From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilization: 8000 1500 B.C.E.

. Before Civilization Food Gathering and Stone Technology Stone toolmaking is first recognizable evidence of cultural activity o Appeared around 2 million years ago o Led to era being called the Stone Age Lasted from 2 million years ago to 4,000 years ago Name is misleading Tools also made of skin, bone, and wood Encompasses many cultures and subperiods Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) o Lasted until 10,000 years ago o 3,000 years after last Ice Age Neolithic (New Stone Age) o Associated with origin of agriculture o Fossilized animals bones bear marks of butchery Testify to hunting and gathering of Stone Age peoples Anthropologists dont believe diet consisted of only meat o Modern foragers live on wild vegetables; meat saved for feasts o Cooking is suspected to have been done by Stone Age peoples Purposeful fires may have started as early as 1 million to 1.5 million years ago Cooking evidence doesnt appear until 12,500 years ago o Studies of modern foragers indicate probable jobs of Stone Age peoples Women: Gathering and cooking Able to do while watching children Men: Hunting Cave art suggests Studies show that Stone Age peoples lived in groups o Big enough to defend from predators and divide responsibilities o Small enough to keep food supply o Generally moved with migrating animals o Stone Age people build shelters and use clothing to protect against climate Huts built when caves cant be found Branches, bones, skins, etc. used for building Woven clothing appears 26,000 years ago Science, religion, and art date back to Stone Age o Science Edible and medicinal plants discovered; hunters learn or animal habits; people learn what animals skins and plants are good for clothing

o Art

Knowledge is passed down orally

Cave drawings discovered in Europe and North Africa 32,000 years ago Feature wild oxen, reindeer, and horses o Believed to have played a magical or religious role Some suggest efforts to count and write o Religion Believed that Stone Age peoples had well-developed religions Graves found containing food, clothing, etc. Suggests belief in afterlife The Agricultural Revolutions Domestication of animals and food producing began 10,000 years ago o Neolithic Revolution often represents change from food gathering to producing Name is misleading Neolithic means new stone; revolution wasnt single event o Agricultural Revolutions is more precise Stresses the fundamental role of food production and that change occurred several different times Also included domestication of animals Food production extended over hundreds of generations o Led to permanent settlement of families o Middle East Earliest evidence of agriculture Developed emmer wheat and barley 8000 B.C.E. Discovered concept of alternation between grains and pulses o Helped to maintain fertility of soil Helped spread food production to adjacent lands o Eastern Sahara Emmer wheat and barley became staple crops 8000 B.C.E. Sheep, goats, and cattle became domestic animals Moved to Nile River during dry spells o Greece Wheat and barley 6000 B.C.E. Led to farming near Danube 4000 B.C.E. Developed swidden agriculture o Use same field for three-four years, then move to let field regain fertility, then move back after three-four years Started using ox-drawn plows 2600 B.C.E. o Southern China and India Rice 5000 B.C.E.

o Americas Maize 3000 B.C.E. Importance grew with decline of game animals o Peru Potatoes and quinoa 3000 B.C.E. Barriers prevented crops from growing in other places o South of the Sahara - Rainfall trends favored domestic grains over wheat and barley o West Africa - Humidity prevented Middle Eastern crops from growing Domestication increases across the world o Spread from Middle East to Southeast Asia Cattle, donkeys, camels, pigs, etc. o Helped around house Plowing, food source, clothing, hunting, o Pastoralism develops because of domestication Becoming dependent upon large, grazing herds of animals Dominated arid areas of the world Life in Neolithic Communities Debatably, farmers lived worse lives that foragers o Farmers had to work harder than foragers Worked longer days for a meager harvest o Had to deal with contagious disease Human waste was common in settlements Domesticated animals passed on disease Had to deal with vermin like rats o In long run, farmers were better off Had dependable food source Used during drought and other natural disasters Led to cultural and scientific advancements Gradually spread across all of Europe Family and marriage increased a farmer-style of living as well o Lineage led distant cousins to come live together, forming a clan-like community Women believed to have ruled in early times o Led to respect for departed ancestors Religious beliefs o Foragers: Centered around groves, springs, and wild animals o Farmers: Centered around Mother Earth and the Sky God o Megaliths seem to relate Found near burial sites Stonehenge Some Neolithic communities grew into towns o Jericho Middle East

o atal Hyk Anatolia Mesopotamia Settled Agriculture in an Unstable Landscape Agriculture o Doesnt reach Mesopotamia until 5000 B.C.E. o Leads to development of irrigation, then canals for watering fields River flooding is unpredictable Can be good o Brings silt to land Can be bad o Can come during ripening periods in spring o Can cut off towns from water by changing course of rivers o Ox-drawn plows helped during planting season o Barley favored in Mesopotamia Able to endure the climate and salt deposits in soil o Used swidden agriculture o Sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, and camels became main domesticated animals History o Mesopotamia means land between the rivers o Begins with Sumerians Marks difference between prehistory and history In Mesopotamia by at 5000 B.C.E. o Semitic language discovered Spoken in western Asia and northern Africa Include Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician Developed by descendents of Mesopotamian nomads Semites o Seemed to live in peace with Sumerians o Adopted culture and achieved power and wealth o Semitic become politically dominant Akkadian language dominates Sumerian Cultural legacy still survives Sumerian-Akkadian dictionaries allow for ability to read language today Similarities in Semitic gods follows merging of Sumerian and Semitic cultures through intermarriage Culture stayed relatively unaltered until Greeks arrive in 4th century B.C.E. Cities, Kings, and Trade Cities o Urban centers and small, surrounding villages rely upon one another o Urban centers rely on smaller villages for food

Sophisticated system for irrigation Canals, dams, dikes, drainage ditches Operation was only successful through cooperative work by many people o Smaller villages rely on urban centers for protection and markets for buying and selling goods o City-States became common Hostilities sparked over land disputes During times of cooperation, trading between cities was safe Contained one or more temples Housed the deity or deities Owned agricultural lands Priests played prominent political and economic roles Kings o Documents show beginnings in 3rd millennium Known as lugal or big man o Kings power coincided with the power of the priesthood Many claimed to be deitys earthly form o Assumed responsibility for many different things Building of temples, protection, maintenance, justice, etc. o Epic of Gilgamesh Shows purpose and value of kings Akkadians become very powerful o Sargon, ruler of Akkad, unites many villages under one king and capital Secured his rule in many different ways Conquered villages and placed soldier-backed governments to control Paid soldiers in land to keep them loyal Adapted cuneiform from Sumerian roots to Semitic language Official documents and standardized system of weights and measurements o Fall around 2230 B.C.E. Third Dynasty of Ur o Became powerful because of marriage alliances and conquest o Toppled by Semitic Amorites and Elamites Amorites found the city of Babylon o Hammurabi makes Babylon the capital through military campaigns Developed Hammurabis Law Codes Developed physical punishment for crimes versus commonly used monetary punishment from Ur o Severity of punishment based on social class Trade helps end conquests for natural resources

o Merchants work for palace or temple 3rd B.C.E. Exchange surpluses from royal or temple farmlands for raw materials and luxury items o Coin money not used for trading Most items were bartered Mesopotamian Society Social status based on wealth, social function, and legal and political rights o Hammurabis Code outlines three different classes Free landowning class Royalty, high-ranking officials, warriors, priests, etc. Rural work force Farmers and artisans Slaves Little is known about daily lives o Peasants were illiterate, couldnt keep records o Scribe position was dominated by men; left few records, most reflect elite male actions o Woman domination believed to have died with spread of agriculture Werent supplying food anymore Food production fell on plowers, harvesters, and irrigation diggers Food surpluses led to larger families o Women had to stay home and watch multiple children o Men dominated political life Gods, Priests, and Temples Sumerian gods personified the forces of nature o Configured to Semitic gods when Semitic started taking control God believed to be anthropomorphic o Were feared because of powers and abilities Temples and statues were built for the gods o Statues were believed to house the gods life-force Were kept on schedule of bathing, feeding, entertaining, etc. Priests passed office on hereditarily o Lived under complicated system of hierarchy Job as priest was based on rank in hierarchy Exorcist Musician Seer High walls surrounded the temple grounds o Ziggurat was in center Surrounded by other temples, dining facilities, offices, etc. Unknown how much access the public had to these temples o Amulets and forms of magic were important to religious beliefs

12 day New Years festival held at the beginning of spring o Asked gods to present a renewal of time and life Technology and Science Writing o Originally used to keep track of property o Wrote on moist clay with wedge-shaped reed o Developed into cuneiform Consisted of several hundred signs Originally used by the Sumerians; later used by Akkadians, Semites, Hittites, Elamites, and Persians Ultimately, served political, economic, literary, etc. purposes Technological advancements o Craftsmen Began using copper for weapons and tools Tin Arsenic o Clay Commonly used for building and pottery o Military Chariots and siege equipment o Mathematics produced a base-60 system Led to 60 seconds and minutes o Astronomy Used phenomenons to predict future occurrences Egypt The Land of Egypt: Gift of the Nile Life in Egypt centered around the Nile River o Nile River was key to agriculture in the surrounding areas Like Mesopotamia, the Egyptians used the flooding of the river for irrigation for crops To much flooding = damage to the cities To little flooding = No silt in irrigation fields Egypt was overflowing with natural resources o Papyrus for paper, ropes, sails, etc. o Animals for hunting and fishing o Stone for building o Clay for building and pottery o Copper, turquoise, and gold for trade Divine Kingship More complex government system was needed as the Egypts population increased o Menes was first ruler of united Egypt Government revolves around the pharaoh o Believed to be incarnation of Horus and Re

o Maintained maat o Pharaoh ensured wealth and prosperity to Egypt o Had elaborate forms of burial Were buried with gold, animals, food, etc. to help on journey to afterlife Djoser, Third Dynasty King, was first to demand pyramid for burial o Future pharaohs followed suit o Khufu and Khefren built largest stone pyramids Pyramid building was accomplished with the simplest of things o Bronze was to expensive; human muscle and stone tools were used o Mostly done during flooding season Agricultural work couldnt be done o Thought to be a religious service for pharaoh and gods Administration and Communication Capital cities usually based on origin of power o Memphis Old Kingdom o Thebes Middle and New Kingdom Complex bureaucracy system o Included village level, district level, and central government o Kept track of land, labor, products, and people o Took care of taxes 50% of revenue Supported palace, army, building maintenance, and monuments for king Fled to desert if couldnt pay Government controlled trade o Had monopoly over key sectors of economy o Egyptians didnt control trade like those in Mesopotamia Hieroglyphics was form of writing for the ancient Egyptians o Only lasted until cursive script was established Papyrus was used for cursive script to be written on Status as an official was based on merit and accomplishment o Many officials were buried next to pharaohs, so as to serve them in the afterlife as well o Over time, bureaucracy became less powerful Eventually became own middle class in social hierarchy Egypt stuck to itself during Old and Middle Kingdoms o Focused more on maintaining and acquiring resources than conquest and land Eventually, Egypt invaded Nubia for gold mines The People of Egypt Egypt had less structured social divisions o King and high officials o Low officials, artisans, priests, etc.

o Peasants Did most of hard labor Slavery existed in small degree o P.O.W.s, criminals, and debtors made up slave category o Duties were burdened less by thought of humane treatment and thought of freedom Little is known about women life o Hieroglyphs depict women as yellow-skinned Meant they stayed indoors o Believed that women had more legal and social rights than women from Mesopotamia Belief and Knowledge Egyptians were polytheistic o Believed in the after-life and Underworld Story of Osiris o Pharaoh was incarnation of Horus and Re Brought prosperity and well-being to nation o Deities appear as both human and human/animal combo o Little is known about day-to-day beliefs Amulets and pictures were used to ward off demons Offerings were made to Bes, goddess of marriage and happiness Egyptians had complex belief in afterlife o Believed in weighing of heart Showed emotion, personality, and determined if soul was to pass on to blessed destination Mummification was ideal form of burial for upper-class o Vital organs removed o Body preserved in chemicals o Mummy then placed in one or multiple sarcophaguses o Led to knowledge about chemistry and human anatomy Tombs built on outskirts of cities to allow for agricultural room o Mummies usually buried with items necessary for afterlife Gold, food, figurines of servants, etc. Developed some of most advantageous technologies o Most accurate calendar Based on repeated observation of stars Helped determine flooding season, etc. o Found ways to move large quantities of earth Used rollers, barges, and canals to transport limestone for pyramids Dug canal to connect Nile and Red Sea for trading purposes The Indus Valley Civilization Natural Environment Situated in the Indus Valley on the banks of the Indus River

o River floods twice a year March/April August Material Culture Cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro best show what life was like in Indus Valley o Believed to have spoken Dravidian Spoke until being conquered in 1500 B.C.E. o Agriculture dates back to 5000 B.C.E. o Writing system has over 400 symbols o Strong central authority is believed to have been a part of both cities Similarities in construction, street patterns, drainage systems, etc. o Cities may have had different responsibilities based on location in Indus Valley Mohenjo-Daro in center of floodplain Harappa near pasture and on edge of supposed gateway for copper tin, and other natural resources o Metal seems more frequent in Indus Valley Believed to be household item Indus Valley seems to be technologically sound o Irrigation, potters wheel, kilns o Smiths seem to have awareness of the difference in hardness of different metals Indus Valley had distant trading partners o Mountain passes discovered o Rivers provide good trade routes o Indus Valley seal stones discovered in Mesopotamia area Little is known about political, social, economic, and religious beliefs Transformation of the Indus Valley Civilization Indus Valley cities were abandoned in 1900 B.C.E. o Believed to be in accordance with drying of Hakra river o Little is known about real reason for true reason for abandonment