factors, ga and gc may be approxamately determined from the equat:ons

ga = 0 333 - - -

Xa

(0 333 - 0 035)

for 0 09 ~<Xw ~< n and

ga=OO13+O944Xw

for 0~<Xw ~<0 09

where k I is the thermal conductwlty of ice (2 2 W/ mK), kw is that of water (0 57 W/InK) and w u is the fractional volume of the unfrozen water Such a geometrical mean equation was previously apphed to frozen sods by Judge (1973) On the basis of Kersten's data, Johansen found that for any type of frozen sod Ke = Sr (with a varmtlon less than + Ke = 0 1) The thermal conductwlty of an unsaturated frozen sod may then be calculated from the equation k = (ksat - k dry ) Sr + kdry m which Sr is expressed as a fraction of umty Obviously Johansen's method is a techmque for interpolation between the dry and the saturated values of the thermal conducUvaty on the basis of the degree of saturation In addmon to the methods mentioned above, two further methods may be apphed to calculate the thermal conductivity of saturated softs One of these is the method of Kunnn and Smith (1960) and the other Is based on the Modified Resistor Equation of Woodslde and Messmer (1961) Considering the heat flow through a packing of spherical particles saturated with fired of thermal conductwlty kf and making arbitrary stmphfymg assumptions, Kunnn and Smith (1960) derwed the following expression for the thermal conductwlty of the packing

taking gc = 1 - 2ga Penner (1970) apphed the method of De Vnes to saturated frozen sods by consldenng the unfrozen water to be the continuous medmm containing the sod particles and the ice crystals This approach was extended by Faroukl (1981b) to unsaturated frozen sods which would addmonally contain air pockets distributed m the continuous medium Obwously there is a lower hmlt to the unfrozen water content below which it becomes discontinuous and can no longer be consMered as the continuous medmm Johansen (1975) developed equations for the thermal conductwlty, k, of an unsaturated soil expressed as a function of its thermal conductwlty m the dry state, kdry, and that m the saturated state, ksat, at the same dry density Th~s was done by introducing a normahzed thermal conductwlty, called the Kersten number, Ke, gwen by k - kd~y

~e =
ksat - kdry Two empirical equations were developed by Johansen for kdxy as follows (1) for natural sods, 0 135 7d + 64 7 kdry - 2700 -- 0 947 7d + 20% W/mK where 7d Is the dry density m kg/m a, the sohds umt weight being taken as 2700 kg/m 3 and (n) for crushed rocks, kdry = 0 039n-2 2 + 25% W/mK where n is the porosity (frachonal) To calculate the thermal conductlwty of saturated frozen sod, Johansen proposed the use of a geometric mean equation based on the thermal conductlvltles of the components and their respective volume fractions ksat = ks(l-n) kl(n-wu) kwWU 1--n+003

k kf

n+

3 fks

where n is the fractional porosity and ~ is the effectwe length of series fluid as a ratio of the particle dmmeter 4~ is a function of the poromty and the ratio kf/k s The Modified Resistor Equation developed by Woodslde and Messmer (1961) is based on an idealIzed model consisting of a umt cube of sod through which heat is assumed to flow along two parallel paths One of these goes through continuous pore fluid and the second passes through fluid and sohds m series The resulting equation for the thermal conductwlty is seml-empmcal, havang been fitted to expertmental data k = (n - 0 03) k f + (1 - n + 0 03)

i-n+O03

kf

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Although the two methods just considered had orlglnaUy been proposed for unfrozen saturated soils, they were applied by Faroukl (1981b) to frozen saturated softs taking kf to equal the thermal conductwlty of ice

with the dry density, particularly for the coarse soft, but remained constant at different moisture levels (constant dry density)

SATURATED SOILS COMPARISON OF THE METHODS The equations for thermal conductwlty resulting from the various methods have been analysed in detatl and compared by Faroukl (1981b) in a USACRREL Report For each method, a determination was made of the sensitwlty of the calculated sod thermal conductwlty to variations in moisture content at constant dry density. In another series of calculations, the dry density was varied at constant moisture content to evaluate the influence of the dry density on the thermal conductivity of the soil These trends were determined for coarse and for fine sods, hawng a range of dry densities and moisture contents The influence of the sohds thermal conductwzty was also shown m detaft The four methods apphcable to the unsaturated frozen condition 0 e Kersten, Mlckley, De Vnes and Johansen methods) showed generally stmllar trends depicting the increase of the thermal conductlvlty as the dry density increases at constant moisture content When the dry density is constant, the sensitivity Sw of the thermal conductlwty to changes in the moisture content may be defined as the change in the thermal conductivity value for a 1% change m moisture content W~th regard to varlatzon of the thermal conductlwty with moisture content (at constant dry density) both the Kersten and Johansen methods gwe a hnear relationship. It was found that, above a moisture content of 5%, the sensitivity Sw of the thermal conductwlty to increases in moisture content is greater for frozen soft than for unfrozen soft (at constant dry density). This may be expected because the thermal conductwlty of ice is conslderably higher than that of water It also became apparent that Sw zs greater for frozen coarse sod than f6r frozen fine sod In the case of frozen free soft, both the Kersten and Johansen methods gave strnftar values of Sw However, for frozen coarse soft, the latter method showed higher Sw values The value of Sw mcreased With regard to saturated frozen coarse sod, the Kersten method considerably underpredlcts as shown in Fig 1 where the predictions of the various methods are compared for a variable dry density The computations were made on the assumption of a solids thermal conductlvaty, ks, equal to 8 0 W/ mK, except for the Kersten method which does not take exphclt account of k s On the other hand, for saturated frozen fine soft, the predictions of all these methods, including Kersten's, do not differ much from each other

60

Thermal Conductivity
50

40

30

20

0 11

1'2

1'3

1~

Dry Density g/cm 3 i 1'5 1L6 17

1'8

119

2()

Fig 1 Comparison of methods Thermal conductivity of saturated frozen coarse soft vs dry density, ks = 8 0 W/mK, temperature = --4 (2 K = Kersten, DeV = De Vnes, MR = Modified Reszstor, M = Mlckley, KS = Kunnu-Smlth, J = Johansen

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EFFECT OF MINERAL COMPOSITION Whtle the Kersten method cannot show the effect of varmtlon m k s, the other methods can do so as, for example, Fig 2 shows m the case of the Johansen method Each curve represents the trend for a constant degree of saturation If a coarse soil has a high quartz content, the thermal conductw]ty of the other minerals present, ko, makes httle difference to the sod's thermal conductzvlty On the other hand, when the quartz content lS low, ko and zts variation have a considerable influence on k s and therefore on the soft thermal conductwlty With the Johansen method, for instance, the effect of a change m ko from 2 to 3 W/mK is to cause a change m the predicted value of about 20 or 30% at mtermedmte Sr values
60

tamed by rehable experunenters on sods having stated characteristics (Faroukl, 1981b) In particular, knowledge of the quartz content was important so that ks could be calculated The thermal conductwlty predicted by each method was then computed at appropriate values of the moisture content and dry density The devmtlon of this computed value from the measured value was then obtained (the latter being assumed to be more or less accurate) Comparison of the deviations produced by the various methods provided an indication of the method(s) giving good agreement under the relevant condmons Reasonable predictions were considered to be those that d~d not deviate more than about + 25% from measured values Thin is sufflcmnt for most practical apphcatlons, greater accuracy being unwarranted due to lack of sod homogeneity in the field

APPLICABILITY
5C Sr=l 0
Ther tool Conduct wiry WtmK

TO

FROZEN COARSE SOILS

4C
5r=O 75

r=

Sotlds

Thermal

Conductivity

ks W/mK

Fig 2 Johansen method apphed to frozen soft Thermal conductw]ty vs sobds thermal conductivity ks at constant degree of saturatxon St, dry density = 1 6 g/cm3, temperature = -4 C

EVALUATION OF THE METHODS An evaluataon of the various methods was carrzed out by means of a computer program using data ob-

The Kersten method gave pred]ctlons that were generally much too high for frozen sands, gravels or crushed rocks having a low quartz content On the other hand ]t gave pred]ctlons that were too low for sands or crushed materials with a high quartz content It was concluded that the Kersten method should not be applied to coarse materials having a high or low quartz content Even with mediumquartz materials, the Kersten method should be used with caut]on and large devlat]ons may be expected The methods of De Vrles and Mlckley gave good agreement at h]gh Sr values, higher than about 80% and 60% respectwely The method of Johansen gave the best agreement and was generally apphcable from a degree of saturation of 10% and higher It generally gave good or adequate pred]ctlons (within -+ 35% of the measured values) for frozen sands, gravels or crushed rocks of any quartz content However, there were some exceptions, such as for several crushed rocks where deviations that were too large occurred at high degrees of saturaUon For the saturated condmon, each of the methods of Johansen, De Vrms or Mlckley generally gave good agreement as d]d the Kunnn-Sm]th method and the Modified Resistor Equat]on The easiest method to use would be Johansen's because it reduces to a smaple geometric mean equation

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APPLICABILITY TO FROZEN FINE SOILS

The Kersten method gave the best agreement (generally within -+ 30%) up to a degree of saturation o f 90% above which It prowded many unacceptably high predictions for naturally occurring frozen sods On the other hand, the m e t h o d o f Johansen generally gave good predictions (within -+ 35%) from a value o f Sr o f 1 0% up to full saturation, with the assumptmn o f a suitable unfrozen water content The m e t h o d of De Vnes gave similar results for Sr values above 40% while that o f Mlckley did not generally give good predictions until Sr was greater than 80% It was concluded that, while the m e t h o d of Kersten may be apphed with good results when Sr is less than 90%, that of Johansen should be used at greater degrees o f saturation Apart from glxang predictions that were too high for saturated frozen fine sods, Kersten's method cannot allow for the effect o f the unfrozen water content, which can be taken into account by the Johansen or De Vnes m e t h o d In consequence, both these latter methods were found to give very good agreement with the data o f Penner (1970) on Leda clay at temperatures from - 2 5 C to - 2 2 C when approprmte values of the unfrozen water content were input to the computations The other methods apphcable to the saturated condition, namely Modified Resistor, Kunnn--Smlth and Mlckley, gave only adequate or borderline agreement F r o m these results it was recommended that either the Johansen or De Vnes method could be successfully apphed for calculating the thermal conductivity of saturated frozen fine soil, the former being simpler to use

agreement with measured values The Kersten method should not be generally used For frozen fine soils, the m e t h o d of Kersten should be used only up to a degree of saturation o f 90% while Johansen's m e t h o d gives good agreement up to full saturation, prowded an appropriate unfrozen water content ~s included in the calculations

REFERENCES
Bakulm, F G , Savel'yev, V A and Zhukov, V F (1972) Physical processes in thawing ground, USACRREL Draft Translation 325 De Vnes, D A (1963) Thermal properties of softs, in W R Van Wljk (Ed), Physics of Plant Environment, NorthHolland Publ Co, Amsterdam Dostovalov, B N and Lomonosov, M V (1973) Structures, phased transitions, and properties of free and attached water, m Physics, Physical Chemistry and Mechamcs of Permafrost and Ice, Tsytovlch, N A et al, USACRREL Draft Translation 439, p 147-159 Faroukl, O T (1981a) The thermal properties of softs, USACRREL Monograph (m press) Faroukl, O T (1981b) Evaluation of the methods for calculating soil thermal conductivity, USACRREL Report (m press) Haynes, D, Carbee, D and Vanpelt, D (1980) Thermal dfffuslvlty of frozen soft, USACRREL Special Report 167 Johansen, O (1975) Thermal conductivity of softs, Ph D thesis, Trondhelm, Norway (Avaftable as USACRREL Draft Transl 637, 1977) Judge, A S (1973) The measurement of thermal conductlvlty of earth materials, m Proc Seminar on the Thermal Regime and Measurements m Permafrost, May 1972 Tech Memo No 108, NRC, Ottawa, Canada, Oct 1973 Kersten, M S (1949) Final report, laboratory research for the determmaUon of the thermal properties of softs, Corps of Engineers, U S Army, Thermal properties of softs, Unw of Minnesota Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No 28 Koopmans, R W R and Mftler, R D (1966) Soft freezing and soft water characteristic curves, Soft Scl Soc Amer Proc, 30 680-685 Kunnn, D and Smith, J M (1960) Heat transfer characteristics of porous rocks, A I Ch E Journal, 6 71-78 Lange, G R and McKlm, H L (1963) Saturation, phase composition, and freezing-point depression m a ng~d soft model, Proc First Int Permafrost Conf, Purdue, pp 187-191 McGaw, R (1968) Thermal conducUwty of compacted sandhce mtxtures, Highway Res Record No 125, pp 35 -47

CONCLUSIONS
The analogy between the freezing process m soils and the drying process has important tmphcatlons There appears to be a 'critical' degree o f saturation which influences the freezing process The unfrozen water m frozen soils plays an effective role m facilitating heat transfer It appears to have a'tugher thermal conductwlty than that o f free water and, possibly, ice In calculating the thermal conductwlty o f frozen coarse soils, the m e t h o d o f Johansen gwes the best

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Mlckley, A S (1951) The thermal conductivity of moist soft, Am Inst Elect Engrs Transactions, 70 1 7 8 9 1797 Nersesova, Z A and N A Tsytovlch (1963) Unfrozen water m frozen softs, Proc First Int Permafrost Conf,Purdue, pp 2 3 0 - 2 3 4 Pavlova, K K (1970) Phase composition of water and thermophyslcal characteristics of frozen peat m the study of mffttratlon, Soviet Hydrology Selected Papers, Issue No 4, pp 3 6 1 - 3 7 8 Penner, E (1970) Thermal conductivity of frozen sods, Can J Earth Sciences, 7 9 8 2 - 9 8 7 Penner, E , Johnston, G H and Goodrich, L E (1975) Thermal conductwlty laboratory studies of some Mackenzie Highway softs, Can Geotech J , 12 2 7 1 - 2 8 8 Slusarchuk, W A and Watson, G H (1975) Thermal conductlv~ty of some ice rich permafrost softs, Can Geotech J , 12 4 1 3 - 4 2 4

Tsytovlch, N A (1975) The Mechamcs of Frozen Ground, McGraw-Hftl, New York Tsytovlch, N A , Kromk, Ya A , Markm, K F , Aksenov, V I and Samuel'son, M V (1973) Physical and mechanical properties of sahne soft, m Physics, Physical Chemistry and Mechamcs of Permafrost and Ice, Tsytovlch, N A et al, USACRREL Draft Transl 439, pp 4 9 - 6 4 Tyutyunov, I A (1963) Phase transformations of water m softs and the nature of migration and heaving, Proc First Inst Permafrost C o n f , Purdue, pp 2 3 4 - 2 3 9 WlUlams, P J (1964) Unfrozen water content of frozen softs and soft moisture suction, Geotechmque, 14 2 3 1 246 Wolfe, L M and Thleme, J O (1964) Physical and thermal properties of frozen soft and ice, Journal of the Soc of Petroleum Engrs, March 1964, pp 6 7 - 7 2 Woodslde, W and Messmer, J M (1961) Thermal conductlvlty of porous media, J of Appl Phys, 32 1 6 8 8 1706