PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

For Academic Session 2009

CIRCUIT THEORY (EE-316)
For
T.E (CIS)
Name:
Roll Number:
Class:
Batch:
Department :
Department of Electrical Engineering
NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi
Circuit Theory CONTENTS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
CONTENTS
Lab.
No.
Da te d
List of Experiments
Pa ge
No .
Re ma rk s
1
Introduction to different circuit parameters
2
To Verify KCL (Kirchoffs Current Law)
and KVL (Kirchoffs Voltage Law)
3
Mesh analysis
4
To verify Thevenins theorem.
5
Maximum power transfer theorem
6 To study a simple source free RL circuit.
7
To study the response of an RC circuit
when applied with a sudden dc voltage
source
8
To study an RLC circuit and determine its
response mathematically and graphically
9
To design a full wave Rectifier circuit with
and without filter circuit.
10
To design a regulated power supply using
Zener Mechanism.
11
To design an Op-Amp in an inverting
mode.
12
Analysis of an Op-Amp., as a
`Differentiator`.
13
Analysis of an Op-Amp., as an `Integrator`.
14
To observe and determine the Resonant
Frequency of a parallel-resonant circuit.
15
To design a circuit showing Bode Plot i.e.
Magnitude and phase plot.
Circuit Theory INTRODUCTION
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 01
Introduction to different circuit parameters
OBJECTIVES
1) To investigate the current, voltage and power ratings of resistances.
2) To identify whether the power is being absorbed or delivered by each circuit
element using passive sign convention.
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Resistors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
Every conductor possesses some resistance, which is defined as the opposition to flow of
electrons. The devices which are specifically made for the purpose are called Resistors.
Ohms law states, Voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing through a
component if resistance of that component remains constant. Now a practical question
arises, can we extend that proportionality to infinity? This experiment answers the
question and sets certain stress limits to which a component can be exposed. If those are
exceeded, either we burn out the component or proper function of the circuit can not be
guaranteed.
Mathematically Ohms law can be exposed as follows,
V = I R
Thus relating different quantities, if voltage across certain resistor is given we can find
current through it and vice versa. Other most important and critical circuit parameter for
any resistor is its power rating. Power rating decides safe operating voltages (maximum
voltages) that can be applied across resistor. Relation for power absorbed or delivered by
any component is given by the following relation,
P =
R
V
2
Watt
Hence, safe operating voltage for any resistor with value R ohms and power rating of P
Watts is,
V = PR Volts
Carbon film resistors normally come in 1/8, , m 1, 2 Watt ratings.
Passive sign convention states that If for any circuit element current enters into a
positive terminal then power will be absorbed by the element and its value is positive.
Circuit Theory INTRODUCTION
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Figure 1.1
EXERCISE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1 and set V
s
to zero volts.
2. Fill the first two columns of table 1.1 and calculate V
safe
for the circuit.
3. Now increase V
s
to V
safe
and measure the circuit current and fill corresponding
column of Table 1.1.
4. Calculate power being absorbed by the resistor as shown in the last column of
Table 1.1.
5. Now place your finger tip at the top of the resistor and slowly increase the
voltage beyond the safe voltage limit. Note down your observations.
Figure 1.2
Observation
Table 1.1
R ()
(Nominal)
P(watt)
(Nominal)
V
safe
= (P R)
(Volts)
I
measured
(A)
P = I
2
R (Watt)
(Calculated)
Circuit Theory INTRODUCTION
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Comments
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.2.
7. Measure I
1
, I
2
, I
3
and fill in the corresponding column of the Table 1.2.
8. Calculate P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
t
, (P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
) and fill in the corresponding columns of
Table 1-2. What you conclude from the results?
Figure 1.3
Observation
Table 1.2
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
t
P
1
= I
1
2
R
1
P
2
= I
2
2
R
2
P
3
= I
3
2
R
3
P
t
= I
t
2
R
t
P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
Comments
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.3.
10. Measure voltage across each component. While measuring the voltage keep in
mind that voltmeter reads positive value and mark + at the terminal of each
component where red lead of the multi-meter is connected.
11. Measure current through each component. While measuring the current keep in
Circuit Theory INTRODUCTION
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
mind that ampere-meter measures positive value and mark arrow directing
from red lead to black one.
12. Calculate power delivered or absorbed by each element in the Fig.3. and fill
appropriate column of Table 1-3. Use Passive sign convention while
tabulating the results.
Figure1.4
Observation
Table 1.3
Voltage
Source 1
(W)
Voltage
Source 2 (W)
R
1
(W)
R
2
(W)
R
3
(W)
Comments
__________________________________________________________________
Circuit Theory KCL & KVL
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 02
Verifying Kirchhoffs Current & Kirchhoffs Voltage Law.
OBJECTIVE
To Verify KCL (Kirchoffs Current Law) and KVL (Kirchoffs Voltage Law)
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Resistors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
KCL states that,
The algebraic sum of all the currents entering any node is zero.
KVL states that,
The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path is zero.
EXERCISES
1. For the given circuit verify KCL. First calculate the voltages by KCL. Secondly
measure the voltages by multimeter. Then compare the voltages obtained by
calculation to the voltages obtained by multimeter.
Figure 2.1
Circuit Theory KCL & KVL
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Calculations:
Observation:
V = ________ R
1
= ________ R
2
= ________ R
3
= ________ R
4
= ________
Table 2.1
S. No. By Formula By Multimeter
V
1
V
2
Comments
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____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. For the given circuit verify KVL. First calculate the currents by KVL. Secondly
measure the currents by multimeter. Then compare the currents obtained by
calculation to the currents obtained by multimeter.
Figure 2.2
Circuit Theory KCL & KVL
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Calculations:
Observation:
V = ________ R
1
= ________ R
2
= ________ R
3
= ________ R
4
= ________
Table 2.2
S. No. By Formula By Multimeter
I
1
I
2
Comments
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________
Circuit Theory MESH
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 03
Mesh Analysis
OBJECTIVE
Use mesh analysis as a tool to find different loop currents and common branch currents
APPARATUS
- Power supply and two batteries
- Multimeter
- Resistors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
A closed path of circuit components that does not pass through the same node twice, is
called a loop. Mesh is a loop which does not have sub-loops. Mesh analysis is used as a
tool when we require loop currents rather than node voltages as in nodal analysis.
Mesh analysis is an extension of Kirchhoff`s Voltage Law (KVL) which states that In a
closed loop, sum of all voltages is zero.
The best network analysis method to use depends not only on the network to be analyzed
but also on the information required. However, it is wise to pick the method that result in
smallest set of equation. The set of mesh equations can easily be reduced to the number
of meshes minus the number of current sources if present.
Mesh equations for the circuit of Fig.1 can be written as under,
-V
1
+ I
1
R
1
+ (I
1
I
2
)R
2
+ 5 = 0 --- Eq [1]
-V
2
+ (I
2
I
1
)R
2
+I
2
R
3
+ (I
2
I
3
)R
4
= 0 --- Eq [2]
(I
3
I
2
)R
4
+ I
3
R
5
V
3
= 0 --- Eq [3]
Figure 3.1
Circuit Theory MESH
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
EXERCISE
1. Find out the values of given resistances using resistance color coding and fill in
the first row of Table 1.
2. Measure the values of the given resistances using multi -meter and fill in the
corresponding columns of Table 1.
Observation
Table3.1
R
(Nominal)

R
(Actual)

Comments
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____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Calculate I
1
, I
2
and I
3
using equations 1, 2 & 3 and fill in corresponding
columns of Table 2. These are nominal values. Mark proper directions only for
positive current values according to sign and show arrows ( ). (NOTE: -
Do calculations for I
1
, I
2
and I
3
in the blank space provided.)
Observation
Table 3.2
I
R1
(I
1
)
I
R2
(I
1
I
2
/ I
1
I
2
)
I
R3
(I
2
)
I
R4
(I
2
I
3
/ I
3
I
2
)
I
R5
(I
3
)
Nominal
(Calculated)
Calculations:
Circuit Theory MESH
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Comments
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Connect the circuit as in Fig1.
5. Measure the current through the resistors R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
& R
5
. Make sure the
multi-meter reads positive value and mark arrow from red probe of the multi-
meter to black one. Fill the corresponding values in Table 1.3 and mark current
directions ( ) as in step 3.
6. Compare Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 , give your comments.
7. Verify the mesh equations with measured and nominal values.
Observation
Table 33
I
R1
I
R2
I
R3
I
R4
I
R5
Measured
Comments
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Circuit Theory THEVENIN
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 04
Thevenins Theorem
OBJECTIVE
To verify Thevenins theorem.
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Resistors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
Thevenins theorem can be stated as follows,
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks A and B connected by
two wires. Define a voltage as v
oc
as the open circuit voltage which appears across the
terminals of A when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltages in B will remain
unchanged if all independent voltage and current sources in A are killed or zeroed
out and an independent voltage source v
oc
is connected, with proper polarity, in series
with the dead (inactive) A network.
EXERCISE
Verify Thevenins theorem by following the directions listed below.
Figure 4.1
Write down the following circuit parameters
V = ________ R
1
= ________ R
2
= ________ R
3
= ________ R
4
= ________
Circuit Theory THEVENIN
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
R
L
= ________
1. Construct the given circuit and by multimeter measure the load current I
L
through the
load resistor.
I
L
= ________
2. Now find the Thevenins equivalent of the given circuit, considering R
L
as Network
B, and the rest as Network A.
Calculations:
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
V
TH
= ________ R
TH
= ________
Figure 4.2
Circuit Theory THEVENIN
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
3. Now construct the Thevenins equivalent according to the results in 2. Connect the
load resistor to it and measure the load current again. This should be the same
obtained in 1.
I
L
= ________, equal/ not equal to the value obtained in 1.
Thevenins theorem verified/ not verified._______________
Circuit Theory POWER THEOREM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 05
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
OBJECTIVES
a. To verify by measurement, that maximum power is developed in a load when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source.
b. To construct a graph, using measured values of voltage, current and load resistance
and calculated power to verify graphically Objective 1 above.
APPARATUS
a. Digital multimeter
b. Power Supplies
c. Resistors of various values
d. Breadboard
THEORY
The maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the
source's internal resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most
low voltage DC power supplies have a very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less)
great difficulty would result in trying to affect this condition under actual laboratory
experimentation. If one were to connect a low value resistor across the terminals of a 10
volt supply, high power ratings would be required, and the resulting current would
probably cause the supply's current rating to be exceeded. In this experiment, therefore,
the student will simulate a higher internal resistance by purposely connecting a high
value of resistance in series with the DC voltage supply's terminal. Refer to Figure 11.1
below. The terminals (a & b) will be considered as the power supply's output voltage
terminals. Use a potentiometer as a variable size of load resistance. For various settings
of the potentiometer representing R
L
, the load current and load voltage will be measured.
The power dissipated by the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of
R
L
= Ri, the student will verify by measurement that maximum power is developed in the
load resistor.
Procedure
1. Refer to Figure 5.1, select R
in
equal to 1 K representing the internal resistance of
the power supply used and select a 10 K potentiometer as load resistance R
L
.
a. Using the DMM set the potentiometer to 500 ohms.
Circuit Theory POWER THEOREM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
b. Connect the circuit of Figure.1. Measure the current through and the voltage
across R
L
. Record this data in Table 5.1.
c. Remove the potentiometer and set it to 1000 ohms. Return it to the circuit and
again measure the current through and the voltage across R
L
. Record.
d. Continue increasing the potentiometer resistance in 500 ohm steps until the value
10 k ohms is reached, each time measuring the current and voltage and recording same in
Table 1. Be sure the applied voltage remains at the fixed value of 10 volts after each
adjustment in potentiometer resistance.
2. For each value of R
L
in Table 5.1, calculate the power input to the circuit using the
formula:
P
input
= V
input
x I
L
= 10 x I
L
,
since V
input
is always a constant 10 volts.
3. For each value of R
L
in Table 10.1, calculate the power output (the power developed
in R
L
) using the formula:
P
out
= V
RL
x I
L
.
4.For each value of R
L
in Table 11.1, calculate the circuit efficiency using the formula:
% efficiency = P
out
/P
in
x 100.
5. On linear graph paper, plot the curve of power output vs. R
L
. Plot R
L
on the horizontal
axis (independent variable). Plot power developed in R
L
on the vertical axis (dependent
variable). Label the point on the curve representing the maximum power.
Circuit Theory POWER THEOREM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Table 5.1
R
L
()
I
L
(mA) V
RL
(V) P
input
(mW) P
output
(mW)
% eff.
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
Circuit Theory RL CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 6
The RL Circuits
OBJECT
To study a simple source free RL circuit.
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Resistors
- Inductor
- Switch
- Stop Watch
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
The complete response of an RL circuit is the sum of the natural and forced response.
The source free response may be called as the natural response or free response.
Analyzing a source free RL circuit as shown in the figure, we can write,
Figure 1
Ri +v
L
= Ri + Ldi/dt = 0
di/dt + Ri/L = 0 --- Eq [1]
Solving the equation [1], which is a differential equation we can obtain the expression
for i(t),
i(t) = I
0
e
-Rt/L
--- Eq [2]
Now consider the nature of the response in the series RL circuit. We have found that the
Circuit Theory RL CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
inductor current is represented by
i(t) = I
0
e
-Rt/L
At t=0 the current has value I
0
but as time increases, the current decreases and
approaches zero. This is a shape of a decaying exponential function. Since the function
we are plotting is e
-Rt/L
, the curve will not change if R/L remains unchanged. Thus the
same curve must be obtained for every series RL circuit having the same L/R or R/L
ratio.
So we define t = L / R --- Eq [3]
Thus ratio L/R has the units of seconds, since the exponent Rt/L must be dimensionless.
This value of time t is called the time constant.
An equally important interpretation of the time constant t is obtained by determining the
value of i(t)/I
0
at t = t. we have
i(t)/I
0
= e-1 = 0.3679 or i(t) = 0.3679I
0
Thus in one time constant the response has dropped to 36.8 % of its initial value.
EXERCISE
1. For the given circuit obtain an expression for the current I
L
through the inductor
L. Plot the current expression for time t >= 0(attach graph).
Figure 6.2
Calculations:
Circuit Theory RL CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
2. Now construct the given circuit and get ready to take measurements by the
multimeter very alertly. As you switches the source out at time t = 0, note down
the value of current through the inductor at every time constant. Take at least
five readings. Now using these readings plot the current through the inductor
again (attach graph) and this should match the plot drawn in 1.
Observation:
t = L/R =
Table 6.1
S. No.
t = t Sec t = 2t Sec t = 3t Sec t = 4t Sec t = 5t Sec
I
L
(t)
Circuit Theory RC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 7
The RC Circuits
OBJECTIVES
To study the response of an RC circuit when applied with a sudden dc voltage source
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Oscilloscope
- Resistors
- Capacitors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
Driven circuits are defined as, a simple network subjected to a sudden dc source. A
steady state is established in the circuit before application of the source, this steady state
is then over run by the applied source. Therefore with the introduction of the source,
circuit is forced to achieve new steady state values.
The response before application of the source is called natural response (steady state
response). And the response of the circuit after the application of source is called forced
response (transient response).
Complete response of a circuit is the sum of natural and forced responses.
Mathematically given by
v
c
(t) = v
f
+ v
n
v
c
(t) = v
f
+ Ae
-t/
Where v
f
is forced and v
n
is natural response.
First of all we calculate steady state values before the switch is thrown to position 2 as
shown in fig.13.1. Then we calculate the steady state values when the switch is thrown to
position 2 and the circuit reaches new final values. These two values determine whether
the transient takes charging or discharging form.
Capacitance voltage v
c
must be continuous if the current is not infinite. Therefore, for
any physical system
v
c
(t
0
+
) = v
c
(t
0
) = v
c
(t
0
-
)
Circuit Theory RC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Figure 7.1
EXERCISE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.13.1 with switch at position 1.
2. Calculate the capacitor voltage at t = 0
-
and note down in Table 7.1.
3. Make sure the circuit remains at this position for a while so that a steady state
value is reached for t = 0
-
.
4. Measure the capacitor voltage v
c
(0
-
) using multimeter and note down in Table
7.1.
Observations
Table 13.1
v
c
(0
-
) (Calculated)
v
c
(0
-
) (Measured)
5. Now hold a stop watch and then throw the switch to position 2.
1. Take voltage readings across the capacitor with 5 sec interval and note down in
Table 13.2.
2.
Plot a graph of capacitor voltage with respect to time values from Table 13.2 and
give your comments.
Circuit Theory RC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Observations
Table 7.2
t
( Sec)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
v
c
(t)
Comments
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Circuit Theory RLC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 8
The RLC Circuits
OBJECTIVE
To study an RLC circuit and determine its response mathematically and graphically
APPARATUS
- Power supply
- Multimeter
- Oscilloscope
- Resistors
- Inductors
- Capacitors
- Connecting wires
- Bread board
THEORY
In this lab session we will be concerned with Source free RLC circuits only. The
following table will be helpful in the analysis of all kind of source free RLC circuits.
Table 8.1
Useful RLC Circuits Relations
Overdamped
Critically
Damped
Underdamped
v(t)
t s t s
e A e A
2 1
2 1
+ ) (
2 1
A t A
e
t
+
o
) sin cos (
2 1
t B t B
d d
t
e
e e
o
+

i(t)
i
c
=
dt
dv
C
o
Parallel
RC 2
1
Series
L
R
2
e
0
LC
1
e
d
-
2 2
0
o e
s
1
2
0
2
e o o +
2 2
0
o e o + j
s
2
2
0
2
e o o
2 2
0
o e o j
Circuit Theory RLC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
EXERCISE
1. Make a parallel RLC circuit as shown and switch on the dc supply. Now note
down the following,
Vs = _______, v = _______, i = ________
R
L
C i
R
(t) i
C
(t) i
L
(t)
v
i
Figure 8.1
2. Now remove the source from the circuit and note the initial condition,
v
c
(0
+
) = v
c
(0
-
) = _______,
i
L
(0
+
) = i
L
(0
-
) = _______,
Circuit Theory RLC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Figure 8.2
3. Now find v(t), i
R
(t), i
L
(t), i
C
(t) for t > 0, using the table 8.1
Calculations
Circuit Theory RLC CIRCUITS
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
4. Plot v(t) and i
L
(t) (attach graphs).
Comments
Write in words the response you observe for the two quantities.
_______________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Circuit Theory FWR
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 09
Full wave Rectifier
Object:
To design a Full wave Rectifier circuit with a filtered output to result in a waveform
comparable to dc. Also Calculate the Ripple Factor.
Apparatus:
AC power supply, Resistors, ideal Diodes, Transformer, filter capacitors
(1F, 10F and 25F ),connecting wires and breadboard.
Theory:
The transformer fed power supplies are used in the rectifier circuits because of their low
resistance at the secondary winding. Center-tapped transformers further simplifies the circuit by
eliminating the need of two central resistors.
Rectification of alternating current to pulsating direct current is achieved by using two diodes
with a center-tapped transformer or a Bridge arrangement of four diodes. These pulses can be
removed/filtered with the filter circuits using capacitors. The effectiveness of a capacitor as a
filter is related to its capacitance. The Larger the capacitance, the more effective it will be in
smoothing out pulsating D.C and in keeping a low ripple level.
Procedure:
1. Select the required components and devices and make necessary connections according
to the circuit diagram. (Fig. 1)
2. ON power switch.
3. Set the oscilloscope according to requirement.
4. Observe the waveform of Fig. 1 i.e. without filter circuit.
5. Measure/record the input voltage at channel A of oscilloscope with respect to ground and
output voltage.
6. Observe the waveform of Fig. 2 i.e. with filter circuit.
7. Measure/record the output voltage & also calculate the Ripple factor by the
difference of the peak charging voltage to the peak discharging voltage.
8. Record all your observations according to the observation table.
Circuit Theory FWR
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Circuit diagram.(without filter)
Circuit Theory FWR
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Give the Output Waveforms without Filter and with three different ratings of
Capacitor Filters i.e. 2.2 F, 4.7 F & 10 F
Circuit Theory FWR
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Observation Table:
Vs
(volts)
AC
R L Load
(Ohms)
Filter
Cap.
(Farads)
Vout (volts)
without filter
Vout(volts)
with filter
Ripple
Factor(volts)
V1
500
2k
10 k
V2 2k
2.2- f
4.7 - f
10 - f
Result:
The resultant waveforms suggest that the output which we get after filtering is
smoother than the one we get without filtering.
Circuit Theory POWER SUPPLY
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 10
Power Supply
Object:
To design a regulated Power Supply using Zener Mechanism.
Apparatus:
AC power supply, Resistors, Zener Diode, Rectifier Diodes, Transformer, filter capacitors,
connecting wires and bread board
Theory:
A regulated power supply is that in which output voltage is maintained within certain pre defined
limits. To regulate a small amount of power the cheapest approach is to use a Zener Diode. The
Zener diode has to operate in the breakdown Region to hold the load voltage constant. the Zener
diode cannot regulate if the load voltage is less than the Zener Voltage.
Vth= RlVs/ Rs + Rl
This is the voltage that exists when the zener diode is disconnected from the circuit... this
voltage has to be greater than the zener voltage, otherwise the breakdown will not occur.
Pd = {(Vin Vz)/ Rs}Vz.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Select the required components and devices and make necessary connections
according to circuit diagram.
2. Turn ON power switch.
3. Set the oscilloscope according to requirement.
Circuit Theory POWER SUPPLY
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
4. Observe the waveform of given circuit i.e. with filter and zener diode.
5. Measure/record the output voltage & also calculate the Ripple factor with the
difference of the peak charging voltage to the peak discharging voltage.
5. Record your observations according to the observation table.
Observed waveform :
Circuit Theory POWER SUPPLY
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Observation Table:
Peak charging voltage= ------------------
Peak discharging voltage = ---------------
Ripple factor = ---------------------
Result :
The resultant waveforms suggest that the Zener Diode may work well for the regulation of
output voltage.
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 11
Operational Amplifier
Object:
To design an operational Amplifier with an inverting input to Result the output waveform which
would be inverted
Amplified version of the input waveform
Apparatus:
OP-amp (741), Resistors, DVM, Power Supply Unit ( 12V,50Hz sinusoidal, 12V DC and 12V,50
Hz rectangular ),4PST Switches, connecting wires and bread board.
Theory:
An Op-amp is a high gain amplifier whose response characteristics are externally
controlled by negative feedback from output to the input. Op-amps can perform mathematical
operations such as summing, integration and differentiation. Op-amps are also used as video and
audio amplifiers, oscillators in the communication electronics. Op-amp has two inputs marked (-
) and (+). The minus input is called inverting input whereas the Plus terminal is called non-
inverting.
Negative Feed Back Control:
The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide negative feedback for
the amplifier. As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op-amp as a
n o n i n v e r t i n g a mp l i f i e r b y a p p l y i n g t h e s i g n a l t o t h e p l u s i n p u t
The usa ge of the dua l power suppl y t hat can set two suppl y val ues (e. g. +10V and
10V). The convention is to use VCC to denote the positive supply and VEE to denote the
negative supply.
Some important points to note regarding Operational Amplifier
Power supplies
Never exceed the specified power supply limits. The most frequently used voltages are:
V, 10V, 5 V. 15 V & 12 V.
Input resistance
The input resistance should be as high as possible (to approach the ideal op-amp model) and
must be at least 10 times larger than the resistance of components immediately connected to the
inputs of the Opamp. Otherwise, the finite input resistance of the Op-amp must be taken into
account in analysis and design.
Output resistance
The output resistance should be as low as possible (to approach the ideal op-amp model) and
must be at least 10 times smaller than the resistance of the op-amp load at the output. Otherwise,
the fi ni te output re si st ance must be ta ke n into ac coun t in an al ys is an d de si gn.
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Open-loop voltage gain
The open-loop voltage gain should be as high as possible (to approach the ideal op-amp model).
This gain is usually specified in dB unit and varies as function of frequencies. If a voltage gain is
A, the dB value of A is defined by:
A(dB) = 20 logA
This equation can be used to convert a gain to dB value or vice versa. For example, a gain A =
100 is the same as A (dB) = 40 dB. The specification sheets provide both a typical value as well
as several plots of the voltage gain as function of frequency or other parameters.
Note that the open-loop voltage gain refers to the op-amp gain by itself. When the op-amp is
used in a circuit, the voltage gain of the entire circuit is different than the open-loop op-amp
gain, depending on the topology of the circuit.
Datasheets sometimes use these phrases to describe open-loop voltage gain: large-signal voltage
gain, differential voltage gain, open-loop frequency response, etc.
Circuit Diagram
Exercise: (calculate gain)
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram..
2. Place the Oscilloscope channel A at the input and output at channel B.
3. Also, place the voltmeter at output
4. Now, observe the waveform, measure and record the readings in the observation table
for three different type of inputs.
Observation :
Sr. No. INPUT WAVEFORM OUTPUT WAVEFORM
1
2
3
Conclusion:
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 12
Op-amp. As Differentiator
Object:
An Operational Amplifier with a capacitor in input results in a circuit which performs the
mathematical operation of Differentiation. Design a differentiator circuit with Square/ sine wave
input.
Apparatus:
Resistors, Operational amplifier, Power Supply, Oscilloscope, connecting wires and bread board.
Theory:
The operational Amplifier can be used as a Differentiator. A capacitor is placed at the input
(inverting) terminal and a resistor is connected at feedback path . This circuit realizes the
mathematical operation of differentiation. Let the input signal be the time variant v
i
(t). The
virtual ground of the op-amplifier at the inverting input causes vi(t) to appear in effect across R,
and thus the current i(t) through the C will be;
C(dvi/dt)
and this current flows through the feedback resistor R providing at the op-amplifiers output
voltage Vo(t).
V
o
(t) = RC dv
i
(t) / dt
= 1 / RC
Observation & Calculation :
Vin(t) = ..
R =
V
o
(t) =
=
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Exercise: (calculate output voltage)
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram..
2. ON Power switch and set the oscilloscope according to requirement.
3. Place the channel A of Oscilloscope at the input and channel B at output.
4. Observe the input and output waveform on oscilloscope .
5. Also measure and record the Oscilloscope reading in observation table.
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Observation:
Vin
volts
Rin
Ohms
Rf
Ohms
Cf
Farads
Input vs output
Waveform
Conclusion:
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 13
OP-amp. As an integrator
Object:
An Operational Amplifier with a capacitor in feedback path results in a circuit which
performs the mathematical operation of Integration. Design an integrator with sine wave input.
Apparatus:
Resistors (Ri =1K, Rf=1K & 10K and Cf = 10F), Operational amplifier, Power Supply,
Oscilloscope, connecting wires and bread board.
Theory:
The operational Amplifier can be used as an Integrator. A capacitor is placed in the feedback
path and a resistor at the input. This circuit realizes the mathematical operation of integration.
Let the input signal be the time variant vi(t) . the virtual ground at the inverting op-amp input
causes vi(t) to appear in effect across R, and thus the current i(t) will be vi(t) /R. this current
flows throw the capacitor C, causing the charge to accumulate on C. If we assume that the
circuit begins operation at t=0, then at an arbitrary time t the current i(t) will have deposited on
C.
Vo(t) = 1/CR Vi(t) dt
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit Theory OPAM
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Exercise: (Calculate output voltage)
Observation
Vin
Volts
Rin
Ohms
Rf
Ohms
Cf
Farads
Input vs output
Waveform
Conclusion:
Circuit Theory RESONANT FREQUENCY
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 14
Resonant Frequency
Object:
To Observed and determine the Resonant Frequency of a Parallel- resonant circuit.
Apparatus:
Equipment: AF sine-wave generator,
Oscilloscope.
Resistor: 4.7k. W
Capacitor: 0.1 F
Inductor: 8mH, connecting wires and bread board.
Theory:
There is particular frequency at which XL = XC. This frequency may be defined as the condition
for parallel resonance in high-Q (i.e. R
L
is small compared with X
L
) circuit and is similar to the
condition for series resonance.
There are other definitions for parallel resonance. Thus parallel resonance may be considered as
the frequency at which the impedance of the parallel circuit is maximum. Also, // resonance as
the frequency at which the // impedance of the circuit has unity power factor.
In a high Q circuit, the formula for the resonant frequency f
R
is the same as in the case of series
resonance and is given by
F
R
=

The currents in the two terminals of a parallel LC circuit are 180

0
out of the phase, if there is no
resistance in either terminal.
The circulating current I in the parallel resonant tank circuit is high at resonance. The
impedance of a parallel LC circuit is maximum at resonance.
Circuit diagram:
Circuit Theory RESONANT FREQUENCY
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit of fig. Adjust the scope controls for proper viewing and the AF sine-
wave generator controls for 10V p-p signal output.
2. Connect the scope across the 4.7kohm. resistor with the ground of the scope going to
ground of the circuit.
3. Set generator frequency at 150Hz and observe the response on the scope.
4. Increase or decrease the generator frequency until a frequency f
R
is reached where
maximum voltage V
R
appears across R. minimum voltage V
AB
appears across C and L.
Observation:
R() L (H) C (F) f
R
Measured computed
Conclusion:
Circuit Theory BODE PLOT
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
LAB SESSION 15
Bode Plot
Object:
Design a circuit showing the Bode Plot i.e.: Magnitude and Phase-plot.
Apparatus:
AC power supply, Resistors, Operational Amplifier and Bode Plotter.
Theory:
Bode Diagram is a quick method of obtaining an approximate picture of the amplitude and phase
variation of a given transfer function as function of e. The approximate response curve is also
called an Asymptotic plot. Both the magnitude and phase curves are plotted using a
logarithmic frequency scale. The magnitude is also plotted in logarithmic units called decibels
(db).
H
dB =
20 log |H(je)|
where the common logarithm(base 10) is used
Circuit Diagram:
Exercise: (Find H
dB
and H
phase
for given network)
Circuit Theory BODE PLOT
NED University of Engineering and Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Asymptotic Bode plot:
Observed bode plot:
Conclusion: