Educational Reform and Its Problems in Post-War Japan Author(s): Tatsuo Morito Reviewed work(s): Source: International Review

of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift fr Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1955), pp. 338-351 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3441564 . Accessed: 26/11/2011 10:10
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EDUCATIONAL REFORM AND ITS PROBLEMS IN POST-WAR JAPAN Hiroshima MORITO, by TATSUO Two EducationalInnovations Japan has experienced two great changes in its development as a modem democraticnation. One is the conversionof feudalistic Japan into a moder state, called the "Meiji Restoration", which took place nearly a century ago (1868). The other is the transformation from a state of totalitarian tendency into a democratic one. It began after the defeat ten years ago (1945). Consideringits fundamental character, one may call the former a revolution, while in opposition, the latter may be named a reform. These two national changes both sought their motivating power in education. In accordancewith the demand, educational innovations were carried out. As the degree of educational innovation is in proportion to that of national reconstruction,we may regardthe first as an educational revolution and the latter as an educational reform. My present theme will be the educational reformsince the defeat in the Pacific War. However, in orderto correctly understandits basic character and various problems,it is desirableto know the characterand process of the educational revolution of the early Meijiperiod. Characteristics theEducationalRevolutionof Meiji of The characteristicsof the educational revolution carried into effect by the new government of Meiji, as the spiritual support for building up a modem state, were chiefly as follows: 1. The educational revolution was brought about as a basic national policy for the construction of a new Japan. 2. Not only was a revolution in the educational system planned, but many leaders hoped to accomplish cultural changes also. "Civilization and enlightenment", actually the westernizationof Japanese culture, was the goal of this movement. 3. As for the educational system, efforts were made to introduce in particularthe French and Americanschool systems. 4. The revolution pointed out direction for the democratization of education, and strove to make elementary education universal and compulsory. 5. Concerning the content of education, importance was placed on practical learning and scientific instruction related to every-day life.

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6. In moral education, individualistic, and sometimes utilitarian morals were emphasized in place of the feudalistic morals based on "loyalty and patriotism". As additional explanation to these points, first, it must be noted that the basic direction of culture in the new Japan was not decided in this way from the beginning. Concerningthe basic direction, three groups which were competing for the leadership of national culture, exchanged heated discussions with each other. The groups concerned were (a) the Kyoto imperial court group that urged the traditional Japanese ideology, (b) the scholars of the Shogunate party that promoted the Chinese classics, especially the teaching of Confucius which was the learning officially approved by the Tokugawa Shogunate, and (c) the educational officials of the new government as well as progressive civilians, who emphasized western learning. Finally, as a result the group which supported western
learning - the "civilization and enlightenment" group - emerged tri-

umphant. Next, in 1872, the school system established by the new government was modelled after western systems, particularly,as mentioned before, on those of France and the United States. Thus the three level school system of elementary, secondary and higher education was inaugurated, a system which has continued to our day. The elementary schools were opened to the general public, and though not completely compulsory, efforts were aimed along this line. This is shown in the proclamationof the government issued in the same year. It declared; "henceforththe people in general aristocrats, warriors,farmers, craftsmen, merchants and women - should resolve to have no illiterate household in a village and no illiterate person in a family", and that "it shall be considered the fault of the parents, if their children regardlessof sex do not receive elementary education". The same proclamation also emphasized that education must aim at the teaching of practical knowledge applicable to daily life, declaring as follows: The purpose of education is to enable people "to gain personal success, to manage their property, to make their business prosper and thereby to accomplish their lives". However, those who profess learning nowadays "tend to insist, it is for the sake of the nation, and forgetting it is the foundation for personal success, some end in memorizing phrases and verses and fall into empty theory or fruitless discussion. Though their theories seem noble, not a few cannot apply them to their own lives or carry them out in deeds. This tendency is nothing other than the continuation of the deep rooted evil of ancient customs and is the reason why civilization is not yet universal and also why so many persons do not developtheir talents, and sufferpoverty, bankruptcyand loss of property".

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Yukichi Fukuzawa, who was one of the most progressive educators among civilians of the time and who founded Kei6 Gijuku University, a representative private university in Japan today, expounded exactly the same thought in the beginning of his famous pamphlet "Encouragement of Learning",which was a best seller in his day. Criticismand Revisionof theEducationalRevolution Meiji of This fundamental educational innovation was the most vivid sign, declaring the change the new Japan of Meijihad made from a feudal to a modern state, yet within a few years there arose severe criticism of this educational revolution. The chief points of criticism were: 1. This educational revolution lacked an economic basis and, consequently, with its suddenenforcement, considerablepressurewas added to the poverty of the common people, an inevitable result in an underdeveloped country. Indeed the opposition in some part of the country was so violent that riots aiming at abolition of schools broke out and destroyed almost all the schools in the district. 2. The one-sided pro-western educational revolution threatened the traditional oriental and Japanese spiritual values and confused the every day morals of the people. This criticism was made chiefly by the conservative, ultra-nationalistic group. 3. With the diffusion of the new education, individualistic and materialistic tendencies became increasingly influential and endangered community-consciousness and public spirit, especially patriotism, necessary for the urgent and difficult task of the construction of a new nation. This criticism arose mainly from the nationalistic group. Of these criticisms, the first was gradually solved as time passed. But the second and the third were fundamental criticisms of the over-intellectual inclination of moder civilization with its rationalistic keynote and atomizing individualistic tendency. Hence they were not of the kind to be solved in the course of time. On the contrary they became stronger than ever as the domestic and internationalcrises which Japan faced were felt, and as a result the people's consciousnessof national community and patriotic feelings were aroused. Especially, the leaders of the new Japan who observed the upheaval of the German nation under Bismarck in Europe and the deplorable destiny of Asian nations struggling under colonial bondage, keenly felt the urgency of the situation. Against such a background,in 1889, Meiji Japan promulgatedthe new constitution and laid its foundation as a moder state. Parallel to this a revision of education was executed. This revision amplified and firmly

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established the progressiveand rationalistic educational revolution on its formal side, and on the other hand, it aimed at reconciling it with the traditional oriental culture and at meeting the demand of the people who wished to cope with the urgent international crisis. This educational revision duringthe middle period of Meijiformedthe basis of the Japanese educational system since that time, and achieved great results particularly in the fact that universal compulsoryeducation was legally established in elementary schools. These accomplishments may be considered the following up of the early Meiji educational revolution. On the contrary, the most significant characteristic of this revision lies in the fact that the guiding spirit of education was changed. The guiding principles of education changed from those of western "civilization and enlightenment" to the traditional, oriental moral principles, and from individualistic personal success-hunting to nationalism and loyalty. The guiding principles of this new education were embodied in the "Imperial Rescript on Education" which was made public in 1890, the year following the proclamation of the Meiji Constitution. From that time on until the defeat in World War II, it became the central guiding spirit of Japanese education. In this way, the Meiji educational revolution was remodelled into a form that synthesized progressive rationalism of the west, the morals of the orient, and modernnationalism. It became the foundation of Japanese education since that time, and one may say that the remarkablespiritual basis of the new Japan can be attributed to it. One of the major causes of the victory of Japan in the three great wars, that is, the Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-JapaneseWar and World War I, can be found here. However, the rapid development of the Japanese national state, confronted with the intensifying international tension and pressure, forced the young modern nation towardsultra-nationalismand militarism. Thus, Japan was driven into the ManchurianIncident, the ChinaIncident and finally into the Pacific War. At the same time, the remodelled education of Meiji lost its balance, and later misguided extreme nationalism and militarism became dominant, undoubtedly helping to stir up the people's pro-warmentality. In this way we actually experienced by paying a high price the possible dangerslying within an education conditioned by a critical situation. EducationalReformafterDefeat Rising from the ravages of war the Japanese people put an end to the ultra-nationalism and militarism that had brought about disastrous defeat, and aspired to construct a democratic, peaceful, welfare and cultural state. The new constitution which made clear the foundation of

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the new state was promulgatedin 1946, and in the belief that such noble ideals should be "realized basically by the power of education", the second great educational reform was carried out. This remarkable educational reform certainly was not a thing that could have happened without such a drastic event as defeat. But it should not be thought that it was forced upon the Japanese nation from outside by order of the occupation forces or victor-countries. We are quite ready to admit that this educational reform owes much to the suggestions and advice of the two Educational Missionsof the United States in 1946 and 1950; also to the cooperation of the Civil Information and Education Section of General Headquarters, etc. However, the embodiment and realization of this educational reform would have been quite impossible without the positive cooperation of progressive Japanese scholars and educators. Meeting with the unprecedented tragedy of defeat, the Japanese people looked back on the past history of the Meiji Restoration a century before and without doubt keenly felt the necessity of national reconstruction and an educational innovation to support it. Also, there existed quite a number of progressiveeducators in our country who were aiming at the development of this educational reform. Since pre-wartime they had already been making efforts for its realization. But the ideals of a new education which they cherished and their efforts towards them had been suppressedby those same powers that had preparedfor and headed into the war. It is quite natural, therefore, that when such oppressive powers were eliminated after the termination of the War, the ideals and plans of these educators came to the fore and received the support of the people. Furthermore, I wish to add that many points of this educational reform, especially the further extension of compulsory education which forms one of the main features, had already been decided by the Council on Education which had been established before the war (1937). Of course it is a well-known fact that this Councilinfused a clear-cut, ultranationalistic and militaristic spirit into the guiding principles and educational content. On the other hand, it should be fairly recognized that concerning the reform of the school system, the Council pointed towards progressivetrends that can be linked to the post-war educational reform. Characteristics Contentof the Post-War EducationalReform and What were the characteristics and content of this second educational innovation initiated under such circumstances? The educational reform (a) was considered as a basic policy to support spiritually the reconstruction of post-war new Japan, (b) with westernization for the second

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time, in this case, had democratizationas its key-note; and it (c) included not only reform of the educationalsystem but also change in the gu iding principles of education, (d) and took its model for the reform of various institutions mainly from the United States, (e) lastly, in the educational content it emphasized practical knowledge closely related to everyday life and individualistic morals. In these points it resembles considerably the educational revolution of early Meiji. However, as has already been mentioned, this reform was not equal to that of the early Meijiera in its fundamental character. 1. The most fundamental change in this reform which would not have been realized without the fact of defeat, was perhaps the abolition of the educational guiding principles symbolized in the Imperial Rescript on Education and the decision not to express such principles again in the form of the emperor'swords. This is quite comprehensiblefor a nation that had decided to give up ultra-nationalism and to construct a democratic, peaceful state. In as much as the Imperial Rescript on Education embodied together with the Meiji Constitution had been the guiding principle of Japanese education for half a century, the significance of its removal is very deep. But this elimination was done not because it was consideredthat the virtues prescribedin the Rescript were mistaken but that the Edict had been misused to infuse ultra-nationalism and militarism, that national religious coloring was strongly impressedupon it, and lastly that it was not appropriateto express the educational principlesof the new democraticJapan in the form of an Imperial Rescript. In place of the Rescript the educational guiding principles of post-war Japan were announced by the "Fundamental Education Law" promulgated by the National Diet in 1947. 2. The next important point of the educational reform was the democratization of the educational administrationby its decentralization.That is to say, the controlling power of the Ministry of Education which had hitherto been the strongly centralized power in educational administration was remarkably subdued by the establishment of the Boards of Education (1948) on the one hand, and on the other by the increaseof the autonomy of institutions of higher education, especially universities. Particularly, the establishment of the Boards of Education modelled on those of the United States was a completely new reform for the educational world of Japan. 3. The reform of the school system aimed with thoroughness at the principle of equal opportunity in education. This point may be viewed rather as a continual development since the educational revolution of Meiji than as a radical reform. In regard to the so called 6.3.3.4. school

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system, which was established by the School Education Law (1947), the unification of the school system and the three years extension of compulsory education are worthy of notice. In addition, the abolishment of the national peers' school for children of the imperial family and aristocracy, the realizationof co-education, the application of the compulsory education law for blind and deaf children, part-time schooling for economically handicapped pupils, education by correspondence,equality of state, municipal and private schools, and the expansion of the scholarship system were important changes in post-war Japan. 4. Concerningeducational content and method, the uniform, memorizing type of education centering on text-books was revised in the direction of an education by self-activity centering around life, experience and the problem situation of children. Moraleducation and Japanese history were either rejected or put under strict surveillance, or politely shunned, at least in the beginning. Also, it should be mentioned that text-books changed from state text-books to private editions. 5. It is natural that reform of teacher training accompanieseducational reform.The reformabolishedformernormal schools as teacher training institutions. From this time on the qualified teachers are limited, as a rule, to those who have finished four years' education in universities or colleges (though 2 years are recognizedfor the time being). The reason for this basic qualificationis that we must expect in teachers not vocationalists of narrow views but well-integrated personalities with wide humanistic knowledge. 6. There are three organizationswhich must not be overlooked in the promotionof democracyin education. (a)The organizationof parents and teachers uniting home and school. The P.T.A., established after the U.S. model, is said to be at present 36,000 in numberwith 15,000,000members. (b)The teachers' union, chiefly composed of teachers in primary and secondary education. The members are now about 550,000. The teachers of upper secondary schools tend to organize separatelyand the independent union members are said to be about 40,000. It must be noted that these organizations have the character of labor unions rather than professionalones. Beside these, there is the University Professors'Association with 8,000 members. This is a professionalorganization. (c) Lastly, student organizations in Japan, called "student self-government association," exist in many institutions of higher education. These organizations have been noted by the general public for their connections with leftist social and political movements rather than for self-governingactivities in the student life intra muros. 7. Finally, under this educational reform, adult education (called

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"social education" in Japan) was stressed by the establishment of a "Social Education Law" (1949). It is chiefly for labourers, youth and women. Strong emphasis is being attached to educational facilities such as citizens' public halls, libraries, museums and recently to mass-communication. In this field, we must not overlook Unesco activities aiming at education for international understanding and cooperation promoted by the National Commissionfor UNESCO. Evaluationof theEducationalReform The educational reform undoubtedly had deep significance in founding the spiritual basis of the reconstruction of post-war Japan. At the same time it was carriedout (a) under a national mentality of extreme atrophy and anxiety resulting from the unprecedented situation for Japan in defeat, (b) under an occupation which considerably limited the nation's autonomy and independence,and (c) in an extremely short time. Moreover, (d) the pattern came from the United States where the contrast with Japan is very great in such points as national wealth and standard of living, history and culture. Therefore,it did not always apply to the actual condition and sometimes caused unnecessary resentment and friction in the course of its realization. The reform became an important issue even during the occupation. The persons who took up these problems were not always conservative or reactionary but many were those who truly were anxious about the future education in this country. As important problems for reinvestigation in the educational reform, I should like to point out the following: 1. For this broad educational reform, the economic basis was insufficient. The chief cause of this regrettablecircumstanceagain lies basically in the fact that this educational reform of defeated and destitute Japan adopted its model from the wealthy and prosperous country of the United States. This defect appeared vividly in the equipment of educational facilities, in the guarantee of appropriate salary for educators, and in the scholarship, welfare and protection services for students. Deficiency of economic support was particularly conspicuous in the lower secondary schools that had been newly started. These schools needed nearly 60 million dollars for their equipment but started with only about 2 million dollars, and as a result it is reported 177 village mayors were obliged to resign and three committed suicide between April 1948-June 1949. 2. An excellent plan of education was started without cautious preparation. As a result there arose the danger of many unforeseen deviations and abuses, some of which now became actual facts. For example, so-

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called free education affords sometimes opportunities for easy-going, irresponsible,laissez-faire education as well as the politically tinged onesided type of education. Also the freedom of association for educators was utilized by their leaders to change their professional organizations into class-conscious, fighting labour unions often slanted toward some leftwing, political ideology. In that way an uneasy situation was brought about, in which universal education might be abused as a means for ideological propaganda and political strife. Further, the self-government activities of students were frequently taken advantage of by political extremists, and became the means of disturbing the order of both community and campus. 3. Foreign institutions transplanted to a new climate do not always attain to the same success as at home, For instance, the system of boards of education so strongly recommended by the United States Education Mission, and in particular that of the local boards of education with the excessive subdivision of educational administration, are already causing many difficulties and criticisms today. There are serious doubts as to whether in this country the main road of democratic education should be sought in excessive local subdivision of the administration. 4. In the educational reform, preponderancehas been given to intellectual training and as a result the moral and spiritual education of youth has been rather neglected. This fault in the new education, together with the moral devastation caused by the War, has accelerated the egocentric and materialistic tendency of the younger generation. This is considered as the main cause of youth's weakness: lack of loyalty and sense of responsibility to the community to which they belong, as well as loss of their interest in the cultural and moral traditions of their native land and "decadenceof youth" so often talked about. The post-war educational reform, so far as we have seen, seems to be reproducing along the same basic line, though in a different level, the faults as well as the merits of the educational revolution of early Meiji. Task of Educationin IndependentJapan Japan became independent in 1952, shouldering the educational reform and its problems. Although this independence cannot be called complete, Japan was able to cultivate her own destiny with autonomy and responsibility quite different from the occupation period. Therefore, the various problems raised by the educational reform have had to be solved by her own judgment and responsibility. We must not forget the change of conditions during the past ten years. First of all the world before us is not a peaceful "one world" as was

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thought right after the termination of the war, but is divided into "two worlds" opposing each other with arms. Small and weak Japan stands between them as a defenceless nation. Secondly, within the country, instead of heading for reconstruction as a united nation, it is feared that the country may become a play-ground for class antagonism and struggle under the influence of Marxism. Indeed, Japan faces grave crises, both international and domestic. Under such serious circumstances, the people are at last recovering from frustration and are endeavoring to regain confidence and pride in their mother-country, national community, and her culture. Is the education conceived on the premises of a secure and peaceful society appropriate for this hard period of crisis? We seem to stand in a similar situation in regard to the educational reform to that of the-middle of the Meiji period when the educational revolution was remodelled. From this standpoint, I shall discuss the tasks of education in independent Japan. In a period of crisis, education should foster the sense of responsibility and duty towards the community as well as the freedom and rights of the individual in the community. Instead of ego-centric materialism, it is necessary to emphasize loyalty and love towards the home land and national community. Because, in my opinion, the realization of a democratic, peaceful, welfare state will be promoted not by simply wishing for high ideals but by loyalty and devotion to the land where such ideals are to be realized and for the nation charged with the great task. On the other hand, such loyalty and love should co-exist and cooperate with the world community now being created. This is the most urgent and fundamental task of education in our country, and, at the same time, the central task of "education for international understanding",which is the "Keystone" of the programmeof Unesco. 2. Education in a period of crisis should strengthen national accord and unity in orderto promote the independenceand prosperityof the national community aspiring towards a world community. For this reason, too, public education should not become the place for class struggle or political conflicts and should not be treated as means to attain political supremacy. Nevertheless, in this age of crisis, both the party in power and the opposition parties are strongly tempted to misuse education and consequently teachers and pupils as political tools. This is why the neutral characterof education should be emphasizedand defended with might and main. 3. A period of crisis calls for clear and vivid ideals, unerring decision and well-integrated personality with courage to act. Moder society -characteristicsof whicharetechnology and division of labour,organization and concentrated power - makes it difficult to develop such well-inte-

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grated men of active character. Moreover,the necessity of a moral education in the above sense is keenly felt by those who assert the formation of well-integrated personalities on the basis of universal human nature in opposition to the class ideology of Marxismand the racial one of Fascism. Yet, the reformed education which has as yet rationalistic inclination can not answer the demand for formation of well-integrated men of character. It goes without saying that teaching methods and curricula should be revised accordingly. 4. Of course, a good education requires good teachers. With such a purpose, the educational reform started new institutions for teacher training. Nevertheless, we are faced with the deplorable fact that the number of teacher applicants is not enough to satisfy the demand, and that, generally speaking, their ability is inferior to that of the applicants in other courses. The causes seem to be chiefly (a) that teachers' salaries are low, (b) that social prestige and respect for teachers have decreased, and (c) that the teachers themselves have less pride and sense of calling in their teaching profession. 5. It is especially difficult in a period of crisis to secure a stable economic basis for education. We must make compulsory education completely free and endeavour to raise the minimum amount of expense for compulsory education legally guaranteed in the national budget, as well as extending it to the fields of upper secondary and higher education. Next, for teachers of various schools, we should help raise their salaries appropriate to the dignity and duty of teachers. Furthermore, it is necessary to secure equal opportunity in education for needy students by promoting scholarships, part-time schooling, correspondence education and students' health and welfare services. Though economic support of education is most difficult in a devastated country, the task is keenly felt as an urgent necessity. The above are the tasks in education that have been especially accentuated in Japan since its independence. Besides these, we are confronted with many questions. For example, what can be done to make the Fundamental Law of Education that took the place of the Imperial Rescript on Education not a dead letter but a living and inspiring guiding principle; how much flexibility should be given to the too simplified and inflexible 6.3.3.4. school system so that it can be applied to the complicated conditions of modern society; how should we revise the boards of education that still seem exotic to our country and furthermorehave gone too far in local sub-division of educational administration? Also there are many other problems in the new education, such as the lowering of intellectual attainment and scholastic ability, difficulty in entrance to universities and

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the accompanying problem of entrance tests, with its deplorable effect upon individual students and secondary education in general. But I wish to limit myself here by only pointing these out as tasks in education that must be solved by the new independent nation on her own responsibility. Basic Direction of Remodelling Concerning the educational reform, the present day, ten years since the termination of the War, corresponds to the time of reappraisal two decades after the educational revolution of early Meiji. Looking back, criticism at that time was focused upon the over-intellectual and individualistic tendency of the first educational revolution, although the significance of the progressive innovation aiming at westernization was not overlooked. At the same time, looking forward, it should have caught a glimpse of the tragic doom of falling into ultra-nationalism and militarism which deserve equally severe criticism. The remodelling of the educational reform in independent Japan should take account of recent history. It seems to urge us strongly to develop a new aspect through the formation of well-integrated personalities based on dignity and equality of human beings, without degenerating into something feudalistic and reactionary, and to cultivate the kind of patriotism which will harmonize and co-operate with the world community in loyalty and love, never falling into chauvinism and fascism. I am convinced that such is and should be the basic direction of the remodelling of the educational reform of post-war Japan.

PROBLEME DER ERZIEHUNGSREFORM

IM NACHKRIEGSJAPAN von TATSUO Hiroshima MORITO,

Japan erlebte wahrend der letzten drei Generationen zwei grole Ereuerungsprozesse seines Bildungs- und Erziehungswesens. Der erste folgte auf die politische Revolution von 1868, der zweite setzte nach dem Zusammenbruch von 1945 ein. Das Ziel der ersten Bildungsrevolution war die Einbeziehung Japans in den westlichen Kulturkreis; dieses Ziel bestimmte die Leitideen, das Schulsystem und die Lehrplane des neuen Bildungswesens. Die 1868 iiberstiirzt eingefiihrten Neuerungen wurden von konservativen und nationalistischen Kreisen heftig kritisiert, so dab3Japan 2 Jahrzehnte spater das neu eingefuhrte Bildungssystem anderte. Der nunmehr mal3gebende Bildungsinhalt beruhte auf einer Synthese des westlichen Rationalismus, der sittlichen Prinzipien des Ostens und des modernen Nationalismus. Die Leitideen dazu gab der Kaiserliche Erla3 iiber Erziehung und Bildung (Imperial Rescript on Education). Dieses so geanderte Bildungsziel bestimmte von da an das japanische Bildungs- und Erziehungswesen. Die rasche Entwicklung des japanischen Nationalstaates, der sich wachsenden internationalen Spannungen gegeniibersah, fuhrte jedoch zum

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Ultra-Nationalismus und Militarismus, deren Geist auch das Erziehungswesen beeinflul3te. So wurde Japan in den Krieg im Pazifik getrieben, der zu seiner Niederlage fiihrte. Nach dem Krieg schworen die Japaner alien faschistischen Tendenzen ab und strebten die Errichtung eines demokratischen, friedlichen, sozialen und kulturellen Einfluissen aufgeschlossenen Staates an. Diese zweite Reform der Bildung und Erziehung war von der tberzeugung getragen, dab ,,so hohe Ideale grundsatzlich durch die Macht der Erziehung verwirklicht werden sollten". Als eine zweite Orientierung nach Westen tragt die Reform folgende Ziige: Sie schaffte das Imperial Rescript on Education ab, dezentralisierte das Schulwesen, fiihrte das amerikanische Schulsystem ein, demokratisierte Inhalt und Methode der Erziehung, verbesserte die Lehrer-Ausbildung, unterstiitzte die Bildung von Eltern- und Lehrer-Vereinigungen, Lehrer-Gewerkschaften und studentischer Selbstverwaltung, und forderte die Erwachsenenbildung, vor allem fur der Schulpflicht entwachsene Jugendliche, fur Arbeiter und Frauen. Die Bildungsreform, die in auBerordentlich kurzer Zeit durchgefiihrt wurde und zwar angesichts der labilen Mentalitat des japanischen Volkes wahrend der Besatzungszeit - und die sich daruber hinaus ein Land mit vollig anderen Verhaltnissen zum Vorbild nahm - entsprach nicht immer den tatsachlichen Gegebenheiten und hatte oft unnotige Verstimmungen und Reibungen zur Folge. Zu den Problemen dieser letzten Reform zahlten unter anderem: 1) ungeniigende finanzielle Unterstiitzung, 2) Mangel an sorgfaltiger Vorbereitung, 3) Schwierigkeiten bei der Anpassung iiberommener auslandischer Systeme, und 4) der Vorrang, der der intellektuellen Ausbildung gegeben wurde. Die Erziehungs- und Bildungsreform von 1945 weist anscheinend fast die gleichen Vorziige und Fehler auf wie die fruhere Bildungsrevolution. Es ist die Aufgabe des Erziehungs- und Bildungswesens im unabhangigen Japan, diese Probleme aus eigenem Ermessen und aus eigener Verantwortung zu losen, trotz internationaler und innerer Krisen. In Krisenzeiten sollte die Erziehung 1) den Sinn fur Verantwortung und Pflicht gegeniiber der nationalen Gemeinschaft die ihrerseits loyales Mitglied der Weltgemeinschaft ist - wecken und starken. 2) nationale Eintracht und Einheit festigen, 3) klare und lebendige Ideale, sichere Entscheidungen und zum Handeln bereite Personlichkeieten f6rdern; 4) sollte der Lehrerausbildung ernsthaftere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt und 5) ausreichende Mittel fur die Durchfuhrung der Erziehungsaufgaben bereitgestellt werden. Bei der Gestaltung der Nachkriegs-Bildungsreform mussen wir aus der ersten Revolution lernen und versuchen, durch die Heranbildung von Personlichkeiten einen neuen Ansatzpunkt zu finden und einen Patriotismus zu pflegen, der sich, von Treue und Liebe getragen, in die Volkergemeinschaft einfiigt und in ihr wirkt. LA RItFORME PP1DAGOGIQUE ET SES PROBLJ-MES DANS LE JAPON D'APRPtS-GUERRE Hiroshima MORITO, par TATSUO A deux reprises differentes au cours des trois dernieres g6n6rations, l'6ducationa subi au Japon de profondes transformations. La r6volution politique de 1868 avait entrain6 une veritable revolution dans le domaine de l'enseignement. La d6faite de 1945, a son tour, fut l'occasion d'une r6forme p6dagogique.

IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMAND ITS PROBLEMS POST-WARJAPAN

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La premiere revolution p6dagogique s'6tait donne pour tache l'occidentalisation du Japon. On retrouve cette dominante a la fois dans les principes de base, dans le systeme scolaire et dans les programmes. Cette occidentalisation pr6cipitee fut en butte a des severes critiques provenant des milieux conservateurs et nationalistes. Vingt ans plus tard, une refonte de l'education nouvelle permettait de realiser une synthese entre le rationalisme occidental, les principes moraux de l'Orient et le nationalisme modere; les principes fondamentaux en furent 6nonc6s dans le Rescrit Imp6rial sur l']~ducation. La reforme ainsi amend6e a servi de base depuis cette 6poque a l'6ducation japonaise. Cependant le developpement accel6r6 de l'rtat japonais conjug6 aux effets d'une tension internationale croissante, conduisirent peu a peu a l'aggravation des tendances hyper-nationaliste et militariste qui finirent par impr6gner tout le domaine de 1'education. Puis le Japon s'engagea dans la guerre du Pacifique; la defaite l'y attendait. Apres la guerre, le peuple japonais r6pudia toutes tendances fascistes et s'efforca de construire un 6tat d6mocratique et pacifique soucieux de bien-etre et de culture. "Ces nobles id6aux ne peuvent prendre corps et s'enraciner que par la force de l'6ducation", tel fut le mot d'ordre de la seconde r6forme pedagogique. Cette reforme que l'on pourrait appeler une deuxieme occidentalisation est caract6ris6e par les traits suivants. 1) Abolition du Rescrit Imperial sur l'lducation. 2) Decentralisation administrative. 3) ]itablissement du systeme scolaire dit "6.3.3.4".. 4) Democratisation des programmes et des m6thodes. 5) Revision de la formation des maitres. 6) Soutien donn6 aux associations des parents et maitres, aux syndicats d'enseignants et aux associations autonomes d'6tudiants et 7) Institution de l'education des adultes destin6e sp6cialement a la jeunesse, aux travailleurs et a la population f6minine. Mise en place en un delai extremement court, pendant l'occupation 6trangere, a une 6poque oi les esprits 6taient instables, inspiree de l'exemple et des m6thodes d'un pays ou les conditions sont totalement diff6rentes, la r6forme ne repondait pas toujours aux exigences de l'actualite. Elle provoqua bien souvent inutilement de l'amertume et des disputes. On lui reprocha entre autres 1) l'insuffisance des moyens financiers, 2) le manque de preparation s6rieuse, 3) les difficultes que pr6sentent la transplantation et l'acclimatation d'institutions 6trangeres et 4) la pr6dominance accord6e a la formation intellectuelle. Par6e des memes vertus que la premiere revolution pedagogique, la reforme d'apres-guerre semble condamn6e a reproduire les memes erreurs. Face aux crises internationales ou int6rieures, le Japon independant doit r6soudre les problemes pos6s par l'education sous sa propre responsabilite et selon son propre jugement. 1) Dans une periode troublee, il lui faut developper le sens du devoir et de la responsabilite a l'egard de la nation consideree comme partenaire loyalede la communaute mondiale. 2) L'education doit renforcer l'entente et l'unite de la nation. 3) Elle doit proposer des id6aux clairs et vivants, des solutions sires et former des personnalites bien adaptees et capables d'initiative. 4) Une plus grande attention devra etre port6e a la formation des maitres et enfin 5) l'education doit s'assurer des bases financieres stables. La refonte de la reforme p6dagogique d'apres-guerre doit tenir compte de l'exp6rience de la premiere revolution pedagogique. Il lui faut trouver une formule nouvelle, former des individus bien adaptes et d6velopper une forme de patriotisme qui se concilie avec une cooperation franche et amicale au sein de la communaute des peuples.