Prince&Links-Medical Imaging Signals&Systems Allslides 2009

Medical Imaging Signals and Systems
Jerry L. Prince
Johns Hopkins University
August 20, 2009
Jerry L. Prince (Johns Hopkins University) Medical Imaging Signals and Systems August 20, 2009 1 / 412
Acknowledgements
These notes are intended to be used with the the
textbook:
Jerry L. Prince and Jonathan M. Links,

Medical Imaging Signals and Systems, Upper
Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.
Images and gures lacking a specic bibliographic
citation are either taken from this book and the
copyright is owned by Pearson Prentice Hall or were
hand drawn by Jerry Prince.
Images and gures with specic bibliographic
citations are used with permission of the copyright
holder.
Outline
Outline I
1
Introduction to Medical Imaging Systems
2
Multidimensional Signal Processing
3
Image Quality
4
Physics of Radiography
5
Projection Radiography
Outline
Outline II
6
Computed Tomography
7
Physics of Nuclear Medicine
8
Planar Scintigraphy
9
Emission Tomography
10
Ultrasound Physics
11
Ultrasound Imaging
Outline
Outline III
12
Physics of Magnetic Resonance
13
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
1
Overall Perspective
Possible objectives
Signals Examples
Introduction to Medical Imaging Systems Overall Perspective
Overall Perspective
Course breakdown
1/3 physics
1/3 instrumentation
1/3 signal processing

Understand systems from a signals viewpoint:
input signal system or process output signal
Introduction to Medical Imaging Systems Overall Perspective
A Signal Example
Example
Input signal: j(x. y) is the linear attenuation
coecient for x-rays
Process (integration over x variable):
g(y) =
j(x. y)dx
Output signal: g(y)
Introduction to Medical Imaging Systems Possible objectives
Possible objectives
understand noise or artifacts created by system
understand contrast in input and output
process output to create a picture of input
Introduction to Medical Imaging Systems Signals Examples
Examples of Signals in Medical Imaging
j(x. y. z), linear attenuation coecient in x-rays
h(x. y. z), CT numbers in computed tomography
A(x. y. z), radioactivity in nuclear medicine
Chest X-ray Abdominal CT Cardiac SPECT
More Examples
P
D
(x. y. z), proton density in MRI imaging
T
1
(x. y. z), longitudinal relaxation time in MRI
T
2
(x. y. z), transverse relaxation time in MRI
P
D
-weighted T
2
-weighted T
1
-weighted
More Examples
R(x. y. z), reectivity in ultrasound imaging
v
R
(x. y. z), range component of velocity in Doppler
ultrasound
11-week Embryo Fetus Heart
2
Multidimensional Signals
Delta Functions
Systems
Fourier Transform
Rect and Sinc
Hankel Transform
Sampling
Aliasing
Area Detectors
Multidimensional Signal Processing Multidimensional Signals
1D, 2D, and 3D Signals
A 1D signal is:
f (t), a function of one variable, or
a waveform, or
a graph (a collection of points in a 2D space)

A 2D signal is:
f (x. y), a function of two variables, or
an image, or

A 3D signal is:
f (x. y. z), a function of three variables, or
a volumetric image, or

We focus (mostly) on 2D signals in this course
Separable signals:
f (x. y) = f
1
(x)f
2
(y)
f (x. y. z) = f
1
(x)f
2
(y)f
3
(z)
Multidimensional Signal Processing Delta Functions
Delta Functions
The 1D delta or impulse function is dened by
two properties:
o(x) = 0 . x = 0
f (x)o(x)dx = f (0)
Properties of the Delta Function
The area of o(x) is unity
o(x)dx = 1
A 2D delta function o(x. y) is dened by
o(x. y) = 0 . (x. y) = 0
f (x. y)o(x. y)dx dy = f (0. 0)

A 3D delta function is analogous.
More Properties
Properties of delta functions:
o(x) = o(x) even
o(x. y) = o(x)o(y) separable
f ()o( x)d = f (x) sifting

2D sifting property
f (. j)o( x. j y)ddj = f (x. y)

Point Source Model
delta function models a point source
metal bead in x-ray
vial of radioactivity in nuclear medicine
vitamin E pill in magnetic resonance imaging
small bubble or microcalcication in ultrasound

Multidimensional Signal Processing Systems
Transformations of Signals
Components of a transformation:
Input: f
System: []
Output: g
The impulse response or point spread function due
to an impulse at (. j) is
h(x. y; . j) = [o(x . y j)]
h(x. y; . j) is a 2D signal parameterized by a 2D
vector
A linear system satises:
[w
1
f
1
+ w
2
f
2
] = w
1
[f
1
] + w
2
[f
2
]
for all signals f
1
and f
2
and weights w
1
and w
2
.
A linear system satises the superposition integral
g(x. y) =
h(x. y; . j)f (. j)ddj

We model most medical imaging systems as linear.
Shift-Invariant Systems
A system is shift-invariant is
g(x x
0
. y y
0
) = [f (x x
0
. y y
0
)]
for every (x
0
. y
0
) and f (. ).
A linear shift-invariant (LSI) system yields
h(x. y; . j) h(x . y j)
[Watch out for abuse of notation]
Convolution Integral
An LSI system satises the convolution integral
g(x. y) =
h(x . y j)f (. j)ddj

which is abbreviated as
g(x. y) = h(x. y) f (x. y)
We model most medical imaging systems as LSI
Multidimensional Signal Processing Fourier Transform
LSI Systems and Complex Exponentials
A 2D complex exponential signal is
e
j 2(ux+vy)
= e
j 2ux
e
j 2vy
i.e., separable
where
e
j 2ux
= cos 2ux + j sin 2ux
The response of an LSI system to
f (x. y) = e
j 2(ux+vy)
is
g(x. y) = H(u. v)e
j 2(ux+vy)
The function
H(u. v) =
h(x. y)e
j 2(ux+vy)
dxdy
H(u. v) is called the Fourier transform of h(x. y).
The inverse Fourier transform of H(u. v) is
h(x. y) =
H(u. v)e
+j 2(ux+vy)
dudv
Magnitude of the 2D Fourier Transform
Comments on the Fourier Transform
Notation:
F(u. v) = {f }
=
f (x. y)e
j 2(ux+vy)
dxdy
f (x. y) =
1
{F}
=
F(u. v)e
+j 2(ux+vy)
dudv
e
j 2(ux+vy)
is a complex sinusoid oriented in the
(u. v) direction
2ux has units of radians
ux is unitless
x has units of length, e.g., cm or mm
u has units of inverse length, e.g., cm
1
or
mm
1
.
u is referred to as (cyclic) spatial frequency
The 1D Fourier transform pair is given by
F(u) =
f (x)e
j 2ux
dx
f (x) =
F(u)e
+j 2ux
du
Properties of the Fourier Transform
[Refer to text for complete list]
Linearity:
{w
1
f
1
+ w
2
f
2
} = w
1
F
1
+ w
2
F
2
Scaling:
{f (cx. y)} =
1
c
F(
u
c
.
v
)
Shifting:
{f (x c. y )} = F(u. v)e
j 2(uc+va)
{f (x. y)e
+j 2(jx+iy)
} = F(u j. v i)
Convolution:
{f
1
f
2
} = F
1
F
2
Correlation:
f
1
(. j)f
2
(x + . y + j)ddj
}
= F
1
(u. v)F
2
(u. v)
Separable input: If f (x. y) = f
1
(x)f
2
(y) then
{f (x. y)} = F
1
(u)F
2
(v)
Parsevals theorem:
f (x. y)
2
dxdy
=
F(u. v)
2
dudv
Product:
{f
1
(x. y)f
2
(x. y)} = F
1
(u. v) F
2
(u. v)
Impulse:
{o(x. y)} = 1
Constant:
{1} = o(u. v)
Sinusoid (1D):
{sin 2u
0
x} =
1
2j
[o(u u
0
) o(u + u
0
)]
{cos 2u
0
x} =
1
2
[o(u u
0
) + o(u + u
0
)]
Sinusoid (2D):
{sin 2(u
0
x + v
0
y)}
=
1
2j
[o(u u
0
. v v
0
) o(u + u
0
. v + v
0
)]
{cos 2(u
0
x + v
0
y)}
=
1
2
[o(u u
0
. v v
0
) + o(u + u
0
. v + v
0
)]
Multidimensional Signal Processing Rect and Sinc
Rect and Sinc
Rect function: (gate or pedestal)
rect(x) =
{
1 x 1,2
0 otherwise
Sinc function:
sinc(x) =
sin x
x
Multidimensional Signal Processing Rect and Sinc
Fourier transform relationship:
{rect(x)} = sinc(u)
x
sinc( ) x
1
1 1 2 3 4 0 2 3 4
rect( ) x
x
1/ 2 1/ 2
1
0
(a) (b)
Multidimensional Signal Processing Hankel Transform
Rotation
Rotation:
f
0
(x. y) = f (x cos o y sin o. x sin o + y cos o)
Fourier transform rotates also
2D
(f
0
)(u. v)
= F(u cos o v sin o. u sin o + v cos o)
Circular Symmetry
2D signal is circularly symmetric if
f
0
(x. y) = f (x. y) . for every o
2D
(f
0
)(u. v) is also circularly symmetric
f (x. y) and F(u. v) are functions of radii only
f (x. y) = f (r )
and
F(u. v) = F(q)
Hankel Transform
Fourier transform of circularly symmetric objects is
described by the Hankel transform
F(q) = 2

0
f (r )J
0
(2qr ) r dr
J
0
(r ) is zero-order Bessel function of the rst kind
J
0
(r ) =
1

0
cos(r sin o) do
Example pair:
{exp{r
2
}} = exp{q
2
}
Multidimensional Signal Processing Sampling
Sampling
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
Point sampling:
f [m. n] = f (mx. ny)
Impulse Trains
Impulse train or comb or shah function:
comb(x) =
n=
o(x n)
Fourier transform relationship
{comb(x)} = comb(u)
Sampling Function
The sampling function:
o
s
(x; x) =
n=
o(x nx)
Impulse scaling property:
o(ax) =
1
a
o(x)
Relation to shah/comb function:
o
s
(x; x) =
1
x
comb
(
x
x
)
Sampling Model (see text for 2D)
Sampled signal
f
s
(x) = f (x)o
s
(x; x)
f
s
(x) contains the same information as
f [k] = f (kx)
Fourier transform of f
s
(x):
F
s
(u) = F(u) {o
s
(x; x)}
Sampled Spectrum
Fourier transform of sampling function:
{o
s
(x; x)} = comb(xu)
=
1
x
o(u
n
x
)
Sampled spectrum is therefore:
F
s
(u) =
1
x
F(u) o(u
n
x
)
Sampled Spectrum in 2D
u
v
F u v ( , )
V
V
U U
v
u
F u v
s
( , )
(a) (b)
1 2 / y
1 2 / y
1
2x
1 / y
1 / y
1 / x 1 / x
U U
V
V
1
2x
v
u
F u v
s
( , )
1 /y
1 / x 1 / x
1 / y
U
V
V
U
aliasing
Sampling Theorem
The (spatial) sampling frequency is:
u
s
=
1
x
Let U be the highest frequency in F(u).
Then sampled spectra do not overlap if
u
s
2U
2U is called the Nyquist rate
Multidimensional Signal Processing Aliasing
Aliasing
Aliasing occurs if u
s
< 2U.
Overlapping sampled spectra.
Corruption of high frequencies
Artifacts are high frequency patterns

v
u
F u v
s
( , )
1 /y
1 / x 1 / x
1 / y
U
V
V
U
aliasing
Multidimensional Signal Processing Aliasing
Anti-aliasing Filters
Suppose:
u
s
= 1,x
Highest frequency in f (x) is U.

Filter f (x):
before sampling
Use low pass lter with cuto frequency u

s
,2.
Multidimensional Signal Processing Area Detectors
Area Detector Analysis
Shape of detector: p(x) [maybe rect(x,D)]
Area detector sampling model:
f
s
(x) = [p(x) f (x)]o
s
(x; x)
Fourier domain:
F
s
(u) = [P(u)F(u)] comb(xu)
= [P(u)F(u)]
1
x
n=
o
(
u
n
x
)
Image Quality
3
Image Quality
Basic Notions
Contrast
Resolution
Noise
Artifacts
Accuracy
Image Quality Basic Notions
What is Quality?
What makes a good medical image?
physics-oriented answer:
faithful representation of the truth
task-oriented answer:
discrimination of healthy vs. diseased
tissues
Image Quality Basic Notions
Measures of Quality
Physics-oriented issues:
contrast, resolution
noise, artifacts, distortion
accuracy
Task-oriented issues:
sensitivity, specicity
diagnostic accuracy
Image Quality Contrast
Contrast or Modulation
Sinusoidal image brightness function:
f (x. y) =
f
max
+ f
min
2
+
f
max
f
min
2
sin(2u
0
x)
Contrast = modulation =
m
f
=
amplitude
average
=
f
max
f
min
f
max
+ f
min
Sinusoidal Signals with Dierent Contrast
Sinusoid Input/Output in a Linear System
Input: (assume f 0)
f (x. y) = A + B sin(2u
0
x)
Assume impulse response h(x. y) is real
Output:
g(x. y) = H(0. 0)A
+H(u
0
. 0)B sin[2u
0
x +H(u
0
. 0)]
Contrast Change in a Linear System
Input contrast: m
f
= B,A
Output contrast:
m
g
=
H(u
0
. 0)B
H(0. 0)A
=
H(u
0
. 0)
H(0. 0)
m
f
A B +
A B -
A
A B H u + | ( , )| 0
A B H u - | ( , )| 0
m
B
A
f
= m
B
A
H u
g
= | ( , )| 0
medical
imaging
system
input
f x y ( , )
output
g x y ( , )
Modulation Transfer Function
Modulation transfer function:
MTF(u) =
m
g
m
f
=
H(u. 0)
H(0. 0)
spatialfrequency u
0 8 .
mm
-1
0
10 .
MTF( ) u
0 6 . 0 2 . 0.4 10 . 12 . 1.4
0 5 .
More on Modulation Transfer Function
General case
MTF(u. v) =
H(u. v)
H(0. 0)
MTF is partial characterization of real system
Rule of thumb:
H(u. v) holds 1/8 of info
H(u. v) hold 7/8 of info

Contrast is Related to Resolution
decreasingcontrast
M
T
F
o
u
t
p
u
t
s
i
g
n
a
l
Local Contrast
Non-sinusoidal signals: identify
target intensity: f
t
background intensity: f
b
Local contrast:
C =
f
t
f
b
f
b
Optional:
C(%) = C 100%
C(abs) = C
Image Quality Resolution
Resolution: Bar Phantom
Bar Phantom Properties
50% duty cycle
Material depends on modality
metal or plexiglass bars
tubes of radioactivity
resolution dened as the highest line density such
that lines can be distinguished
units: line pairs (lp) per distance
gamma camera: 23 lp/cm
CT: 2 lp/mm
chest x-ray: 68 lp/mm

Resolution: Line Response
Line function:
f (x. y) = o(x)
Line response:
l (x) = {o(x)} =
h(x. j)dj
Relation to MTF:
MTF(u) =
L(u)
L(0)
Resolution: Line Separation
Resolution: FWHM
Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM)
Image Quality Noise
Noise: Random Variables
Typical imaging model:
g(x. y) = f (x. y) h(x. y) + N(x. y)
N(x. y) is noise
N(x. y) is a random variable at each (x. y)
N(x. y) could be continuous or discrete
Probability Distribution Function (PDF)
P
N
(j) = Pr[N j]
Image Quality Noise
Continuous Random Variables
Probability density function (pdf):
p
N
(j) =
dP
N
(j)
dj
Mean:
j
N
=
jp
N
(j)dj
Variance:
o
2
N
=
(j j)
2
p
N
(j)dj
Standard deviation:
o
N
=
o
2
N
Image Quality Noise
Gaussian Random Variable
pdf
p
N
(j) =
1
2o
2
e
(jj)
2
,2o
2
mean:
j
N
= j
variance:
o
2
N
= o
2
standard deviation:
o
N
= o
Image Quality Noise
Discrete Random Variables
Probability mass function (PMF):
p
N
(j
i
) = Pr[N = j
i
]
Mean:
j
N
=
all j
i
j
i
p
N
(j
i
)
Variance:
o
2
N
=
all j
i
(j
i
j
N
)
2
p
N
(j
i
)
Standard deviation:
o
N
=
o
2
N
Image Quality Noise
Poisson Random Variable
PMF
p
N
(k) =
a
k
e
a
k!
. for k = 0. 1. . . .
mean:
j
N
= a
variance:
o
2
N
= a
standard deviation:
o
N
=
a
Image Quality Noise
Sum of Independent Random Variables
Let N and M be joint random variables
Let Q = N + M
Then
j
Q
= j
N
+ j
M
If N and M are independent then
o
2
Q
= o
2
N
+ o
2
M
Image Quality Noise
Images Degrade with Noise
Noise level depends on modality and acquisition
parameters
Fast imaging is almost always noisier
Low dose imaging is almost always noisier
Image Quality Noise
Signals in Noise
Signal is f
Noise is N
Signal-to-noise ratio
SNR
a
=
amplitude(f )
amplitude(N)
SNR
p
=
power(f )
power(N)
Hint: Units must match
Image Quality Noise
More on Signal-to-noise
SNR in decibels
SNR(dB) = 20 log
10
SNR
a
SNR(dB) = 10 log
10
SNR
p
Common example of SNR
signal height is A
noise standard deviation is o

N
SNR is then
SNR
a
=
A
o
N
Image Quality Noise
Noise and Blurring Degrade Quality
Image Quality Artifacts
Nonrandom Eects
Artifacts: image features that do not correspond to
a real object, and are not due to noise
star artifact, beam hardening artifact
ring artifact, ghosts

Distortion: geometric or intensity changes not
corresponding to the real object
magnication
barrel or pincushion distortion
quantization, saturation
Image Quality Artifacts
Common Artifacts
(a) motion
(b) star
(c) hardening
(d) ring
Image Quality Accuracy
Accuracy
Accuracy:
conformity to truth
quantitative accuracy
clinical utility
diagnostic accuracy
Quantitative accuracy:
numerical accuracy: bias, precision
geometric accuracy: dimensions

Diagnostic Quality
Contingency table:
Disease
+
+
a b
T
e
s
t
c d
Variables:
a = # w/ disease & test says disease
b = # w/o disease & test says disease
c = # w/ disease & test says normal
d = # w/o disease & test says normal
Diagnostic Accuracy
sensitivity =
a
a + c
specicity =
d
b + d
diagnostic accuracy =
a + d
a + b + c + d
Disease
+
+
a b
T
e
s
t
c d
Disease Prevalence
positive predictive value =
a
a + b
negative predictive value =
d
c + d
prevalence =
a + c
a + b + c + d
Disease
+
+
a b
T
e
s
t
c d
4
X-ray Modalities
Atomic Structure
Ionizing Radiation
Energetic Electrons
Electromagnetic Radiation
EM Strength
EM Attenuation
EM Dose
Physics of Radiography X-ray Modalities
X-ray Modalities
Chest x-rays
Mammography
Dental x-rays
Fluoroscopy
Angiography
Computed tomography
These do not involve radioactivity
Physics of Radiography Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
nucleons = {protons. neutrons}
mass number A is # nucleons
atomic number Z is # protons
element symbol X is redundant with Z
nuclide is particular combination of nucleons
Z
A
X
X-A
Electrons
Orbit in shells
Shell Number n Shell Label # Electrons 2n
2
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
Electron Binding Energy
Basic principle:
bound energy < unbound energy + electron energy
Binding energy is dierence
Binding energy of hydrogen electron: 13.6 eV
1 eV is the kinetic energy gained by an electron that
is accelerated across a one (1) volt potential
Ionization and Excitation
Ionization is knocking an electron out of atom
creates electron + ion

Excitation is knocking an electron to a higher
orbit
Characteristic Radiation
What happens to ionized or excited atom?
Return to ground state by rearrangement of
electrons
Causes atom to give o energy
Energy given o as characteristic radiation
infrared
light
x-rays
Physics of Radiography Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation with energy 13.6 eV is ionizing
Energy required to ionize:
air 34 eV
lead 1 keV
tungsten 4 keV
These are average binding energies.
Radiation energies in medical imaging
30 keV511 keV
can ionize 1040,000 atoms
Particulate Radiation
Concerned with electron here (x-ray tube)
(positron in later chapters)
Relativistic theory required (see text)
An electron accelerated across 100 kV
potential dierence yields a 100 keV electron
Electromagnetic EM Radiation
Many types of EM radiation:
radio, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet
x-rays, gamma rays

electric and magnetic wave at right angles
waves with frequency i, or
particles (photons) with energy E

E = hi
Plancks constant h = 4.14 10
15
eV-sec
Physics of Radiography Energetic Electrons
Energetic Electron Interactions
Two primary interactions:
collisional transfer
radiative transfer
Collisional transfer:
Electron hits other electrons
Occasionally produces delta ray

Energetic Electrons: Radiative Transfer
Two types of radiative transfer:
characteristic x-rays
bremsstrahlung x-rays
Characteristic x-rays:
electron ejects a K-shell electron
reorganization generates x-ray

Energetic Electrons: Bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung x-rays
Electron grazes nucleus, slows down
Energy loss generates x-ray

X-ray Spectrum
Physics of Radiography Electromagnetic Radiation
EM Interactions
Two important interactions:
Photoelectric eect
Compton scattering
Photoelectric eect
Atom completely absorbs incident photon
All energy is transferred
Atom produces
characteristic radiation, and/or
energetic electron(s)
Characteristic radiation might be
x-ray, or
light very important

Illustration of Photoelectric Eect
Compton Scattering
Photon collides with outer-shell electron
Photon is deected, angle o
Deected photon has lower energy:
E
=
E
1 + E(1 cos o),(m
0
c
2
)
m
0
is rest mass of electron
m
0
c
2
= 511 keV
Illustration of Compton Scattering
When E higher
more Compton events scatter forward
Compton more of a problem

Probability of EM Interactions
Photoelectric eect:
Prob[photoelectric event]
Z
4
e
(hi)
3
Photons are more penetrating at higher
frequencies/energies
Compton scattering:
Prob[Compton event] ED
ED approximately constant over diagnostic range
Physics of Radiography EM Strength
Beam Strength: Photon Counts
Photon uence:
=
N
A
Photon uence rate:
o =
N
At
Beam Strength: Energy Flow
Energy uence:
=
Nhi
A
Energy uence rate:
=
Nhi
At
Intensity: (= )
I (E) =
NE
At
Polyenergetic Beam Strength
X-ray spectrum S(E):
S(E) is the number of photons per unit energy

per unit area per unit time
Photon uence rate from spectrum:
o =

0
S(E
) dE
Intensity from spectrum:

I =

0
E
S(E
) dE
Physics of Radiography EM Attenuation
EM Attenuation Geometries
Good Geometry, Monoenergetic
Non-homogeneous slab:
dN
N
= j(x)dx
Integration yields:
N(x) = N
0
exp{
x
0
j(x
)dx
}
For intensity:
I (x) = I
0
exp{
x
0
j(x
)dx
}
Homogeneous Slab
Homogeneous slab thickness x
Fundamental photon attenuation law
N = N
0
e
jx
j is linear attenuation coecient
In terms of intensity:
I = I
0
e
jx
This is known as Beers Law
Half-value Layer
Homogeneous slab (shielding)
HVL = thickness that will
stop half the photons
1
2
= exp{j HVL}
Relation to j
HVL =
0.693
j
Good Geometry, Polyenergetic
Must deal with x-ray spectrum S
0
(E)
Abandon photon counting: use intensity
For heterogeneous materials
I (x) =

0
S
0
(E
)E
exp
{
x
0
j(x
; E
)dx
}
dE
Not very useful

Better to dene eective energy,
use monoenergetic approximation
Mass Attenuation Coecient
mass attenuation coecient j,j
Physics of Radiography EM Dose
EM Radiation Dose
How many photons? uence
How much energy? energy uence
What does radiation do to matter?
dose
Exposure: (the creation of ions)
How many ions are created?
Exposure X, the number of ion pairs produced in a
specic volume of air by EM radiation
SI Units: C/kg
Common Units: roentgen, R
1 C/kg = 3876 R
Dose: (the deposition of energy)
How much energy is deposited into material?
Dose, D, the energy deposited per unit volume
SI unit: Gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 J/kg
Common unit: rad
1 Gy = 100 rads
When X = 1 R soft tissue incurs 1 rad absorbed
dose.
Kerma
How much energy is deposited into
the electrons?
Kerma, K, is the energy deposited into the electrons
of a material
SI units: Gray (Gy) = 1 J/kg = 100 rads
At diagnostic energies in the body, K = D
(In general, K D. Some electrons can cause
bremsstrahlung and their energy irradiated away
no dose. Not likely in body.)
5
Radiographic Systems
X-ray Tubes
Filtration, Restriction, and Contrast Agents
Scatter Control
Screen and Cassette
Imaging Equation
Film
Noise
Projection Radiography Radiographic Systems
Systems:
chest x-rays,
mammography
dental x-rays
uoroscopy, angiography
Properties
high resolution
low dose
broad coverage
short exposure time

Projection Radiography Radiographic Systems
Radiographic System
Projection Radiography X-ray Tubes
X-ray Tube Diagram
X-ray Tube Components
Filament controls tube current (mA)
Cathode and focussing cup
Anode is switched to high potential
30150 kVp
Made of tungsten
Bremsstrahlung is 1%
Heat is 99%
Spins at 3,2003,600 rpm

Glass housing; vacuum
Exposure Control
kVp applied for short duration
xed timer (SCR), or
automatic exposure control (AEC), 5 mm thick

ionization chamber triggers SCR
Tube current mA controlled by
lament current, and
kVp
mA times exposure time yields mAs
mAs measures x-ray exposure
X-ray Spectra
Projection Radiography Filtration, Restriction, and Contrast Agents
Filtration
Inherent ltration
Within anode
Glass housing
Added ltration
Aluminum
Copper/Aluminum
Note: Cu has 8keV characteristic xrays
Measured in mm Al/Eq
Restriction
Goal: To direct beam toward desired anatomy
Compensation Filters
Goal: to even out lm exposure
Contrast Agents
Goal: To create contrast where otherwise none
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 150 200 15
0.1
1.0
10
100
L
i
n
e
a
r
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
(
c
m
)
-
1
PhotonEnergy(keV)
Hypaque
Kedge
37.4
muscle
softtissue
Bone
Fat
Kedge
33.2
BaSO
mix
4
Projection Radiography Scatter Control
Scatter Control
Ideal x-ray path: a line!
Compton scattering causes blurring
How to reduce scatter?
airgap
scanning slit
grid
Grids
Eectiveness in scatter reduction?
grid ratio =
h
b
6:1 to 16:1 (radiography) or 2:1 (mammo)
Problems with Grids
Radiation is absorbed by grid
grid conversion factor

GCF =
mAs w/ grid
mAs w/o grid
Typical range 3 < GCF < 8

Grid visible on x-ray lm
move grid during exposure
linear or circular motion

Projection Radiography Screen and Cassette
Intensifying Screen
Film stops only 12% of x-rays
Film stops light really well
Phosphor = calcium tungstate
Flash of light lasts 1 10
10
second
1,000 light photons per 50 keV x-ray photon
Projection Radiography Screen and Cassette
Radiographic Cassette
Cassette holds two screens; makes sandwich
One side is leaded
Projection Radiography Imaging Equation
Basic Imaging Equation
I (x. y) =

0
S
0
(E
)E
exp
{
r (x,y)
0
j(s; E
. x. y)ds
}
dE
Geometric Eects
X-rays are diverging from source
Undesirable eects:
cos
3
o fallo across detector
anode heel eect
pathlength irregularities
magnication
I
0
is intensity at (0. 0)
r is distance from (x. y) to x-ray origin
o is angle between (0. 0) and (x. y)
Inverse Square Law
Net ux of photons decrease as 1,r
2
.
Therefore
I
0
=
I
S
4d
2
I
r
=
I
S
4r
2
Eliminate source intensity I
S
I
r
= I
0
d
2
r
2
Since cos o = d,r
I
r
= I
0
cos
2
o
Obliquity
Intensity is
I
d
= I
0
cos o
Beam Divergence and Flat Detector
Inverse square law and obliquity combine
I
d
(x
d
. y
d
) = I
0
cos
3
o
Can usually be ignored. Why?
Detector is far away
Field of view (FOV) is often small

Anode Heel Eect
Intensity within the x-ray cone
Not uniform
stronger in the cathode direction
45% variation is typical

Compensate, use to advantage, or ignore
We will ignore in math
Path Length of Slab
Uniform slab yields dierent intensities
Eect of Pathlength on Intensity
Intensity on detector
I
d
(x. y) = I
0
exp{jL, cos o}
Including inverse square law and obliquity:
I
d
(x. y) = I
i
cos
3
o exp{jL, cos o}
If d r all eects can be ignored
Object Magnication
Size on detector depends on distance from source
Magnication Formula
Object at position z from source
Height of object is w.
Height w
z
on detector is
w
z
= w
d
z
Magnication is
M(z) =
d
z
Can lead to edge blurring and misleading sizes
Thin Slab Imaging Equation
Thin slab at z of j(x. y)
Let transmittivity be
t
z
(x. y) = exp{j(x. y)z}
On detector, intensity is
I
d
(x. y) = I
0
cos
3
o t
z
(
x
M(z)
.
y
M(z)
)
After substitution
I
d
(x. y) = I
0
(
d
d
2
+ x
2
+ y
2
)
3
t
z
(
xz
d
.
yz
d
)
Sources of Blurring
Extended source
Intensier screen
Extended Source
z
d
Extended
X-ray
Source
Image of
Extended
Source
Point
Hole
Detector
Plane
s x y (,)
D
D
Source spatial distribution: s(x. y)
Source Magnication
Source diameter on detector:
D
=
d z
z
D
Source magnication:
m(z) =
d z
z
= 1 M(z)
Source Blurring
Image of source through pinhole at z
I
d
(x. y) =
1
4d
2
m
2
s
(
x
m
.
y
m
)
Intensity at detector:
I
d
(x. y) =
cos
3
o
4d
2
m
2
t
z
(
x
M
.
y
M
)
s
(
x
m
.
y
m
)
Film-Screen Blurring
Film
X-ray
Photon
r
x
L
Light Photons
Phosphors
Film-screen impulse response: h(x. y)
Overall Imaging Equation
Include all geometric eects
I
d
(x. y) = cos
3
o
1
4d
2
m
2
s
(
x
m
.
y
m
)
t
z
(
x
M
.
y
M
)
h(x. y)
Projection Radiography Film
Film
Developed lm
Optical transmissivity
T =
I
t
I
i
Optical density
D = log
10
I
i
I
t
Note: O = 1,T is optical opacity
Usable densities 0.25 < D < 2.25
Best densities 1.0 < D < 1.5
H & D Curve
Optical density from x-ray exposure
for lm-screen combination:
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
(a)HighSpeed
Filmwith
CaWO
Screens
4
(b)DirectX-ray
Film
(c)HighSpeed
FilmWithout
Screens
FogLevel
Exposure,mR
O
p
t
i
c
a
l
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
Toe
Linear
Region
Shoulder
X-ray Exposure to Film Density
X-ray exposure yields optical density
D = log
10
X
X
0
is lm gamma
Typical ranges: 0.5 < < 3.0
Latitude is range exposures where relationship is
linear
Speed is inverse of exposure at which
D = 1 + fog level
Projection Radiography Noise
Noise
Local contrast
C =
I
t
I
b
I
b
Signal is I
t
I
b
Noise is due to Poisson behavior
Variance of noise in background: o
2
b
Signal to noise
SNR =
I
t
I
b
o
b
=
CI
b
o
b
Signal-to-noise
Model x-ray burst as monoenergetic
eective energy is hi
background intensity is
I
b
=
N
b
hi
At
Signal-to-noise is
SNR = C
N
b
More photons is better
Detective Quantum Eciency
How good is a detector?
Consider:
Potential SNR before detection
Actual SNR upon detection

Detective Quantum Eciency
DQE =
(
SNR
out
SNR
in
)
2
Degradation of SNR during detection
Compton Scatter
Compton adds intensity fog: I
s
Resulting contrast
C
=
C
1 + I
s
,I
b
Resulting SNR
SNR
=
SNR
1 + I
s
,I
b
Computed Tomography
6
Computed Tomography
Overview
CT Generations
System Components
CT Measurements
Radon Transform
Reconstruction
Projection-Slice Theorem
Resolution
Noise
Fan Beam Reconstruction
Computed Tomography Overview
Computed Tomography
Tomography:
image of slice
removes overlaying structure
improves contrast within slice

Computed:
requires computer
reconstruction algorithm
1-D Projection
fan beam collimation
row of electronic detectors
Premise of CT
A single 1-D projection is not informative
Many 1-D projections
permit slice reconstruction
many angular views is the key

http://www.gehealthcare.com
Computed Tomography CT Generations
1G CT Scanner
2G CT Scanner
3G CT Scanner
4G CT Scanner
Electron Beam (5G) CT Scanner
http://radiology.rsnajnls.org
Gantry, Slipring, and Table
http://www.gehealthcare.com http://www.cissincorp.com
12 revolutions per second
Helical (6G) CT Scanner
Step-wise table movement yields stack of 2D slices
Continuous table movement yields stream of 1D
projections
3D volume is reconstructed from helical acquisition
http://imaging.cancer.gov
Multi-slice (7G) CT Scanner
Features:
1664 parallel detector

rows
14,33657,344 detector
elements
2080 mm detector
height
1664 0.5mm slices with

each second gantry
revolution
CT is becoming cone beam
Computed Tomography System Components
X-ray Tubes in CT
Use only one tube
exception: EBCT
exception: dual-source CT
80kVp140kVp, continuous excitation
dual-energy is possible
fan-beam (110 mm thick), or
thin-cone collimation 2080 mm
More ltering than projection radiography
copper followed by aluminum
Better approximation to monoenergetic

CT Detectors
Most are solid-state:
scintillation crystal
solid state photo-diode

CT Detector Specications
Single-slice scanners:
Area: 1.0 mm 15.0 mm
Thick in 3G, thin in 4G & EBCT

Multi-slice scanners:
Area: 1.0 mm 1.25 mm
Grouped in multiples of 1.25 mm

Xenon gas detectors for less expensive scanners
Computed Tomography CT Measurements
CT Measurement Model
Monoenergetic model:
I
d
= I
0
exp
{
d
0
j(s;

E)ds
}
E is eective energy
E is that energy which in a given material

will produce the same measured intensity
from a monoenergetic source as from the
actual polyenergetic source.
CT Measurement
Observe I
d
Rearrange monoenergetic model:
g
d
= ln
I
d
I
0
=
d
0
j(s;

E)ds
g
d
is a line integral of the linear attenuation
coecient at the eective energy
Note: Requires calibration measurement of I
0
CT Numbers
Consistency across CT scanners desired
CT number is dened as:
h = 1000
j j
water
j
water
h has Hounseld units (HU)
Usually rounded or truncated to nearest
integer
Range: 1,000 to 3,000
Computed Tomography Radon Transform
Describing Lines
Possible descriptions of lines:
Functional: y = ax + b
Parametric: (x(s). y(s))
Set: {(x. y)(x. y) are on a line}

Critique:
Functional: what about vertical lines???
Parametric: good for model of process
Set: good for theory of reconstruction

Picture of a Line
l
l
L( , ) l
f(x,y)
x
y
0
Line Parameters
Described by:
Orientation or angle, o
Lateral translation or position,

Written as L(. o)
L(. o) = {(x. y)(x. y) are on the line
with position
and angle o}
Line Integral: parametric form
What is integral of f (x. y) on L(. o)?
Step 1: Parameterize L(. o):
x(s) = cos o s sin o
y(s) = sin o + s cos o
Step 2: Integrate f (x. y) over parameter s
g(. o) =
f (x(s). y(s))ds
Use this form for the forward problem
Line Integral: set form
Integrate over whole plane;
non-zero only on L(. o)
Key is sifting property
q() =
q(
)o(
)d
Use line impulse on L(. o)

g(. o) =
f (x. y)o(x cos o + y sin o ) dxdy

Physical Meanings of f (x. y) and g(. o)
Recall monoenergetic model:
I
d
= I
0
exp
{
d
0
j(s;

E)ds
}
Rearrange:
ln
I
d
I
0
=
d
0
j(x(s). y(s);

E)ds
Relationship is:
f (x. y) = j(x. y;

E)
g(. o) = ln
I
d
I
0
What is g(. o)?
Fix and o: line integral of f (x. y)
Fix o: projection of f (x. y) at angle o
Function of o and :
g(. o) is the Radon transform of f (x. y)
g(. o) = {f (x. y)}
Transform . . . hmmm . . . can we nd an
inverse transform?
f (x. y) =
1
{g(. o)}
Sinogram
CT data acquired for collection of and o
CT scanners acquires a sinogram
Computed Tomography Reconstruction
Backprojection
Goal: nd f (x. y) from g(. o)
Strategy: smear g(. o) into plane
Formally:
b
0
(x. y) = g(x cos o + y sin o. o)
b
0
(x. y) is a laminar image
Backprojection Summation
Add up all the backprojection images:
f
b
(x. y) =

0
b
0
(x. y)do
=

0
g(x cos o + y sin o. o)do
=

0
[g(. o)]
=x cos 0+y sin 0
do
f
b
(x. y) is called a laminogram or
backprojection summation image
Properties of Laminogram
Bright spots tend to reinforce
Problem:
f
b
(x. y) = f (x. y)
What is wrong?
Convolution Backprojection
Correct reconstruction formula:
f (x. y) =

0
[c() g(. o)]
=x cos 0+y sin 0
do
where
c() =
1
{}
is called the ramp lter.
Three steps: know/understand these!!
1. convolution
2. backprojection
3. summation
Step 1: Convolution
Convolve every projection with c()
the horizontal direction in a sinogram
Step 2: Backprojection
1D projection 2D laminar function
Step 3: Summation
Accumulate sum of backprojection images
Computed Tomography Projection-Slice Theorem
Projection-Slice Theorem
Radon transform:
g(. o) = {f (x. y)}
Fourier transforms:
G(. o) =
1D
{g(. o)}
F(u. v) =
2D
{f (x. y)}
Projection-slice theorem:
G(. o) = F( cos o. sin o)
Illustration of Projection-Slice Theorem
x
y
u
v
f(x,y) F(u,v)
2DFourier Transform
1DFourier Transform
Exact Reconstruction Formulas
Fourier reconstruction:
f (x. y) =
1
2D
{G(. o)}
Filtered backprojection:
f (x. y) =

0
[

G(. o)e
+j 2
d
]
=x cos +y sin
do
Convolution backprojection:
f (x. y) =
g(. o)c(x cos o + y sin o )ddo

Ramp Filter Design
is not integrable
c() does not exist
Actual ramp lter is designed as
c() =
1
1D
{W()}
Simplest window function is
W() = rect
(

2
0
)
Computed Tomography Resolution
Factors Aecting CT Resolution
Detector width area detectors
detector indicator function = s()
Window function W()
Approximate CBP:
f (x. y) =

0
[

G(. o)S()W()e
j 2
d
]
=x cos +y sin
do
where
S() = {s()}
Blurry Reconstruction
Blurry projection:
g(. o) = g(. o) s() w()
= g(. o)
h()
Radon transform convolution theorem
{f
2
h} = {f }
1
{h}
Leads to
f (x. y) = f (x. y)
1
{
h()}
Circular Symmetry of Blurring
CT image blurred by convolution kernel
h(x. y) =
1
{
h()}
Fourier transform of

h()
H() =
1
{
h()} = S()W()
which is independent of o.
Therefore, H(u. v) is circularly symmetric
H(q) =
2
{h(x. y)} = S(q)W(q)
PSF Given by Hankel Transform
PSF is circularly symmetric and given by
h(r ) =
1
{S()W()}
Reconstructed image given by
f (x. y) = f (x. y) h(r )

Computed Tomography Noise
Noise in CT Measurements
Basic measurement is:
g
ij
= ln
(
N
ij
N
0
)
line L
ij
angle i
position j
Noise is in Poisson random variable N
ij
mean

N
ij
variance

N
ij
Functions of Random Variables
It follows that g
ij
is a random variable
g
ij
ln
(
N
0
N
ij
)
Var(g
ij
)
1
N
ij
j(x. y) is approximate reconstruction
It follows that j(x. y) is a random variable
What are the mean and variance of j?
CBP Approximation
Convolution backprojection (CBP):
j(x. y) =
g(. o)c(x cos o + y sin o )ddo

Approximations:
M angles; o = ,M
N + 1 detectors; = T
c() c()
Discrete CBP:
j(x. y) =
(
M
)
M
j =1
T
N/2
i =N/2
g(iT. j ,M) c(x cos o
j
+y sin o
j
iT)
More Denitions and Approximations
N
ij
is mean for i-th detector and j-th angle
N
ij
is independent for dierent measurements
N
ij
=

N, an object uniformity assumption
c() is created using rectangular window W() with
cuto
0
.
Conclusions
Mean( j) is desired result
Var( j) = o
2
j
is inaccuracy
o
2
j

2
2
3

3
0
1
M
1
N,T
Be cautious on conclusions: not all variables are
independent in a real physical system
Signal-to-noise Ratio
Denition (usual)
SNR =
C j
o
j
After substitution:
SNR =
C j
3M
2
3
0
N
T
SNR in a Good Design
What should
0
be?
Let dectector width = w
0
should be anti-aliasing lter:
0
=
k
w
where k 1
In 3G scanner w = T
Then
SNR 0.4kC jw
NM
SNR in Fan-Beam Case
Denitions:

N
f
is mean photon count per fan
D is number of detectors
L is length of detector array

Then
SNR 0.4kC jL
N
f
M
D
3
Strange: In 3G, increasing D decreases SNR.
Reason: This analysis ignores resolution
Rule of Thumb
Variables:
D is number of detectors
M is number of angles
J
2
is number of pixels in image
Very approximate rule:
D M J
Typical numbers:
Lo: D 700 M 1. 000 J 512
Hi: D 900 M 1. 600 J 1. 024
Computed Tomography Fan Beam Reconstruction
Fan Beam Geometry
Sinogram Rebinning
Fan-Beam Variables
Fan-Beam Convolution Backprojection
Formula
f (x. y) =
2
0
1
(D
)
2
m
p(. )c
)dd
D
depends on (x. y)
c
is a dierent lter than c

7
Binding Energy
Radioactivity
Radiotracers
Physics of Nuclear Medicine Binding Energy
Nomenclature
Atomic number: Z, number of protons in nucleus
Mass number: A, number of nucleons in nucleus
Nuclide: unique combination of protons and
neutrons in nucleus
Radionuclide: a nuclide that is radioactive
Isotope: atoms with same Z, dierent A
Isobar: atoms with same A, dierent Z
Mass Defect and Binding Energy
Mass defect =
Mass of constituents of atom
actual mass of atom
unied mass unit, u, = 1,12 mass of C-12 atom
Binding energy = mass defect c
2
One u is equivalent to 931 MeV
Generally, more massive atom, more binding energy
Binding Energy per Nucleon
Physics of Nuclear Medicine Radioactivity
What is Radioactivity?
Radioactive decay: rearrangement of nucleii to
lower energy states = greater mass defect
Parent atom decays to daughter atom
Daughter has higher binding energy/nucleon than
parent
A radioatom is said to decay when its nucleus is
rearranged
A disintegration is a radioatom undergoing
radioactive decay.
Energy is released with disintegration.
Line of Stability
Nuclides divide into two groups:
Non-radioactive i.e., stable atoms
Radioactive i.e., unstable atoms

Line of stability:
Decay Modes
Four main modes of decay:
alpha particles (2 protons, 2 neutrons)
beta particles (electrons)
positrons (anti-matter electrons)
isomeric transition (gamma rays produced)

Medical imaging is only concerned with:
positrons (PET), and
gamma rays (scintigraphy, SPECT)

Measurement of Radioactivity
Radioactivity, A, # disintegrations per second
1 Bq = 1 dps
1 Ci = 3.7 10
10
Bq
Radioactive Decay Law
Time evolution of radioactivity:
A
t
= A
0
e
`t
` is the decay constant
Half-life t
1,2
is dened by
A
t
1/2
A
0
=
1
2
= e
`t
1/2
It follows that
t
1,2
=
0.693
`
Statistics of Decay
Over short time t relative to t
1,2
:
# radioatoms N
0
approximately constant
Statistics are Poisson:
P[N = k] =
(`N
0
t)
k
e
`N
0
t
k!
Interpretation: `N
0
t is probability of having one
disintegration from N
0
radioatoms in time interval
t
`N
0
is called Poisson rate, units are
disintegrations per second, it is activity
Physics of Nuclear Medicine Radiotracers
Radiotracers
Radionuclides in the body must be safe
By themselves:
Iodine-123,
Iodine-131
Labeled: Chemically attached to natural substances:
Technetium-99m labeled DTPA,
Oxygen-15 labeled O
2
,
Fluorine-18 labeled glucose

Radiotracer Properties
Emit gamma rays or positrons
Half life: minutes to a few hours
Positron emission:
positrons annihilate
produces two 511 keV gamma rays,
gamma rays are 180-degrees apart

Gamma ray emission:
monoenergetic gamma rays (desirable)
high energy gamma rays (desirable)

Some Radiotracers
Gamma Ray Emitters:
Iodine-123 (13.3 h, 159 keV)
Iodine-131 (8.04 d, 364 keV)
Iodine-125 (60 d, 35 keV) (Bad. Why?)
Thallium-201 (73 h, 135 keV)
Technetium-99m (6 h, 140 keV)

Positron Emitters:
Fluorine-18 (110 min, 202 keV)
Oxygen-15 (2 min, 696 keV)

Planar Scintigraphy
8
Planar Scintigraphy
Scintigraphy Systems
Gamma Camera
Acquisition Modes
Image Equation
Resolution and Sensitivity
Artifacts and Noise
Planar Scintigraphy Scintigraphy Systems
Broad Purpose
Gamma emitter in body; where is it?
Planar camera; like radiography
2D projection of 3D concentration
X-ray Image Bone Scintigram
A SPECT/Scintigraphy/CT System
Example Preparation
Gallium-67 citrate
half-life is 78 hr
93 keV (40%), 184 keV (24%), 296 keV (22%), and
388 keV (7%).
150-220 MBq (4-6 mCi) intravenously
48 hr after injection, about 75% remains in body
equally distributed among the liver, bone and bone
marrow, and soft tissues.
Scintigrams 2472 hrs after injection
Whole Body Image
Planar Scintigraphy Gamma Camera
Gamma/Anger Camera Components
Collimators
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
(a) Parallel hole
(b) Converging hole (magnies)
(a) Diverging hole (minies)
(a) Pin-hole (25 mm)
Detector
Single large-area NaI(Tl) crystal
Diameters:
3050 cm in diameter
Mobile units: 30 cm
Fixed scanners: 50 cm
Thickness:
High-E emitters: 1.25 cm thick
Low-E emitters: 68 mm thick

Photomultiplier Tube Array
Photomultiplier Tube
Dynodes
Focussing
Grid
Photocathode
LightPhotons
1,200V
OutputSignal
Anode
e
-
e
-
e
-
e
-
Pulse Height
Response to single gamma ray photon
PMT responses, a
k
, k = 1. . . . . K
Total response of cammera is Z-pulse
Z =
K
k=1
a
k
Height of Z pulse is important
Can remove Compton photons
Can reject multiple hits

Pulse Height Analysis
Discriminator circuit rejects
non-photopeak events
Event Positioning Logic
Tube centers at (x
k
. y
k
) k = 1. . . . . K
Center of mass of pulse responses is
X =
1
Z
K
k=1
x
k
a
k
Y =
1
Z
K
k=1
y
k
a
k
This is pulse location
Planar Scintigraphy Acquisition Modes
Acquisition Modes
How to use the camera to make images?
List mode
Static frame mode
Dynamic frame mode
Multiple-gated acquisition
Whole body mode

List Mode
Complete information, but memory hog
Static Frame Mode
Matrix sizes: 64 64, 128 128, 256 256
Dynamic Frame Mode
Useful for imaging transient physiological processes
Multiple Gated Acquisition
Cardiac (ECG) gated. Data resorted using ECG
Whole Body Mode
Common in bone scans and tumor screening
Planar Scintigraphy Image Equation
Imaging Geometry and Assumptions
Lines dened by (parallel) collimator holes
Ignore Compton scattering
Radioactivity is A(x. y. z)
Monoenergetic photons, energy E
Imaging Equation
Photon uence on detector is
o(x. y) =
A(x. y. z)
4z
2
e
0
z
j(x. y. z
; E)dz
dz
Depth-dependent eects from:
inverse square law, and
object-dependent attenuation
Consequences:
Near activity brighter
Front and back are dierent

Planar Sources
A
z
0
(x. y) has radioactivity on z = z
0
A(x. y. z) = A
z
0
(x. y)o(z z
0
)
Detected photon uence rate
o(x. y) = A
z
0
(x. y)
1
4z
2
0
exp
{
0
z
0
j(x. y. z
; E)dz
}
Two terms attenuate desired result
inverse square law: constant for (x. y)
j: not constant for (x. y)

Planar Scintigraphy Resolution and Sensitivity
Collimator Resolution
Collimator Resolution
Collimator Resolution = FWHM =
R
C
(z) =
d
l
(l + b +z)
Gaussian approximation
h
c
(x. y; z) = exp
{
4(x
2
+ y
2
) ln 2,R
2
C
(z)
}
Planar source is blurred
o(x. y) = A
z
0
(x. y)
1
4z
2
0
exp
{
0
z
0
j(x. y. z
; E)dz
}
h
c
(x. y; z
0
)
Instrinsic Resolution
Where did the x-ray photon hit?
Compton in crystal spreads out light
Crystal thickness
Noise in light, PMTs, and electronics

Gaussian approximation
h
I
(x. y) = exp
{
4(x
2
+ y
2
) ln 2,R
2
I
}
Planar source is further blurred
o(x. y) = A
z
0
(x. y)
1
4z
2
0
exp
{
0
z
0
j(x. y. z
; E)dz
}
h
C
(x. y; z
0
) h
I
(x. y)
Collimator Sensitivity
Collimator Eciency = Sensistivity =
c =
(
Kd
2
l (d + h)
)
2
where K 0.25.
c is the fraction of photons (on average) that pass
through the collimator for each emitted photon
directed at the camera
Resolution vs. Sensitivity
Table: Resolution and Sensitivity for Several Collimators
collimator d (mm) l (mm) h (mm) resolution relative
@ 10 cm (mm) sensitivity
LEUHR 1.5 38 0.20 5.4 12.1
LEHR 1.9 38 0.20 6.9 20.5
LEAP 1.9 32 0.20 7.8 28.9
LEHS 2.3 32 0.20 9.5 43.7
LEUHR = low energy ultra-high resolution
LEHR = low energy high resolution
LEAP = low energy all purpose
LEHS = low energy high sensitivity
Detector Eciency
Depends on crystal thickness
thicker more ecient
100% at 100keV; 10-20% at 511keV

Tradeo:
If E
low use thinner crystal
better intrinsic resolution
If E
high use thicker crystal
poorer intrinsic resolution
Higher E
, less abosorption in body

Planar Scintigraphy Artifacts and Noise
Geometry and Nonuniformity
Geometric distortion
pincushion distortion
barrel distortion
wavy line distortion

Image nonuniformity
variation as much as 10%
non-uniform detector eciencies
geometric distortions hot spot
edge packing
Image SNR
Suppose

N photons are detected
Then intrinsic SNR of frame mode is
SNR(intrinsic) =
N
J
J
2
is number of pixels in image
For similar areas of target and background:
SNR = C
N
b
Just like in projection radiography
Energy Resolution
Energy resolution = FWHM of photopeak
Pulse Pileup
Pulse pileup = two simultaneous -rays
Event rejected
because of energy discrimination
wasted photons
Cannot improve image using larger dose
Instead, keep dose low and image longer
Emission Tomography
9
Emission Tomography
Overview
SPECT System Components
SPECT Imaging Equation
SPECT Reconstruction
Principle of PET
PET System Components
PET Imaging Equation
PET Reconstruction
Resolution and Artifacts
Emission Tomography Overview
Overview
SPECT
uses gamma ray emitters
uses Anger camera
3-D volume reconstruction

PET
uses positron emitters
requires coincidence detectors
multiple 2-D slices

Emission Tomography SPECT System Components
SPECT Hardware
Rotating gamma camera
Each row is separate slice
Multiple heads (2 or 3) are common
High-performance cameras used
< 1% nonuniformity required
need good mechanical alignment

Typical SPECT System
Multiple Head Tradeos
Table: Comparison of acquisition times and relative sensitivities for
single- and multi-head systems with identical camera heads and
collimation.
360
180
Acq Time Rel Sens Acq Time Rel Sens

Single 30 1 30 1
Double (heads@180
) 15 2 30 1
Double (heads@90
) 15 2 15 2
Triple 10 3 20 1.5
Emission Tomography SPECT Imaging Equation
SPECT Coordinate System
Home position: x z, y , z y
Basic Imaging Equation
Parallel hole collimators
Camera xed distance R from origin
(origin in patient)
Imaging equation in home position:
o(z. ) =
A(x. y. z)
4(y R)
2
exp
{
R
y
j(x. y
. z; E)dy
}
dy
Tomographic Imaging Geometry
z is irrelevant
Line described by
L(. o) = {(x. y) x cos o + y sin o = }
Tomographic Imaging Equation
o(. o) =
A(x(s). y(s))
4(s R)
2
exp
{
R
s
j(x(s
). y(s
); E)ds
}
ds
Two unknowns: A(x. y) and j(x. y)
Generally intractable
ignore attenuation (often done)
assume constant
measure and apply atten correction

Approximate SPECT Imaging Equation
Bold approximations: ignore attenuation, inverse
square law, and scale factors:
o(. o) =
A(x(s). y(s))ds
Using line impulse:
o(. o) =
A(x. y)o(x cos o + y sin o ) dx dy

Emission Tomography SPECT Reconstruction
SPECT Reconstruction
Recognize:
f (x. y) = A(x. y)
g(. o) = o(. o)
Use convolution backprojection
A(x. y) =
o(. o) c(x cos o + y sin o ) d do

Approximate ramp lter:
c() =
1
1D
{W()}
Emission Tomography Principle of PET
PET Principles
Positron emitters
Positron annihilation:
short distance from emission
produces two 511 keV gamma rays
gamma rays 180
opposite directions
Principle: detect coincident gamma rays
A PET Scanner
Used with permission of GE Healthcare
Positron Annihilation
Annihilation Coincidence Detection (ACD)
Event occurs if detections are coincident
Time window is typically 220 ns
12 ns is common setting
No detector collimation required
Dual-head SPECT systems can be used
Emission Tomography PET System Components
PET Detector Block
Crystals plus PMTs
BGO = Bismuth Germanate
BGO has 3x stopping power than NaI(Tl)
Typical PET Detector Arrangement
2 mm 2 mm elements
8 by 8 elements per blocks; 2 by 2 PMTs per block
48 blocks per major ring; 3 major rings
24 detector rings; 384 detectors per ring
8216 crystals total
2-D or 3-D PET Geometry
Septa or no septa between rings?
Septa: multiple 2-D PET rings
Reconstruction like 2-D CT

No septa: 3-D PET
Need 3-D reconstruction algorithms

We focus on 2-D PET
Emission Tomography PET Imaging Equation
2-D PET Geometry
Lines of Response (LORs)
Imaging Equation
Line integrals of activity
On line L(. o)
o(. o) = K exp
{
R
R
j(x(s). y(s); E) ds
}
R
R
A(x(s). y(s)) ds
Unknowns j(x. y) and A(x. y) separate
Attenuation Correction
Corrected sinogram
o
c
(. o) =
o(. o)
K exp
{
R
R
j(x(s). y(s); E) ds
}
j(x. y) found from CT (transmission PET)
Emission Tomography PET Reconstruction
PET Reconstruction
Convolution backprojection yields A(x. y)
A
c
(x. y) =
o
c
(. o) c(x cos o + y sin o ) ddo
Emission Tomography Resolution and Artifacts
Resolution in Emission Tomography
Approximation:
f (x. y) = f (x. y) h(r )

In SPECT, h(r ) includes:
collimator and intrinsic resolutions
ramp lter window eect

In PET, h(r ) includes:
the positron range function
detector width eects
ramp lter window eect

PET Events
Coincidence Timing
Three classes of events
true coincidence
scattered coincidence
random coincidence
Sensitivity in PET
measures capability of system to detect

trues and reject randoms
Ultrasound Physics
10
Ultrasound Physics
An Ultrasound System
Wave Equations
Wave Propagation
Field Patterns
Ultrasound Physics An Ultrasound System
Ultrasound Image
http://www.gehealthcare.com http://www.gehealthcare.com
Ultrasound Physics Wave Equations
Ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound with f 20 kHz
Medical ultrasound imaging uses f 1 MHz
Same physics = physics of longitudinal waves
Wave equations
Snells laws (reection and refraction)
Attenuation and absorption
The Doppler eect
Vibrating plates and eld patterns
Scattering
3-D Wave Equation
Acoustic pressure: p(x. y. z. t)
3-D wave equation
2
p(x. y. z. t) =
1
c
2
p
tt
(x. y. z. t)
where
2
p = p
xx
+ p
yy
+ p
zz
and c is the speed of sound
General solution is very complicated
We go after plane waves and spherical waves
Plane Waves
Plane wave in z direction:
p(z. t) = p(x. y. z. t)
Plane wave equation:
p
zz
(z. t) =
1
c
2
p
tt
(z. t)
General solution:
p(z. t) = o
f
(t c
1
z) + o
b
(t + c
1
z)
where o
f
(t) and o
b
(t) are arbitrary
Harmonic Waves
Harmonic plane wave
p(z. t) = cos[k(z ct)]
Denitions:
wavenumber: k
frequency: f = kc,2
period: T = 1,f
wavelength: ` = c,f
Spherical Waves
3-D spherical wave:
p(r . t) = p(x. y. z. t)
where r =
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
.
Spherical wave equation:
1
r
2
r
2
(rp) =
1
c
2
2
p
t
2
General solution (outward expanding):
p(r . t) =
1
r
o
o
(t c
1
r )
Ultrasound Physics Wave Propagation
Characteristic Impedance
Characteristic impedance
Z = jc
where j is density
Why impedance?
p = Zv
where v is particle velocity v = c
p is like voltage
v is like current
Acoustic Energy
Kinetic energy density:
w
k
=
1
2
j
0
v
2
Potential energy density:
w
p
=
1
2
ip
2
where i is compressibility.
Acoustic energy density:
w = w
k
+ w
p
Acoustic Power
Acoustic Intensity:
I = pv =
p
2
Z
(like electrical power p = vi )
Propagation of acoustic power (plane wave):
I
z
+
w
t
= 0
Reection and Refraction
Snells Laws:
o
r
= o
i
sin o
i
sin o
t
=
c
1
c
2
Reected and Refracted Waves
Pressure reectivity:
R =
p
r
p
i
=
Z
2
cos o
i
Z
1
cos o
t
Z
2
cos o
i
+ Z
1
cos o
t
Pressure transmittivity:
T =
p
t
p
i
=
2Z
2
cos o
i
Z
2
cos o
i
+ Z
1
cos o
t
At normal incidence:
R =
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
+ Z
1
Attenuation and Absorption
Phenomenological model:
p(z. t) = A
0
e
j
a
z
f (t c
1
z)
j
a
is amplitude attenuation factor [cm
1
]
Absorption coecient:
c = 20(log
10
e)j
a
[dB/cm]
In range 1 MHz f 10 MHz
c af and a 1 dB/cm-MHz
Scattering
Particle at (0. 0. d), reection coecient R
Generates spherical wave
p
s
(r . t) =
Re
j
a
r
A
0
e
j
a
d
r
f (t c
1
d c
1
r )
r is distance from (0. 0. d)
Ultrasound Physics Field Patterns
Field Patterns
Geometric approximation
Diraction formulation (book)
Simple model:
Far Field = Fraunhofer Pattern
Transducer face indicator function:
s(x. y) =
{
1 (x. y) in face
0 otherwise
Far eld pattern:
q(x. y. z)
1
z
e
jk(x
2
+y
2
),2z
S
(
x
`z
.
y
`z
)
S(u. v) is Fourier transform of s(x. y).
Pulse-echo sensitivity: q
2
(x. y. z).
Focusing
Focal length eld pattern:
q(x. y. d)
1
d
e
jk(x
2
+y
2
),2d
S
(
x
`d
.
y
`d
)
Ultrasound Imaging
11
Ultrasound Imaging
Ultrasound System Components
Transducers
Display Modes
Eects of Absorption
Phased Arrays
Imaging Equation
Resolution
Speckle
Ultrasound Imaging Ultrasound System Components
Block Diagram
Ultrasound Imaging Transducers
Transducers
lead zirconate titantate (PZT)
piezoelectric crystal
good transmit and receive eciencies
dierent shapes:
Piezoelectric Eect
Resonance
Shock excite yields resonant pulse
Resonant frequency:
f
T
=
c
T
2d
T
Damps out after 35 cycles
Typical Transmit Pulse
Ultrasound Probe
Mechanical Scanners
Electronic Scanner
Linear arrays:
64256 elements, re in groups
each element 2 mm by 10 mm
Phased arrays:
30128 elements; electronically steered
each element 0.2 mm by 8 mm

Ultrasound Imaging Display Modes
A-mode Display
The Range Equation
z =
ct
2
M-mode Display
fast time vs. slow time
B-mode Display
Ultrasound Imaging Eects of Absorption
Depth of Penetration
Signal is lost from absorption
Total travel before lost is
d =
L
c
where L is system sensitivity in dB
depth of penetration is
d
p
=
d
2
=
L
2c

L
2af
Rule-of-thumb: d
p
40,f (MHz) cm
Pulse Repetition
Signal dies; then repeat
Pulse repetition interval:
T
R

2d
p
c

L
afc
Pulse repetition frequency/rate:
f
R
=
1
T
R
@2 MHz, f
R
3,850 Hz.
Image Frame Rate
N scan lines to make image
Image frame rate:
f
F

f
R
N
How to increase frame rate?
restrict eld-of-view
increase frequency (why?)

Ultrasound Imaging Phased Arrays
Phased Arrays: Transmit Steering
Phased Arrays: Transmit Focussing
Delays for Transmit Focussing
Focal point at (x
f
. z
f
)
T
i
is at (id. 0).
Then range from T
i
to focal point is:
r
i
=
(id x
f
)
2
+ z
2
f
Assume T
0
res at t = 0. Then T
i
res at
t
i
=
r
0
r
i
c
=
x
2
f
+ z
2
f

(id x
f
)
2
+ z
2
f
c
Phased Arrays: Receive Beamforming
Phased Arrays: Receive Dynamic
Focussing
Dynamic Focussing Time Delays
T
0
red at t = 0 (focussed or steered)
spherical wave originates at (x. z)
Distance from (x. z) to T
i
is
r
i
=
(id x)
2
+ z
2
Dynamic time delays are (requires derivation)
t
i
(t) = t
(id)
2
+ (ct)
2
2ctid sin o
c
+
Nd
c
Ultrasound Imaging Imaging Equation
Complex Signal
Complex signal:
n(t) = n
e
(t)e
j c
e
j 2f
0
t
Complex envelope is n(t) = n
e
(t)e
j c
The pulse is
n(t) = Re{n(t)}
The envelope is
n
e
(t) = n(t)
(This will form the A-mode signal.)
Complex Pressure in Space
Acoustic dipole (complex) pressure
p(x. y. z; t) =
1
r
0
z
r
0
n(t c
1
r
0
)
Superposition over transducer face
p(x. y. z; t) =

s(x
0
. y
0
)
z
r
2
0
n(t c
1
r
0
)dx
0
dy
0
Echo from Point Scatterer
Point scatterer with reectivity R(x. y. z)
Pressure at (x
0
. y
0
) on face
p
s
(x
0
. y
0
; t) = R(x. y. z)
1
r
0
p(x. y. z; t c
1
r
0
)
Integrated dipole response (voltage)
r(x. y. z; t) =
K

s(x
0
. y
0
)
z
r
0
p
s
(x
0
. y
0
; t)dx
0
dy
0
Total Response from Point Scatterer
r(x. y. z; t) = KR(x. y. z)

dx
0
dy
0
s(x
0
. y
0
)
z
r
2
0

dx
0
dy
0
s(x
0
. y
0
)
z
r
2
0
n(t c
1
r
0
c
1
r
0
)
Now apply a series of approximations:
plane wave, paraxial
Fresnel, Fraunhofer
Plane Wave Approximation
Excitation pulse envelope arrives at all points at a
given range simultaneously.
Mathematically,
n(t c
1
r
0
c
1
r
0
)
n(t 2c
1
z)e
jk(r
0
z)
e
jk(r
0
z)
where wavenumber is
k = 2f
0
c
1
and range equation gives
ct = 2z
Received Signal with Field Pattern
Dene eld pattern as
q(x. y. z) =

s(x
0
. y
0
)
z
r
2
0
e
jk(r
0
z)
dx
0
dy
0
Then received signal (from single scatterer) is
r(x. y. z; t) =
KR(x. y. z)n(t 2c
1
z)[q(x. y. z)]
2
Basic Pulse-echo Imaging Equation
Spatial distribution of scatterers
Assume superposition holds
Include attenuation
Total response is
r(t) = K

R(x. y. z)
n(t 2c
1
z)e
2j
a
z
[q(x. y. z)]
2
dxdydz
Paraxial Approximation
Pattern is large near the transducer axis
Then r
0
z
Field pattern becomes
q(x. y. z)
1
z

s(x
0
. y
0
)e
jk(r
0
z)
dx
0
dy
0
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Approximations
Both involve phase approximations
Fresnel eld pattern
q(x. y. z)
1
z
s(x. y) e
jk(x
2
+y
2
),2z
Fraunhofer eld pattern
q(x. y. z)
1
z
e
jk(x
2
+y
2
),2z
S
(
x
`z
.
y
`z
)
for z D
2
,`.
General Pulse-echo Equation
Dene
q(x. y. z) = zq(x. y. z)
Fresnel or Fraunhofer satises
r(t) = K
e
j
a
ct
(ct)
2

R(x. y. z)n(t 2c
1
z) q
2
(x. y. z)dxdydz
Time-gain Compensation
Amplitude of r decays predictably
Compensate with time-varying gain
r
c
(t) = g(t)r(t) =

R(x. y. z)n(t 2c
1
z) q
2
(x. y. z)dxdydz
g(t) =
(ct)
2
e
j
a
ct
K
Envelope Detection: A-mode
Complex signal model n(t) throughout
Linear system model (superposition)
Therefore, gain-compensated A-mode signal is
e
c
(t) =

R(x. y. z)
n(t 2c
1
z) q
2
(x. y. z)dxdydz

R(x. y. z)
n
e
(t 2c
1
z)e
j 2kz
q
2
(x. y. z)dxdydz
Transducer Motion and Range Equation
Move transducer to (x
0
. y
0
); yields e
c
(t; x
0
. y
0
).
Use range equation as z
0
= ct,2.
Then e
c
() estimates reectivity
R(x
0
. y
0
. z
0
) = e
c
(2z
0
,c; x
0
. y
0
)
=

R(x. y. z)e
j 2kz
n
e
(2(z
0
z),c)
q
2
(x x
0
. y y
0
. z)dxdydz
Ultrasound Imaging Resolution
Resolution Cell
Where is the acoustic energy in space?
resolution cell(x. y. z; x
0
. y
0
. z
0
) =
n
e
(2(z
0
z),c) q
2
(x x
0
. y y
0
. z)
For geometric approximation
resolution cell(x. y. z; x
0
. y
0
. z
0
) =
n
e
(2(z
0
z),c)s(x x
0
. y y
0
)
Ultrasound Imaging Speckle
Origin of Speckle
Under geometric assumption
R(x. y. z) =
K
R(x. y. z)e
j 2kz
s(x. y)n
e
(
z
c,2
)
Term e
j 2kz
is fast-changing sinusoid in resolution
cell
Gives rise to essentially random constructive and
destructive interference
12
Spin Systems
Magnetization
NMR Signal
Excitation
Relaxation
Bloch Equations
Spin Echoes
Contrast
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Spin Systems
Nuclei
NMR is concerned with nuclei
... but not radioactivity
All nuclei have charge
Some nuclei have angular momentum
Angular momentum + charge spin
Nuclei with spin are NMR-active
Visualization of Nuclear Spin
Nuclear Spin Systems
Nuclear spin systems =
collections of identical nuclei
regardless of chemical environment
Examples:
1
H,
13
C,
19
F,
31
P
Whole-body MRI uses
1
H
prevalent in the body (water, fat)
strong NMR signal
misnomer: proton imaging

Physics of Magnetic Resonance Magnetization
Microscopy Magnetic Field
Microscopic magnetic moment vector:
=
is gyromagnetic ratio [radians/s-T]
has more convenient units [Hz/T]
=

2
For
1
H
= 42.58 MHz/T
Nuclear Magnetism
Put sample in external magnetic eld
B
0
= B
0
z
Spins align in one of two directions
54
o z up
180 54
o z down
Slight preference for up direction
Sample becomes magnetized
Macroscopic Magnetization
Magnetization vector:
M=
N
s
n=1
n
Equilibrum Magnetization
Equilibrium value: M
0
same direction as B
0
depends on x = (x. y. z) only

Magnitude: M
0
M
0
=
B
0
2
4kT
P
D
k is Boltzmanns constant
T is temperature
P
D
is proton density
Evolution of Magnetization
M= M(x. t)
Relation to bulk angular momentum J
M= J
Focus on small sample voxel
M= M(t)
Equations of motion = Bloch equations

Torque on Current Loop
Current loop in magnetic eld
magnetic (dipole) moment M
magnetic eld B
torque is = MB
Precession
Torque acts on rotating body in funny way
Torque is related to angular momentum
=
dJ
dt
Eliminate J to yield
dM(t)
dt
= M(t) B(t)
Equation describes precession
Valid for short times
Larmor Frequency
Let B(t) = B
0
; M(0) angle c with z
Then
M
x
(t) = M
0
sin ccos (B
0
t + o)
M
y
(t) = M
0
sin csin (B
0
t + o)
M
z
(t) = M
0
cos c
where
M
0
= M(0) o arbitrary
Precession with Larmor frequency
.
0
= B
0
or i
0
= B
0
Isochromats
.
0
not constant for spin system due to
magnetic eld inhomogeneities
Main magnetic eld, shimming ignore
magnetic susceptibility:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic
body/air interface strong change

chemical shift
chemical environment shielding
fat is 3.35 ppm down from water

Isochromats: nuclei with same Larmor freq
Magnetization Components
Magnetization
M(t) = (M
x
(t). M
y
(t). M
z
(t))
Think of M(t) with two components
Longitudinal magnetization
M
z
(t)
Transverse magnetization
M
xy
(t) = M
x
(t) + jM
y
(t)
Physics of Magnetic Resonance NMR Signal
Origin of NMR Signal
Principle of Reciprocity
B
r
(r) is eld produced at r by unit direct
current in coil around sample.
Now reverse scenario
Voltage produced in coil by changing magnetic eld
is (by Faradays law of induction)
V(t) =
object
M(r. t) B
r
(r) dr
NMR Signal
Longitudinal magnetization changes too slow
Transverse magnetization dominates
M
xy
(t) = M
0
sin ce
j (.
0
tc)
Final expression
V(t) = .
0
V
s
M
0
sin cB
r
sin(.
0
t + o o
r
)
Rotating Frame
Coordinate transformation
x
= x cos(.
0
t) y sin(.
0
t)
y
= x sin(.
0
t) + y sin(.
0
t)
z
= z
Transverse magnetization in rotating frame
M
x
(t) = M
0
sin ce
j c
Magnitude M
0
sin c
Phase angle o
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Excitation
RF Excitation
Circularly polarized RF excitation pulse
B
1
(t) = B
e
1
(t)e
j (.
0
t,)
Yields forced precession
M(t) motion is spiral
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Excitation
Tip Angle
z-magnetization magnitude after excitation
M
z
= M
0
cos c
Tip angle is
c =
t
p
0
B
e
1
(t)dt
where t
p
is pulse duration
For rectangular pulse:
c = B
1
t
p
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Relaxation
Relaxation
Magnetization cannot precess forever
Two independent relaxation processes
Transverse relaxation
spin-spin relaxation
Longitudinal relaxation
spin-lattice relaxation
Detailed properties dier in tissues
Gives rise to tissue contrast

Transverse Relaxation
Transverse relaxation decays
M
xy
(t) = M
0
sin ce
j (.
0
tc)
e
t,T
2
Free Induction Decay
What RF signal is produced?
Called a free induction decay (FID)
T
2
Decay
In fact RF signal decays faster
T
2
< T
2
Underlying T
2
relaxation is preserved
Longitudinal Relaxation
M
z
(t) behaves as rising exponential
M
z
(t) = M
0
(1 e
t,T
1
) + M
z
(0
+
)e
t,T
1
M
z
(0
+
) is value after RF excitation pulse
M
0
is nal (equilibrium) value
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Bloch Equations
Bloch Equations
Equation(s) of motion for M(t)
dM(t)
dt
= M(t) B(t) R{M(t) M
0
}
Includes RF excitation
B(t) = B
0
+B
1
(t) .
Includes relaxation
R =
1,T
2
0 0
0 1,T
2
0
0 0 1,T
1
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Spin Echoes
Concept of Spin Echoes
Pure transverse relaxation T
2
is random
So why faster decay T
2
?
Fixed, local perturbations in magnetic eld
Local dephasing from faster & slower spins

Echoes produced by re-phasing
Make slower spins jump to front
Make faster spins jump to rear

T
E
is echo time
Multiple echoes are possible until about 3T
2
Formation of a Spin Echo
Pulse Sequence for Spin Echo
Physics of Magnetic Resonance Contrast
Source of MR Contrast
MR Contrast: why tissues look dierent in MRI
Intrinsic MR parameters:
T
1
, T
2
, and P
D
Pulse sequence parameters:
tip angle c
echo time T
E
pulse repetition interval T

R
Contrast Manipulation
P
D
-weighted T
2
-weighted T
1
-weighted
Weighted means primarily inuenced by
Weighted does not mean a picture of
P
D
-weighted Contrast
Should be proportional to #
1
H nuclei in voxel
Procedure:
Start with sample in equilibrium
Apply excitation pulse
Image quickly
Practical parameters:
T
R
= 6000 ms (long)
T
E
= 17 ms (relatively quick)
c = ,2 (max signal)
T
2
-weighted Contrast
Echo must be used because of T
2
Procedure:
Start with sample in equilibrium
Apply excitation pulse
Image at approx T
2
Practical parameters:
T
R
= 6000 ms (long)
T
E
= 102 ms (moderate)
c = ,2 (max signal)
Trick: get P
D
and T
2
in two echoes
Principle of T
1
-weighted Contrast
T
1
-weighted Contrast
Uses T
R
to capture T
1
dierences
Procedure:
Reach a steady-state, not equilibrium
Apply excitation so that T

R
T
1
Image quickly
Possible parameters:
T
R
= 600 ms (moderate)
T
E
= 17 ms (fast)
c = ,2 (max signal)
13
MR Scanner Components
Frequency Encoding
Slice Selection
Signal Models
Scanning Fourier Space
Gradient Echoes
Phase Encoding
Spin Echoes
Realistic Pulse Sequences
Image Reconstruction
Sampling, Resolution, and Noise
Magnetic Resonance Imaging MR Scanner Components
Five System Components
1
Main magnet
2
Gradient coils
3
RF resonators or coils
4
Pulse sequence electronics
5
Computer and viewing console
MR Scanner Components
MR Scanner Photograph
http://www.gehealthcare.com http://www.gehealthcare.com
Superconducting Magnet
1 meter niobium-titanium wire
superconducting coils
4
K liquid helium cryostat

Magnet Specications
Field strengths from 0.5T to 12.0T
Most common eld strength: 1.5T
Shimming to maintain homogeneous eld
passive shimming
active shimming
better than 5 ppm required

Minimize fringe eld (outside the bore)
nuisance and dangerous
passive: iron shield, or
active: second superconducting wires

Purpose of Gradient Coils
Fit just inside the bore
Role: change B
0
as a function of position
Three coils:
x, y, and z directions
G
x
, G
y
, and G
z
strengths
Modify main eld as follows
B = (B
0
+ G
x
x + G
y
y + G
z
z) z
This is the key to MR imaging
Gradient Coils
x and y are saddle coils
z is opposing coils
Specications of Gradient Coils
Maximum gradient 16 Gauss/cm
Switching times 0.11.0 ms
slew rates 5250 mT/m/msec
Additional shielding outside to reduce
eddy currents
FDA limit 40 T/s
RF Coils
Two purposes:
Exciting spin systems
Listening for FIDs and echoes

Two basic types:
volume coils
surface coils
Volume coils have uniform response
Surface coils are more sensitive but
have spatially-dependent response
RF Coil Designs
(a) saddle coil: head
(b) birdcage coil: body, head
(c) surface loop: peripherals
Scanning Console and Computer
Control scanner
Acquire images
Coordinate with EKG and breathing
Reconstruct images (1050 images/s)
View, store, and manipulate images
Laboratory Coordinates
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Frequency Encoding
(Larmor) Frequency Encoding
Gradient G = (G
x
. G
y
. G
z
) produces B-eld:
B = (B
0
+G r) z
where r = (x. y. z)
Spatially varying Larmor frequency
i(r) = (B
0
+G r)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Slice Selection
Principle of Slice Selection
Let G = (0. 0. G
z
)
Then
i(r) = i(z) = (B
0
+ G
z
z)
Slice Selection Excitation
Excite frequencies i [i
1
. i
2
]
Causes slab excitation of spin system
Slice Selection Parameters
RF parameters:
i =
i
1
+ i
2
2
center frequency
i = i
2
i
1
frequency range
Slice parameters:
z =
i i
0
G
z
slice position
z =
i
G
z
slice thickness
Ideal Slice Selection RF Excitation
Excite frequencies in range [i
1
. i
2
] Hz
Excitation signal has Fourier transform
S(i) = A rect
(
i i
i
)
Signal is s(t) = Ai sinc(it)e
j 2 it
Practical Slice Selection RF Excitation
Truncated sinc
s(t) =
[
Ai sinc(it)e
j 2 it
]
rect(t,t
p
)
Corresponding tip angle prole:
c(z) = At
p
rect
(
z z
z
)
sinc (t
p
G
z
(z z))
Slice Dephasing and Refocussing
Dierence Larmor frequencies across slice:
slow on low side
fast on high side

Phase dierence is
o(z) = G
z
(z z)t
p
,2
Refocus with negative gradient pulse
strength G
z
duration t,2
A Simple Pulse Sequence
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Signal Models
Basic Signal Model
Slice selection FID is
s(t) = e
j 2i
0
t
f (x. y) dx dy
Where eective spin density is
f (x. y) = AM(x. y; 0
+
)e
t,T
2
(x,y)
Baseband signal is
s
0
(t) =
f (x. y) dx dy
Note: T
2
always decays the FID signal
Frequency Encoding
Frequency Encoding Signal
Larmor frequency is function of x
i(x) = (B
0
+ G
x
x)
Baseband signal becomes
s
0
(t) =
f (x. y)e
j 2 G
x
xt
dx dy
Recognize Fourier transform frequencies:
u = G
x
t
v = 0
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scanning Fourier Space
Relation to Fourier transform
F(u. 0) = s
0
(
u
G
x
)
Polar Scanning
u = G
x
t v = G
y
t
Scanning Fourier Space
Ignore readout/ADC
Applied gradients drive us around in Fourier space
This is concept of Fourier trajectory
Fourier trajectories underly all MRI
spin echoes
gradient echoes
frequency encoding
polar scanning
phase encoding
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Gradient Echoes
Gradient Echoes
Note: T
2
decay overall
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Phase Encoding
Phase Encoding
Phase Encoding Signal
Accumulated phase after phase encode
o
y
(y) = G
y
T
p
y
Baseband signal during readout
s
0
(t) =
f (x. y)e
j 2 G
x
xt
e
j 2 G
y
T
p
y
dx dy
Recognize Fourier transform frequencies:
u = G
x
t
v = G
y
T
p
Gradient Echo Pulse Sequence
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Spin Echoes
Concept of a Spin Echo
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Spin Echoes
Basic Spin Echo Pulse Sequence
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Realistic Pulse Sequences
Realistic Gradient Echo Pulse Sequence
Realistic Spin Echo Pulse Sequence
Realistic Spin Echo Polar Pulse Sequence
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Image Reconstruction
Acquired Rectilinear Data
Acquire data for all phase encode areas
A
y
= G
y
T
p
Baseband signal
s
0
(t. A
y
) =

f (x. y)e
j 2 G
x
xt
e
j 2 A
y
y
dxdy
Identify Fourier frequencies
u = G
x
t
v = A
y
Image Reconstruction: Rectilinear Data
Fourier transform is built over repetitions
F(u. v) = s
0
(
u
G
x
.
v
)
0 u G
x
T
s
Inverse Fourier transform
f (x. y) =

s
0
(
u
G
x
.
v
)
e
+j 2(ux+vy)
dxdy
This is a fundamental equation in MRI
Acquired Polar Data
G
x
and G
y
identify readout parameters
= t
G
2
x
+ G
2
y
o = tan
1
G
y
G
x
Projection slice theorem connects 2D Fourier space
to Fourier transform of 1D projection
G(. o) = F( cos o. sin o)
Image Reconstruction: Polar Data
Baseband signal is s
0
(t. o)
Relation to 1-D projection
G(. o) = s
0
G
2
x
+ G
2
y
. o
Filtered backprojection is the answer

f (x. y) =

0
[
G(. o)e
j 2
d
]
=x cos 0+y sin 0
do
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Sampling, Resolution, and Noise
Sampling
Duration of readout
T
s
= N
a
T
Receiver bandwidth (sampling rate)
f
s
=
1
T
Antialiasing lter chops outside [f
s
,2. f
s
,2]
Readout Field of View
Antialiasing lter chops Larmor frequencies,
leading to
FOV
x
=
f
s
G
x
=
1
G
x
T
Step in Fourier space is
u = G
x
T
Relation to eld of view
FOV
x
=
1
u
Phase Encode Field of View
Step size in phase encode direction:
v = A
y
Field of view
FOV
y
=
1
A
y
=
1
v
Lack of antialising lter could cause wrap-around
Resolution
Fourier space coverage
U = N
x
G
x
T
V = N
y
A
y
Implied lowpass lter is
H(u. v) = rect
(
u
U
)
rect
(
v
V
)
Spatial PSF is
h(x. y) = UVsinc(Ux)sinc(Vy)
Full Width Half Maxs
FWHMs are
FWHM
x
=
1
U
=
1
N
x
G
x
T
=
1
N
x
u
FWHM
y
=
1
V
=
1
N
y
A
y
=
1
N
y
v
The Fourier resolutions of MRI
Noise
Johnson (thermal) noise dominates
o
2
=
2k R
T
A
k = Boltzmanns constant
= temperature colder is better
R = eective resistance use small coils
T
A
= total acquisition time scan longer
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Recall magnitude of signal is
V = 2i
0
V
s
M
0
sin cB
r
Signal-to-noise Ratio is
SNR =
V
o
2
=
h
2
4k
2i
0
P
D
j
r
2
0
L
3
V
s
sin c
T
A

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Medical Imaging Signals and Systems

Jerry L. Prince and Jonathan M. Links,

1/3 signal processing

f (t), a function of one variable, or

a graph (a collection of points in a 2D space)

f (x. y), a function of two variables, or

a graph (a collection of points in a 3D space)

f (x. y. z), a function of three variables, or

a graph (a collection of points in a 4D space)

f (x. y)o(x. y)dx dy = f (0. 0)

f ()o( x)d = f (x) sifting

f (. j)o( x. j y)ddj = f (x. y)

metal bead in x-ray

vial of radioactivity in nuclear medicine

vitamin E pill in magnetic resonance imaging

small bubble or microcalcication in ultrasound

h(x. y; . j)f (. j)ddj

h(x . y j)f (. j)ddj

Overlapping sampled spectra.

Corruption of high frequencies

Artifacts are high frequency patterns

Highest frequency in f (x) is U.

Use low pass lter with cuto frequency u

noise, artifacts, distortion

H(u. v) holds 1/8 of info

H(u. v) hold 7/8 of info

metal or plexiglass bars

gamma camera: 23 lp/cm

chest x-ray: 68 lp/mm

noise standard deviation is o

star artifact, beam hardening artifact

ring artifact, ghosts

barrel or pincushion distortion

numerical accuracy: bias, precision

geometric accuracy: dimensions

creates electron + ion

infrared, visible light, ultraviolet

x-rays, gamma rays

waves with frequency i, or

particles (photons) with energy E

Electron hits other electrons

Occasionally produces delta ray

electron ejects a K-shell electron

reorganization generates x-ray

Electron grazes nucleus, slows down

Energy loss generates x-ray

characteristic radiation, and/or

light very important

more Compton events scatter forward

Compton more of a problem

S(E) is the number of photons per unit energy

Intensity from spectrum:

Not very useful

short exposure time

Spins at 3,2003,600 rpm

xed timer (SCR), or

automatic exposure control (AEC), 5 mm thick

lament current, and

grid conversion factor

Typical range 3 < GCF < 8

move grid during exposure

linear or circular motion

anode heel eect

Prince&Links-Medical Imaging Signals&Systems Allslides 2009

Prince&Links-Medical Imaging Signals&Systems Allslides 2009