Krauel, Ricardo. Un caso en la frontera: Fortunata y Jacinta Voces desde el silencio. Heterologas genrico-sexuales en la narrativa espaola moderna (1875-1975).

Madrid: Ediciones Libertarias, 2001. 64-94. Fortunata y Jacinta (1887) ocupa una interesante posicin fronteriza dentro del espectro de representaciones de deconstruccin genrico-sexual en la narrativa espaola moderna. Por un lado, la novela se encuentra inserta en la tradicin de textos en los que la disconformidad sexo-genrica se convierte en un rasgo de caracterizacin "peyorativo" que es utilizado para contribuir al cumplimiento de una determinada finalidad ideolgica; por otro lado, se distancia en ciertos casos de esta tradicin para llevar a cabo una exploracin y un tratamiento ms complejo de aquella disconformidad, distanciamiento que sugiere la presencia de un dilogo o concurrencia con los discursos cientficos de la poca. Esta dualidad significativa se plasma en la obra a travs de la construccin de, fundamentalmente, cuatro personajes: Guillermina Pacheco, doa Lupe "la de los Pavos", Mauricia la Dura y Maximiliano Rubn. Hace ya bastante tiempo que la crtica ha venido poniendo de manifiesto que la novela cuestiona la incontestable "santidad" que se atribuye a Guillermina Pacheco en el mundo representado en el texto. Es posible que Galds estuviera sinceramente convencido de la superlativa virtud de Ernestina Manuel de Villena, figura en la que se inspir para crear el personaje de Guillermina. La novela, en efecto, pone en entredicho la eficacia o la virtud de las acciones de la "santa" al presentarlas supeditadas a la conservacin del orden establecido, a la asuncin y el mantenimiento de las diferencias e injusticias sociales, al completo dominio y "disciplinacin" del inferior por parte del superior social; o sea, supeditas a valores que la propia obra pone en crisis y refuta ms o menos explcitamente. Guillermina es una entusiasta confirmacin del sistema patriarcal imperante en la sociedad representada. La obra quiere asegurar y potenciar la transmisin de este mensaje subrayndolo con una ilustracin simblica, y, de una manera sostenida, confiere una connotacin de masculinidad a las caractersticas y actos de la "virgen y fundadora". Ya desde la presentacin del personaje se resaltan sus "iniciativas varoniles", las cuales vienen complementadas por "un carcter inflexible y un tesoro de dotes de mando y de facultades de organizacin que ya quisieran para s algunos de los hombres que dirigen los destinos del mundo". Es decir, no slo no se deja constancia de su masculinidad, sino que adems se hace notar que es "ms hombre" que los propios hombres (de acuerdo, claro est, a los convencionales

patrones de masculinidad y feminidad implcitamente asumidos por el texto). Esta ponderacin, indudablemente, pone al lector sobre aviso respecto de una posible distancia irnica que la obra est tomando frente al personaje. Tal sospecha viene reforzada por la circunstancia de que ya se haban adelantado ciertos indicios de que la "perfeccin" de la Pacheco no iba a ser objeto de una lectura literal por parte de la propia novela: su "espritu de sacrificio" haba resultado relativizado por comentarios de otros personajes. En el lector familiarizado con la novelista galdosiana anterior, estas demostraciones de "santidad para la galera" despertaran sin duda, con el recuerdo del tratamiento que haban recibido las ostentaciones de ascetismo estril en obras como La familia de Len Roch, una inmediata suspicacia sobre la perspectiva desde la que la novela iba a contemplar la pretendida excelsitud moral de Guillermina. Elaborando la idea de este seco ascetismo, adems, el narrador emplea frases en las que bien podra adivinarse una segunda intencin que relacionara la austera e insensible religiosidad de la "santa" con la falta de feminidad y de atraccin por individuos del sexo opuesto. En todo caso, aquella primera vinculacin explcita de Guillermina con la masculinidad incorporaba una alusin comparativa con los hombres que ocupan una posicin de poder poltico. Dicha alusin no hace sino abrir una larga serie de referencias que, en el transcurso de la obra, establecen una simblica equivalencia de la Pacheco con altos representantes de las tres reas de poder ms acusadamente institucionalizado, y, por supuesto, identificadas tradicionalmente de forma casi necesaria o "natural" con la masculinidad: el poder poltico, el militar y el religioso (Masculinidad, poder e institucionalizacin [los tres poderes se funden el de "patriarcado"] han funcionado secularmente en nuestra cultura como una trinidad indisoluble, en que cada elemento presupone a los otros y es presupuesto por ellos). Guillermina devendr as una especie de personificacin de la autoridad, al revestirse sucesivamente de esas capas de alusiones que casi la cristalizan como emblema, que le hacen adquirir algo de mito, algo de plasmacin sensible y didctica (y, claro est, represiva) de una idea, de una propuesta de configuracin o conservacin de un cierto modelo de las relaciones y poderes sociales. Guillermina infunde los espacios domsticos, los espacios menores de las relaciones privadas, de la ejecutoriedad y la asertividad de la autoridad pblica. La novela convierte al personaje en poltico, en militar y en clrigo. La novela, sin embargo, no se limita a una mera enunciacin de ese protesmo o mltiple proyeccin masculino-autoritaria de la personalidad de Guillermina, sino que deriva asimismo 2

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 tales correspondencias de la "locuacidad" de la propia accin novelesca. De esta manera, la vemos arrogndose las prerrogativas de la ms abusiva autoridad gubernativa con respecto a Felisa y otras internas de las Micaelas. Igualmente, oficiar de "confesor" de Fortunata cuando sta se encuentra en su lecho de muerte, o ejercer de rudo "diplomtico" con Izquierdo para pactar la transaccin del "falso Pituso". En estos dos ltimos casos, se evidenciar con toda claridad cmo las iniciativas "caritativas" de la "santa" estn plenamente supeditadas a la servidumbre de los interese privados de la clase dominante; ser ms importante salvar el decoro de la vulnerada relacin conyugal de Juanito y Jacinta, o satisfacer los deseos de la familia Santa Cruz de tener un heredero, que propugnar equitativamente los "derechos" de quienes no tienen el poder social necesario para afirmarlos y sustantivarlos en la prctica. No obstante, estas proyecciones de la autoridad patriarcal de Guillermina no tienen como nicos destinatarios a los miembros de las clases sometidas, sino que se despliegan asimismo respecto de los individuos de su propia clase; claro que no con cualquiera de estos individuos, sino con aquellos que aun dentro de ese estrato dominante padecen a su vez algn otro tipo de dominacin, singularmente la de un sexo sobre otro. Para que la masculinizacin de Guillermina pueda desarrollarse con plenitud es necesario que se confronte a un sujeto en el cual se produzca al menos una de estas dos carencias: carencia de poder socioeconmico o carencia de masculinidad. As, podr desplegarse ante Jacinta, para quien, este sentido de la desigualdad entre sexos, que la obliga a padecer sin apenas posibilidad de reaccin las infidelidades de su esposo, tiene igualmente una connotacin econmica, pues el dinero de que ella puede disponer lo recibe de su marido (o de los padres de ste). La masculinidad de Guillermina resultar adems subrayada en la obra mediante un procedimiento de contigidad o asociacin simblica, al que tambin puede atribuirse una importante significacin con respecto al mensaje ideolgico del texto. Me refiero a la fusin que repetidamente se produce en la imaginacin de Fortunata de las figuras de Guillermina y Mauricia, la cual, es asimismo presentada como poseedora de acusados rasgos masculinos. Con el cruce de nombres y caractersticas entre las dos mujeres, la obra puede estar ofreciendo una indicacin al lector de que los valores que a cada una en realidad corresponden son inversamente proporcionales a los que dominantemente se les atribuyen en el mundo representado y que hacen de ellas, respectivamente, un "ngel" y un "Demonio". Sobre esta inversin concurren adems un par de circunstancias que cualifican y avalan su fiabilidad como portadora de una genuina 3

voluntad significativa de la obra: por un lado, la inversin es concebida por Fortunata, el personaje ms profundamente validado por la estructura ideolgica del texto; por otro, dicha concepcin se produce en momentos en que la esposa de Rubn, por hallarse bajo el influjo de una intensa alteracin emocional, se sustrae en buena medida de los cauces discursivos "racionales" a que el orden burgus dominante quiere verla sometida; es decir, en momentos en que se desenvuelven con bastante irrestriccin las fuerzas de su intuicin y su instinto, fuerzas que en ltimo trmino son las que epitomizan la celebracin que la novela hace de la figura de Fortunata. La mencionada inversin, por consiguiente, no slo intensifica la connotacin de masculinidad aparejada a Guillermina, sino tambin la orientacin negativa que, segn hemos visto, adquiere en ella de manera sostenida esa atribucin de masculinidad. Las lneas fundamentales sobre las que se construye la masculinidad de doa Lupe en el texto ofrecen importantes semejanzas respecto de las que operan en el caso de Guillermina. Tambin en ella la masculinidad aparece como una propiedad concomitante al ejercicio de la autoridad o, mejor, del autoritarismo. Sern as mismo frecuentes a propsito de ella las referencias comparativas que la asimilan a instancias de los poderes institucionalizados, sobre todo a miembros de la jerarqua eclesistica. No faltan tampoco los casos en los que los paralelismos se establecen con quienes poseen el poder poltico, e, incluso, pareciera que el hecho de ser viuda de un antiguo miembro de la Milicia Nacional la hubiera predispuesto a impregnarse del ms spero talante militar, talante del que, sin embargo, y paradjicamente, careca su esposo; la rudeza de tratamiento que ha de sufrir su criada Papitos bien pudiera dar testimonio de esa impregnacin. El propio texto se hace eco del parentesco espiritual que vincula a doa Lupe y a Guillermina. La masculinidad de las dos mujeres es similar en concepcin, pero difiere en la proyeccin. Entre una y otra media un notable escaln social, y ello da lugar a que la santa se idealice, ante los ojos de la viuda de Juregui, como un modelo fervientemente admirado. En el contexto de esa idealizacin, la masculinidad constituye un reclamo privilegiado. Lgicamente, la inferior posicin social de doa Lupe determina que su masculinidad/autoritarismo tenga una repercusin social menor que en el caso de Guillermina, y, por tanto, tambin una menor trascendencia ideolgica. Lo que en Guillermina irradia desde la clase dominante afectando a las capas inferiores de la sociedad, en doa Lupe queda fundamentalmente circunscrito a su mbito domstico. 4

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Desde el punto de vista de las implicaciones ideolgicas, doa Lupe es una especie de reproduccin a pequea escala de Guillermina Pacheco. La desfeminizacin de doa Lupe aparece inscrita con evidentes seales en su propio cuerpo. Tal desfeminizacin tiene, como es obvio, el indicio fundamental de la carencia de uno de sus pechos. En virtud de una elemental asociacin simblica que vincula dinero y masculinidad, la condicin de usurera de doa Lupe se identifica con su vertiente masculina, y elimina de en ella la suavidad y la sensibilidad que convencionalmente se hacen corresponder con la feminidad, falta de sensibilidad que adquiere la ilustracin palpable del seno postizo que pretende disimular la prdida del extirpado. El pecho postizo, pues, se carga de sentido como representacin sinecdtica de la personalidad de la viuda, y remite asimismo al carcter vergonzante, oculto, que debe ser en lo posible silenciado, de la dedicacin de la usurera; miseria espiritual, artificialidad y masculinidad son, en efecto, tres elementos indisociables en la ta de los Rubn. Pero el desarrollo de la mitad usurero-masculina de doa Lupe, es crucial el influjo de Torquemada. Esa corriente de influencia se ve adems reforzada por la intervencin de doa Silvia, la esposa del prestamista, a quien a su vez ha masculinizado la convivencia (la vida comn consagrada a la usura) con su marido; doa Lupe, Torquemada y doa Silvia acaban por conformar as una suerte de trinidad de la avaricia y la transexualizacin. La preocupacin de doa Lupe por el dinero proporciona otra correspondencia entre su masculinidad y la de Guillermina, quien tambin vive obsesionada por la exaccin de fondos, aunque stos sean para el sufragio de obras de beneficencia. Un nuevo punto de contacto entre los respectivos repertorios significativos con que la obra construye la masculinidad de la santa y la viuda: una y otra asumen frente a Fortunata el rol masculino de Pigmalin, tratando de modelar su personalidad para someterla a las pautas de comportamiento que la ideologa burguesa exige de la mujer de clase acomodada. El proceso de adiestramiento culminar en el fracaso: la Fortunata-pueblo nunca es del todo subyugada en la novela. La vocacin de dmine de doa Lupe no se para en distingos sobre el sexo masculino o femenino de sus potenciales pupilos: bajo su frula estuvo, mientras vivi, su marido: bajo su frula estn Maxi y Papitos y tambin sus otros dos sobrinos mientras habitan en su casa. De 5

todas esas relaciones de autoridad y dominacin, la ms interesante es seguramente la que la vincula con su sobrino Maxi, y ello porque la obra establece algo as como una correspondencia dinmica e inversamente proporcional entre la masculinidad de ta y sobrino. Las fases en que ms se afirma la masculinidad de la viuda coinciden con aqullas en que ms se retrae la de Maximiliano y viceversa, cuando la de ste se vigoriza, el comportamiento de su ta se desplaza hacia patrones considerados como ms tpicamente femeninos. Cuando Maxi empieza a trabar relacin con Fortunata, doa Lupe ejerce con respecto a aqul el rol de un padre severo y fiscalizador; la capacidad de respuesta y autoafirmacin de Maxi queda circunscrita exclusivamente el mbito de sus fantasas, y cede inmediatamente y con terror en el momento en que vislumbra la posibilidad inmediata de una confrontacin directa con ella. De modo paulatino, sin embargo, Maxi conseguir ir sobreponindose, siquiera sea temporalmente, al respecto reverencial que le inspira su ta, hasta lograr dar cumplimiento a su pretensin de contraer matrimonio con Fortunata. Este proceso de afirmacin es subrayado con alusiones al fortalecimiento y la consolidacin de la hombra de Maxi. Es en esa fase cuando, correlativamente, la feminidad de doa Lupe alcanza sus niveles ms ostensibles: las atenciones que dispensa a su sobrino adquieren un cariz abiertamente maternal, prdigo en solicitud, con una suavidad de trato sin precedente en su comportamiento anterior. Tras producirse la boda, la ficcin de aquella pretendida hombra de Maxi se desvanece rpidamente. La masculinidad de doa Lupe empezar, pues, a recuperar sus antiguos fueros, hasta quedar definitivamente restablecida despus del incidente de la pelea entre Maxi y Juanito, ya que no en vano es tal incidente el que quiz seala ms visiblemente el derrumbamiento irreversible de la masculinidad del menor de los Rubn. Tanto en Guillermina como en doa Lupe la atribucin de caractersticas transgnicas conlleva una ratificacin de los estereotipos de la definicin de los gneros. Tal atribucin adquiere una resonancia eminentemente negativa, en cuanto que sirve para resaltar la presencia en esos personajes de unos valores (los valores ms rgidamente intransigentes y conservadores del patriarcado) que estn en contradiccin con las propuestas ideolgicas que la obra implcitamente postula y exalta. Por lo que se refiere al aspecto concreto del tratamiento de la ambigedad sexual, tanto en Guillermina como en doa Lupe se produce una instrumentalizacin al servicio de una 6

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 significacin ideolgica que, en ltima instancia, no difiere sustancialmente del procedimiento de caracterizacin comn en este tipo de narrativas dualistas. Los dos personajes que al respecto de esta cuestin ensanchan la riqueza significativa de la novela y la hacen avanzar por sendas menos trilladas no son la santa y la viuda de Juregui, sino Mauricia la Dura y Maximiliano Rubn. En Mauricia, la masculinidad encuentra tambin evidentes seales en los rasgos fsicos. Galds ha dotado a su personaje de una serie de caractersticas que los estudios mdicos coetneos o de las dcadas subsiguientes tipificaron como propias de las invertidas sexuales. En la primera conversacin que entabla con Fortunata en las Micaelas, inmediatamente despus de que el narrador nos haya ofrecido su retrato, Mauricia se apresura a evocar con delectacin un par de episodios (sus peleas con Visitacin y Matilde) en los que los rasgos recin presentados se proyectan en una coherente traduccin caracterolgica; desde el momento mismo en que al personaje le es conferido el uso de una voz, la emplea para impresionar al lector con la casi jactanciosa ostentacin de una abrumadora virilidad. Ese mismo sentido de virilidad continuar ratificndose a lo largo de la novela en los repetidos accesos de violencia que protagoniza y est de alguna manera engastado en su propio nombre con el apodo de la Dura. Tanto Freud como otros investigadores vinculaban esa correlacin de rasgos y comportamientos masculinos en la mujer a la existencia de atraccin ertica hacia sujetos del mismo sexo, atraccin de la que no hay ningn indicio en el personaje de Mauricia; sin embargo, en la construccin de la nocin de inversin femenina en la poca, la orientacin del deseo sexual no constitua el criterio fundamental de definicin, sino que se atenda principalmente a la existencia de un desplazamiento general de la personalidad hacia la masculinidad. La dualidad masculino-femenina de Mauricia funciona como trasunto de la ambivalencia de su proyeccin moral al exterior, que la escinde, en una bipolaridad de maldad segn el juicio del orden ideolgico-social instituido en el mundo representado y bondad segn el sustrato ideolgico subyacente en la construccin de la obra -, bipolaridad que en cierto sentido la convierte en imagen simtrica de Guillermina Pacheco. La masculinidad de Mauricia, en efecto, es un desafo a la autoridad y a la convencin social. Freud deca: Nuestra cultura descansa totalmente en la coercin de los instintos. () Aquellos individuos a quienes una constitucin indomable impide incorporarse a esta represin general de los instintos son considerados por la sociedad como delincuentes y declarados fuera

de la ley. Mauricia es uno de estos individuos. En ella, la heterologa genrico-sexual se desarrolla en los linderos del trastorno mental y de la profanacin de lo sagrado. Mauricia concita sobre s casi todos los elementos principales sobre los que se ha construido la nocin de sinrazn en las sociedades occidentales modernas. Su experiencia con la institucin del internamiento termina de perfilar esa correspondencia. El convento de las Micaelas se configura poco menos que como el espacio prototpico que permite articular esa amalgama heterognea de la sinrazn. All, represin, locura, sacralizad-profanacin y homosexualidad parecen implicarse recprocamente, generarse unas desde las otras. Por lo que respecta a la homosexualidad, desde luego no abiertamente enunciada en la novela, Galds parece haberla dejado inscrita en cifra en la relacin entre las reclusas inseparables Felisa y Beln; en todo caso, en la institucin abundan las mujeres hombrunas, con las implicaciones que esta circunstancia deba tener (y ms con referencia al entorno homosocial del espacio de un convento) para la mentalidad de un escritor de finales del XIX, poca en la que a la masculinidad fsico-caracterolgica de las mujeres sola hacerse corresponder una orientacin homosexual de los deseos erticos. Por consiguiente, la masculinidad de la Dura est empapada de transgresin, de marginalidad, de rebelda. Pese a que esa masculinidad pueda servirle a la obra para aproximar ocasionalmente al personaje a los dominios de la caricatura, no es incompatible con esa validacin ideolgica de que el texto hace objeto a Mauricia (validacin ideolgica que no implica renuncia por parte del propio texto a mantener su caracterstica distancia de ambigedad e irona frente al personaje). Al contrario, hay seales en la novela de que la masculinidad puede formar parte de ese proyecto validatorio. Loves Coming of Age (1896) de Edward Carpenter arga que las personas pertenecientes a lo que se denominaba el sexo intermedio estaban especialmente dotadas, por la unin o equilibrio de cualidades masculinas y femeninas que encarnaban, para desempear la funcin de intrpretes y reconciliadores entre los miembros de uno y otro sexo. En virtud de esa perspicacia, la Dura puede convertirse en un peculiar padre espiritual para Fortunata, en una heterodoxa consejera que tambin ejerce a su modo con ella el rol de Pigmalin, encauzndola, a pesar de la aparente tosquedad de sus procedimientos suasorios, por la va de la sinceridad y la naturalidad, en contraste con los afanes domesticadores o desnaturalizantes de los dems modeladores, tan mediatizados por las exigencias de los 8

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 intereses ideolgicos de la clase altoburguesa imperante. A la larga, Mauricia es el Pigmalin que ms xito tiene en la novela. Su educacin de Fortunata, dentro de la mejor tradicin de la mayutica socrtica, no consiste ms que en hacerle aflorar aquello de bueno que ya lleva dentro. Por otra parte, la obra contina avalorando a la Dura con aquella cualidad de objeto admirable. Mientras se enfrenta a pedradas con las monjas de las Micaleas, el narrador llama la atencin sobre este revelador contraste: Su catadura les pareca horrible a las seoras monjas; pero estaba bella en rigor de verdad. El juicio de las monjas (y, por extensin, del orden socioideolgico instituido en el mundo representado) y el de la obra (por una vez, identificado con la voz del narrador) son diametralmente opuestos; el aparentemente innecesario nfasis elimina cualquier duda sobre cul debe ser la opcin interpretativa privilegiada por el lector: en rigor de verdad. El grado mximo de belleza es alcanzado en uno de los momentos de ms llamativa rebelin contra la autoridad; masculinidad, oposicin al statu quo y belleza estn en Mauricia en relacin de solidaridad. Mauricia nos ayuda a continuar entendiendo cules son los criterios que verdaderamente fundan las jerarquas morales tan aparatosamente promulgadas en esa sociedad. Las puertas de las Micaelas tienen que abrirse para dejarla salir, sin haberla subyugado, sin haberla desmasculinizado, sin haberla desembellecido. No obstante, la ilusin no tardar en deshacerse: cuando la amenaza a la disciplina social viene de tan abajo, de un individuo tan aislado en su carencia de poder, el orden establecido no necesita el enfrentamiento directo para prevalecer; el rebelde se consumir por s solo en su insignificancia, en su alienacin. As, a Mauricia, cuando se le cierra la puerta de las Micaelas tras sus espaldas, no le queda ms que otra puerta que transitar: la de la muerte. Su masculinidad no es ni mucho menos ajena a ese proceso de investidura de prestigio ideolgico, aunque irremediablemente haga resbalar en ocasiones al texto por la fcil pendiente de la caricatura. En Maxi se exacerban las correspondencias con los planteamientos desde los que se explican las heterologas genrico-sexuales a partir de las primeras dcadas de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Independientemente de que Galds conociera o no de manera directa parte de aquella produccin cientfica coetnea, lo cierto es que Maxi aparece conformado casi como un caso

clnico modlico de acuerdo con las concepciones que por entonces comenzaban a consolidarse en los crculos cientficos. Maxi es el hijo menor de una madre casquivana cuya impronta en l viene adems resaltada simblicamente por la coincidencia en el nombre; el padre oscila en la relacin con su mujer entre los extremos de la violencia y la condescendencia claudicante, extremos que tradicionalmente se han incluido en los viejos catlogos de condicionantes ambientales de la homosexualidad. Doa Lupe, que ocupa el lugar de aqulla despus de que se produzca su muerte, coincide plenamente con otro de tales estereotipos, el de la madre rigurosa, dominante y superprotectora. Vernon Rosario ofrece la siguiente enumeracin de rasgos que los mdicos del siglo XIX consideraban como denotativos de feminidad en el hombre: barba rala, complexin delicada, pelo fino, constitucin dbil y genitales poco desarrollados. Y la novela nos presenta a Maxi as. Desde un punto de vista caracterolgico, tambin le son atribuidos en su presentacin inicial rasgos que frecuentemente se asociaban a la homosexualidad masculina, tales como una radical timidez y el desarrollo de un complejo de inferioridad. Pero tal vez la aproximacin conceptualmente ms interesante de Maxi a los esquemas desde los que se racionalizaban las heterologas genrico-sexuales en la poca en que se escribi la novela sea la imbricacin de esa heterologa con la perturbacin mental. Prcticamente todos los autores que se acercaban a la homosexualidad (y a las dems heterologas genrico-sexuales) desde una perspectiva terica en aquella poca la ponan en contacto con la existencia de psicosis y neurosis en los individuos en cuestin. Se relacionaba a menudo con la paranoia. Galds bien podra contarse entre los que se dejaban guiar por la opinin cientfica a la sazn casi incontestablemente establecida. Treinta aos despus de que se compusiera Fortunata y Jacinta. Freud an estara confirmando y divulgando la conexin de la paranoia con la homosexualidad. En Maximiliano, la virilidad se convierte en un drama de autoexigencia. Al principio no le llamaban la atencin las mujeres (I: 460). Quizs estaban todava demasiado recientes las emociones sentidas al contemplar desde una furtiva soledad los ejercicios de los jvenes cadetes, a quienes someta a una meticulosa revista: vea desde la ventana de su tercer piso a los alumnos de Estado Mayor () y no hay idea de la admiracin que le causaban aquellos jvenes, ni del 10

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 arrobamiento que le produca la franja azul en el pantaln, el ros, la levita con las hojas de roble bordadas en el cuello, y la espada tan chicos algunos y ya con espada! () Los sbados por la tarde, cuando os alumnos iban al ejercicio con su fusil al hombro, Maximiliano se iba tras ellos para verles maniobrar, y la fascinacin de este espectculo durbale hasta el lunes. En la clase misma, () se pona a jugar con la fantasa y a provocar y encender la ilusin. El resultado era un completo xtasis. (I: 457-58) Maxi alcanza el xtasis en la recreacin de sus experiencias de Voyeur, excitado por el penetrante recuerdo de esos jvenes transmutados por sincdoque en espada o en fusil. Un poco ms adelante, debe afanarse en reconducir sus aficiones de observador hacia el objeto a que naturalmente se va a esperar que se dirijan; pero esto exige una disciplina. Dentro de un laborioso proceso, avanzar una vez asumida la mudanza en el objeto de observacin plantea asimismo la necesidad de enfrentarse a esas voces que, desde no se sabe qu punto del fuero interno, continan protestando. En la fantasa ha ido fermentando la posibilidad de una existencia alternativa, de una virilidad esplendorosa; ahora, tras comenzar el trato con Fortunata, esa alternativa se perfila con mucha ms especificidad en la imaginacin, y se proyecta en la concepcin de muy concretas escenificaciones de afirmacin de voluntad frente a la autoridad de doa Lupe. Pese a repetidos reveses, el proceso de afirmacin contina desarrollndose, y se va vigorizando en su continuidad. Los pasos comienzan a sucederse en el mbito de los positivo, de lo real, y no ya slo en las contiendas de la fantasa. La novela empieza entonces a prodigar referencias a la consolidacin de la hombra de Maxi. En pocas decenas de pginas, esa hombra ha pasado del vaco a la hiprbole; la curva ascendente de la masculinidad del joven ha alcanzado su cenit. Como corolario de esta irresistible ascensin, Maxi hace finalmente triunfar su voluntad sobre otras voluntades que antes se le imponan: se casa con Fortunata. Barthes deca que sospechar un sexo es negarlo definitivamente. Al lector suspicaz, esos signos se le antojan indicios de una acumulacin de tensin narrativa, de la configuracin de una suerte de irona dramtica cuyo desvelamiento ms tarde 11

permita que se llenen retrospectivamente de razn. Esa hombra se est presentando ms como una construccin retrica, como una audacia del decir, que como una evidencia contrastada. Y, en efecto, esa hombra cae, se derrumba aparatosamente nada ms producirse la boda. Si la virilidad de Maximiliano se haba venido articulando como un drama de autoexigencia, desde este momento adquirir los visos de un espectculo trgico-burlesco. Este vertiginoso despeamiento de la masculinidad de Maxi contina su trayectoria descendente hasta llegar, tanto simblica como explcitamente a su punto mnimo en el episodio de su pelea con Juanito. El pasaje, con su plstica evidencia de la superioridad fsica -- y social del amante sobre el marido est repleto de potencial significativo. Maxi es abrumadoramente superado. Uno de los circunstantes que le ven derrotado es escogido por Galds, en tanto que personaje annimo, para pronunciar ese dictamen: (Maxi) es marica (I: 708). Ya es claro que la hiprbole de la prevista afirmacin de hombra no haba sido ms que un artificio retrico que permitira posteriormente magnificar la hiprbole de su carencia. (nota a pie: esta convencional perspectiva que hace incompatible la hombra tanto con la falta de potencia sexual como con la orientacin homoertica del deseo sexual masculino, es la implcitamente asumida por la obra, no por quien la analiza. )De manera reveladora, mientras Maxi se encuentra maltrecho y completamente ofuscado por su odio a Juanito tras la pelea, debilidad y ofuscacin, le aborda retiene una pareja de Orden Pblico. En muy breves pinceladas, y de un modo que indudablemente llamara la atencin de Foucault, el pasaje nos ha puesto delante un cuadro en que heterologa genrico-sexual, locura y criminalidad se superponen en compendio heterogneo pero indisociable, perfectamente en consonancia con la forma en que se ha elaborado el concepto de sinrazn en el mundo occidental moderno. Este episodio marca un punto de no retorno para la masculinidad de Maximiliano. Peridicamente, los dems personajes seguirn corroborando ms o menos explcitamente su carencia. Freud desarroll el argumento de que en los invertidos u homosexuales se produce con frecuencia una canalizacin de los instintos sexuales, en ellos muy fuertemente reprimidos por la moral cultural imperante en la civilizacin occidental moderan, hacia una sublimacin religiosa o cultural sustitutoria; en muchos casos, sin embargo, los esfuerzos inhibitorios agotan la capacidad de resistencia psquica del sujeto, dando como resultado la aparicin de psiconeurosis. Krafft-Ebing aluda concretamente a que en la paranoia religiosa y ertica el 12

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 instinto sexual perverso se manifiesta muy claramente, aunque a menudo exteriorizado bajo la forma de un amor platnico o de una entusiasta admiracin por una persona del sexo opuesto que es agradable estticamente. No es difcil reconocer coincidencias sustanciales entre las ideas formuladas por estos psiquiatras y los avatares con que contina la historia psquico-sentimental de Maxi, sobre todo en las fases en las que el trastorno mental, la obsesin-frustracin ertica y la exaltacin religiosa se combinan en el joven como hilos de un mismo tejido. Estas fases terminan de confirmar que la masculinidad de Maxi ha regresado, y sin posibilidad de recuperacin, al estadio de idealidad. Al final de la novela, asistimos a un ltimo amago de conquista por parte de nuestro personaje de una masculinidad ya a todas luces inverosmil o inalcanzable. Ingenuamente confiado en las imposibles promesas de Fortunata, asume el compromiso de matar a Aurora y Juanito con el fin de poder llegar a ejercer sus nunca ejercitados derechos de esposo. Matar con la pistola equivale en su caso a afirmar ante s y ante Fortunata su masculinidad, a lograr finalmente el estatuto de hombre respetado y con potencia para triunfar sobre su rival y conservar (o mejor, adquirir por vez primera) a su propia mujer. Al igual que ocurriera con Mauricia, la exploracin que el texto emprende respecto a la heterologa genrico-sexual de Maxi ahonda en la perplejidad de la ambivalencia; si por un lado no se priva de recrease en el subrayado de lo grotesco, por otro rescata de alguna manera esa heterologa al incorporarla a un personaje al que la propia obra atribuye uno de sus mayores crditos en trminos ticos, artsticos y de profundidad humana. Aunque desde nuestra perspectiva actual la medicalizacin y la vecindad con la perturbacin mental a que se ven sometidas tales heterologas en estos personajes parezcan poco compatibles con una consideracin dignificadora de las mismas, en el contexto de la poca en que se escribe la novela evidencian una actitud de mayor inters y compromiso intelectual que se aparta del mero recurso a una simplista utilizacin cmica o irnica del estereotipo. Fortunata y Jacinta es una obra que, bajo una aparente asuncin no problemtica del orden burgus imperante, realiza un sutil cuestionamiento de las relaciones antagnicas (relaciones siempre de poder) sobre las que se fundamenta ese orden establecido, relaciones que oponen, por ejemplo, clase socioeconmica dominante-dominada, razn-sinrazn, masculinidad-feminidad. No se trata de un proceso carente de contradiccin interna en ninguna de las esferas indicadas: la novela no postula meridianamente una desarticulacin del modelo social y de las 13

estructuras de poder instituidas en el mundo representado. Esta indefinicin explica la posibilidad de que ese tratamiento ms complejo y sensitivo de la heterologa genrico-sexual en Maxi y Mauricia, adems de estar sujeto a una cierta inconsistencia interna, coexista con el planteamiento ms plano, consabido y denigratorio desde el que se aborda la heterologa de Guillermina y doa Lupe. Tal duplicidad tiene asimismo un correlato en la tensin que acoge la obra respecto de la elaboracin verbal de las mencionadas heterologas: si de una parte se impone una estricta reticencia enunciativa, de otra es posible identificar un deseo textual de multiplicar los indicios elocuentes que permitan la configuracin de un denso sistema de significacin.

14

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Copeland, Eva Maria. "Varones y degenerados: The Construction of Masculinity in the Spanish Nineteenth-Century Social Hygiene Movement and in Three Novels by Benito Prez Galds". Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences: 65.4 (2004 Oct.), pp. 1389. Effeminate men and male ineffectualness: the problem of Maxi Rubn in Fortunata y Jacinta () bodily-based metaphors were also frequently used by late nineteenth-century politicians in their rhetoric about the nation to provide the convenient fiction of an organic state and a closely-knit, familied society (Gold 73). () The body, as Gold suggests, was at the center of a power struggle, since who harnessed the body and disseminated its representations could define and manipulate the (self-) images of an entire society (74) As a result of the increased focus in medicine on illness and the pathological, anything which did not fall under the restrictive definition of normal was classified as illness. In the nineteenth century, medicine was no longer just organized around the curing of illness. It also started to define the normal over and against the pathological (Foucault, Birth of the clinic 35). In other words, this knowledge also had to include a normative definition of the healthy man (34). Under this new conceptual framework, one of the tasks of the physician would be to establish a definition of normalcy. () It also established a casual relationship between normalcy and health: a person who was thought to be healthy was also thought to fall within the boundaries of the normal. The articulation of the normal / pathological binary in medicine grew to have social significance as well. Within social discourse, the opposition of normalcy against the pathological was seen in the redefinition of the working classes, criminals, ethnic minorities, prostitutes and women as abnormal and thus medically classified as deviant (Aronna 14). Within these hygienic health manuals a notable concern for normal male behavior and especially normal sexual functioning is evident. Many of these hygienic manuals were written by men specifically for men. One goal of this discourse on masturbation was, of course, to define normative male masculinity. () The body metaphor was co-opted by hygienists writing about the preservation of the health of the body, especially the male body. The healthy bourgeois male body was seen as

15

the very embodiment of manliness or lo varonil. The construction of bourgeois manhood had a political aim: Manliness was invoked to safeguard the existing order against the perils of modernity, which threatened the clear distinction between what was considered normal and abnormal. Moreover, manliness symbolized the nations spiritual and material vitality. It called for strength of body and mind, but not brute force (Mosse Nationalism and Sexuality 23) A healthy body metaphorically equaled a healthy nation. Within realist literature, and especially in Galds works, excessive attention is often paid to appearances. Realist literature is, by nature, an accumulation of details which threatens to overwhelm the reader with minutiae. This is, of course, part of the strategy of realism: to monopolize reality by confronting the reader with so many details that the novels reality seems as real as the readers own. Jo Labanyi argues that Realism problematizes the relationship between representation and reality, not as in modernism by insisting on the difference between the two, but by blurring the boundary between them while at the same time making it clear that representation in unreliable (Gender and Modernization 208). In Fortunata y Jacinta Galds describes most of his characters with unwavering attention to detail. As Gold and others have noted, Galds use of physical description and especially physical fragmentation is a sort of narrative shorthand letting the body symbolize the inner world of the characters (Gold 78-79). () A prominent example is doa Lupe in Fortunata y Jacinta. Her missing breast can be read as symbolic of her masculinist tendencies: she supports her (foster) family by working in the public sphere as a moneylender along with Torquemada. () Maxis body is also symbolically significant, particularly when seen in the light of other Galdosian characters that have extra-ordinary bodies as well. Readings of his work from different theoretical perspectives, especially psychoanalytical, cultural, gender, and queer theory, have illuminated the abundance of characters who defy gender conventions. Many critics in particular have analyzed the social construction of gender of female characters in many of Galds novels. Many of Galds heroines, such as Fortunata and Mauricia la Dura in Fortunata y Jacinta transgress the narrow confines of femininity in nineteenth-century 16

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Spain by controlling their bodies and desires against a patriarchal culture which demands that femininity equal passivity and docility. Numerous male characters also defy established definitions of culturally produced categories of sex and gender within Galds novels. Ineffectual characters such as Mximo Manso and Maximiliano Rubn challenge the conventions of bourgeois hegemonic masculinity by presenting alternative versions of masculine behavior. Focusing on these ineffectual males is a productive way to analyze the construction of masculinity in nineteenth-century Spain. Jane Flax reminds us that critical attention should be paid to construction of masculinity as well as femininity (Flax Postmodernism and Gender Relations 629). Maximiliano Rubn is a male character who exemplifies problematic masculinity in the nineteenth century. The text illuminates incoherencies and cracks in the construction of hegemonic masculinity through the character of Maximiliano Rubn. I argue that these incoherencies can be read through the body of Maxi. () Maxis body is the complete opposite of what the bourgeois masculine body and bourgeois masculinity should be. () In Fortunata y Jacinta a weak body does equal a weak mind and soul although not immoral nor degenerate. Here Maxis ill body becomes a symbolic marker for ineffectual masculinity. The representation of Maximiliano Rubn resembles that of the masturbator. () Maxis insanity therefore is reflective of the change in how masturbation was viewed at the end of the century, when medical and hygienic discourse and, especially the alienists, came to see sexual perversion as a type of mental insanity or locura moral. Because under the general heading of masturbation were subsumed other sexual perversions, including homosexuality, it is easy to see how Maxi is representative of a profound questioning of bourgeois masculinity at the end of the nineteenth century. There are several ways in which the representations of Maxi Rubns body indirectly incorporates the discourse on masturbation: it is seen through the physical description of Maxis body, through his sexual impotence with Fortunata, and finally in the madness to which he succumbs at the end of the novel. Maxi suffers from various ailments which contribute to his physically weak state, including incapacitating migraines. His overall appearance is that of a young boy, for although he is twenty-five years old (at the time he meets fortunate), his appearance is such he does not look

17

older than twenty. His lack of mustache and his acne breakouts contribute to the overall impression of adolescence instead of manhood. In Fortunata y Jacinta, Galds writes that Maxi is docile by nature, and his physical deficiencies make this worse. Significantly, he also has trouble expressing himself. Maxis inability to express himself with women is even worse, as when he meets Fortunata for the first time and cannot find anything to say to her. Maxis deficient masculinity/virility parallels his verbal inability; when he meets Fortunata, he is unable to speak to her. When Olmedo tells bawdy tales as entertainment for the little group, Maxi is too embarrassed and timid to tell him to stop. Later, at their second meeting, he gropes to find words to express himself to her. His voice also fails him at a significant point in the novel the fight with Juanito. The novel also makes reference to Maxis excessive care in dressing well as a sign of sexual perversion. Maxis odd physical body is described as if he were sutured together from spare parts. In the text, the physical disparity between Fortunata and Maxi is underscored over and over. Fortunate is much taller and stronger than Maxi. In fact, she is always represented as a physically robust woman. The physical contrast between weak, sickly Maxi and the robust and healthy Fortunata is immense. Maxis physical description is similar to those descriptions of male masturbators present in the discourse on masturbation. Ricardo Krauel has noted that Maxis physical description is that of the sexually inverted: Por lo que respecta a las heterologas genrico-sexuales, e independientemente de que Galds conociera o no de manera directa aquella produccin cientfica coetnea, lo cierto es que Maxi aparece conformado casi como un clnico modlico de acuerdo con las concepciones que por entonces comenzaban a consolidarse en los crculos cientficos (83). Maxi seems to embody physically the traits of the sexual deviant and his masculinity is always suspect in the text. The description of him in the beginning of the second part sets up for the reader Maxis deficient masculinity, a masculinity which is tied to the representation of the 18

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 male body. The contemporary reader would have recognized that Maxis description is exceedingly similar to that of the images of the terminal masturbator shown in the social hygiene texts. However, the novel also shows how far Maxi falls short of embodying hegemonic masculinity in his behavior. The patriarch of the Santa Cruz family, don Baldomero, is one representative of hegemonic masculinity in the novel. He epitomizes the bourgeois myth of the self-made man of nineteenth century Spain. The patriarch of the Santa Cruz family is a retired businessman, at a time when la clase media entraba de lleno en el ejercicio de sus funciones. He provides financial security for his family through his successful textile shop business, making him the supreme example of the bourgeois provider and protector in the text. Juanito Santa Cruz, his son, is representative of some aspects of bourgeois masculinity. He represents vigorous and undeniable heterosexual prowess in his repeated conquests of Fortunata. However, he is also a seorito and a nio mimado who is fully dependent on his parents for financial support. Maxis ineffectualness and bodily weakness are reflected in his financial situation. As a student and living with his aunt Doa Lupe, he has no income. The episode of the raiding of the piggy bank is both a symbolic affront to doa Lupes overbearingness and a realization of Maxis powerlessness. Aunque aparentemente el gesto de Maxi puede interpretarse como generoso, lo que pretende Maxi es comprar a Fortunata, invertir sus ahorros en ella para vivir de los intereses. Fortunata presenta para l la oportunidad de desplegar su potencial masculino por el lado de lo administrativo. Incapacitado fsicamente, al contrario de Juanito, su doble desde el otro lado del espejo, Maxi pretende desplegarse en lo econmico (Vilars La apropiacin del cuerpo femenino: Usura y avaricia en Fortunata y Jacinta. Romance Quarterly 39 (1992): 77). After Maxi meets Fortunata, he plans to keep Fortunata as his mistress and then make her his wife. In order to do this, he must ignore her past and educate her in bourgeois social ways. Maxi does this in order to justify that he is going against bourgeois societys conventions by marrying Fortunata as an equal of his own class. He tries to educate Fortunata in the ways of bourgeois society, although he ultimately fails in this. The veiling over of Fortunatas past

19

shows the extent to which Maxi is willing to go to have Fortunata conform to his image of a mujer honrada. The concept of honor is very important in nineteenth-century bourgeois society. For men, honor is one of the most important intangible things to have in order to be able to function in society. Honor, and its corollary, respectability, are in many ways embodied in women. It is through women that men are able to claim honor. Don Baldomero Santa Cruz marries Barbarita Arnaiz, a woman from similar class and social position as himself. By doing this he is ensuring the status of the Santa Cruz family in society. Juanito Santa Cruz, although he has several affairs with Fortunata and even has two children with her (although one dies soon after birth), does not violate this code by marrying her. Instead, he marries Jacinta, una mujer honrada also from similar background. The fallen woman / angel binary stereotype, common in many literary texts of the day, is re-created here in Fortunata and Jacinta, el ngel del hogar of the Santa Cruz household (Jagoe The Subversive Angel 81). However, Maxi, by marrying Fortunata, who is a woman from the working class and a prostitute, violates this code of honor. This code of honor is so prevalent in bourgeois society that Maxi, before he had met Fortunata, had roamed the streets of Madrid, classifying women according to whether or not they were honradas. () His preoccupation with honradez leads him to attempt the education of Fortunata in the rules regulating proper society. () The text pokes fun at the notion of honradez, and implicitly, the codes of masculinity, through Maxi, who obviously is the complete opposite of what a bourgeois man should be. Maxis masculinity, and implicitly his sexual potency, is questioned unceasingly in the text. Everyone, it seems, has an opinion regarding Maxis sexuality. () Even after his marriage, the only way Maxi can express his affection and love for Fortunata is mentally, not physically. () It is clear that Maxi is impotent and thus unable to show affection physically. Consequently, he cannot have children with Fortunata. Maxis illnesses are also linked with his ineffectual masculinity. His illnesses, particularly his headaches, leave him so debilitated that the women around him think of him as a child instead of a man. Maxis weakness and his inability to perform sexually with a woman leads to speculation by the narrator that Maxi is a homosexual, although that word never appears in the novel. The text builds up to the confrontation between Juanito Santa Cruz and Maxi by continually pointing 20

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 to Maxis dubious sexuality, through the comments of other characters and the narrators comments. Krauel writes that the fight between Maxi and Juanito is symbolically and structurally significant within the novel. It is the confrontation episode which marks the low point of the representation of Maxis masculinity, effectively marking him as other in the text. The scuffle between the two leaves Maxi beaten up on the street, with a crowd gathering around him. One of the onlookers exclaims Quita all! Pero no ves que es marica? The anonymous onlooker says what the narrator and the other characters have been suspecting and hinting at all along. It is the only place in the text where the word marica is written. The narrator has conspicuously avoided the use of the word marica, even though Maxi is continually presented as impotent and ineffectual. () Significantly, it is the silence surrounding the secret which is more eloquent than what is actually said about it. In the case, Galds leaves no doubt as to Maxis deficient virility: but this realization comes to the reader as ironic asides by the narrator, and what the other characters say about Maxi, never by direct reference. Maxi is also symbolically silenced by the novel: his voice fails him after the fight with Juanito and becomes high-pitched, so that he sounds child-like. Voices fail when there is no doubt left about the ineffectual masculinity of the characters. Maxis marriage to Fortunata places Maxi in an untenable position. In effect, he is not a man in societys eyes. He did not marry a mujer honrada, cannot provide financially for the woman he did marry, and is sexually impotent. Maxis solution his panacea to his position is to refuse society completely by going insane. Maxis mental instability becomes more and more pronounced as the novel progresses. At one point, he is certain someone has stolen his honor. Although this is true Maxi insists on looking for his honor, standing guard so that no one will rob him of it, as if his honor where a physical thing to be taken which it literally is, as Fortunata is the repository of Maxis honor. His insanity is a way to remove himself from society, removing at the same time the need to conform to the ideal of bourgeois masculinity. Perverse sexual behavior was classified as a type of insanity; at the same time those thought to be suffering from masturbation and other types of sexual perversity were actually thought to be insane (as in mentally disturbed). Maxis insanity in this case can be read as part of the sickness while dramatically showing this in his actions and words to others in the text. 21

Part of Maxis perceived insanity is that he believes there is a panacea which will cure his condition: his disastrous marriage to Fortunata which has symbolically and socially left him impotent. The solution to Maxis position is, at first, to escape through death, renouncing society and the codes of masculinity that are inevitably a part of it. Maxi, however, is not talking about fearing death, but death as a liberation from life, from the materiality of the body. His belief that death is liberation from life comes to a dramatic point soon after he says he has discovered the panacea. Death is liberation from la bestia, the material body which chains us to the world and to societys laws. Committing suicide is a way out, freeing Maxi from the physical body. By freeing himself from his body, Maxi can escape the pressure to conform to societys notion of a bourgeois masculinity identity. Maxi is aware that it is his body which is necessary to produce the signification for a gendered identity, because in his dreams Maxis body, against his will, produces the meanings necessary for an identity to be established: Si no tengo sueo, a Dios gracias. Cuando duermo algo, sueo que soy hombre, es decir, que la bestia me amarra, me azota y hace de m lo que le da la gana Infame carcelero! (II, 320). Maxis suicide plans collapse because he isnt brave enough to kill himself. This passage is also significant because of the awareness that it is the body which is important in the production of a gendered identity. Because physical suicide is not any longer an option, Maxi opts for social suicide. The best way to accomplish this is to make everybody around him believe that he is mad. This is Maxis panacea, which will finally release him from the misery and public humiliation of his marriage and his impotence in his life. Because physical suicide is not any longer an option, Maxi opts for social suicide. The best way to accomplish this is to make everybody around him believe that he is mad. This is Maxis panacea, which will finally release him from the misery and public humiliation of his marriage and his impotence in his life.

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Fortunata brings up a corollary to the code of honor to avenge his own honor by shooting both Juanito and Aurora. Maxi, however, does not do this either, but instead turns around and tells on them, further highlighting his distance from bourgeois masculinity. The end of the text reveals that Maxi is fully aware of how others perceive him. Because he does not commit suicide, he escapes into the only other option left for him: institutionalization in Legans. There, in the insane asylum, he will be able to free form the expectation of bourgeois masculinity. The saner he declares himself to be, the more insane everyone else thinks him. Maxi realizes that he is going to be committed to the insane asylum, and he resigns himself to his fate. Legans is not perceived by him to be a jail, because this is precisely what he has sought. He is not concerned any longer with societys rules, because he is going to a place where these rules do not apply. In his final sentences Maxi echoes what he says earlier in the text about the correspondence of names to things. The name of the thing does not matter; it is arbitrary: Maxi questions the natural relationship between words and things (Tsuchiya, Maxi and the Signs of Madness 53). However, society dictates than being called a man is important, having behaviors associated with it that are not associated with being a woman. Because Maxi speaks of himself in the third person in his final sentences, he is in essence refusing the position of the masculine subject. If identity is in essence a performance, only giving us meaning when adhering to those certain acts and gestures that give it coherence, then, as we have seen, Maxi, who does not adhere to those acts and gestures that give meaning to be a man, is in effect outside of his assigned gender role because he does not adhere to those codes. What Maxi reveals is that gender is not a fixed and stable category, but performative: If gender attributes and acts, the various ways in which a body shows or produces its cultural significations, are performative, then there is no preexisting identity by which an act or attribute might be measured; there would be no true or false, real or distorted acts of gender, and the postulation of a true gender identity would be revealed as a regulatory fiction. That gender reality is created through sustained social performances means that the very notions of an essential sex and a true or abiding masculinity or femininity are also constituted as part of the strategy that conceals genders performative character (Butler, Gender Trouble 141)

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By presenting a character who does not fit within the socially sanctioned gender identity boundaries described, the text challenges bourgeois ideology of having a true and especially fixed identity: bourgeois ideology in particular emphasizes the fixed identity of the individual (Belsey 64). In the character of Maximiliano Rubn we can see that masculine identity is being questioned. In Maxi Rubn, we have a character that transgresses the boundaries of bourgeois manhood, and is ultimately punished for it. As Labanyi notes, Fortunata y Jacinta is a novel that depicts a society dominated by the market and by the State (Gender and Modernization 166). Excess is a central theme in the novel, whether the excessive length and minute descriptions of the economic and social background to the novel, to Galds attempt to write about everything (168). Anxiety about masturbation was an expression of anxiety about a new political economic order writ on the body (Solitary Sex 280). Maxi serves as a cipher for these anxieties precisely because he is at the center of a fraudulent exchange: his marriage to Fortunata is a commercial translation (as noted above, he wants to buy Fortunata and make her over into his wife) gone wrong. In a broader sense, then, the (literal) incorporation of the masturbation discourse embodied in the figure of Maxi is symbolic of how these anxieties about modernization and the credit economy play out on an individual level.

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Sinnigen, John H. "Individual, Class and Society in Fortunata and Jacinta." Galds. Ed. Jo Labanyi. London: Longman, 1992. 116-39. [Ed.]: The realist novel has, since Lukcss Studies in European Realism, been a happy hunting ground for Marxists critics, whose view of the text as the product of social and economic forces largely coincides with the sociological attitude to literature prevalent in the nineteenth century. Galdss work is no exception. Sinnigens thesis that the unreliable male bourgeois narrator is in the course of the novel educated by his female working-class protagonist anticipates later feminist criticism. It was in 1886 that Galds completed the first part of Fortunata and Jacinta, and although this novel deals primarily with the revolutionary years of 1868-1874, it is clearly concerned not just with that period and its movement from revolution to reaction but also with the contradictions of Restoration society and of bourgeois society in general. [T]he Restoration tried to incorporate peacefully all dissident forces in a futile effort to avoid social revolution. In this study I shall examine the portrayal in Fortunata and Jacinta of the hypocrisy of that attempt. Social criticism and the search for new values go hand in hand throughout Galdss work. Structurally these themes are frequently presented in terms of the opposition of an outsider, a representative of new, positive values, to a stagnant, retrograde society. For example, in Doa Perfecta, in Tormento, and in Misericordia. This outsider-society opposition is also the basis of the structure of Fortunata and Jacinta. Here the outsider, Fortunata, the working-class woman, stands in contraposition to the vast array of bourgeois and petty bourgeois characters who try to control her. Fortunata is regarded by member of the middle class as an object which they can manipulate to fulfill their particular egotistical ends. Juanito Santa Cruz sees her as a love object who can provide him with some variety whenever he tires of middle-class life. And the members of the Rubn family and Guillermina Pacheco regard her as a kind of tabula rasa on whom they can impress a new being molded according to their wills. Yet, precisely while being handled as an object, Fortunata acts as agent, for she refuses to be either just a love object or a tabula rasa. While these members of the middle classes think they are playing with her, she is effecting significant changes in their way of life. Fortunata is such a strong agent that she even affects the structure of the novel by changing

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the role played by the narrator and by breaking up the separation of classes portrayed in the first two parts. So this poor daughter of the people who is regarded by the members of the middle classes as an object to be manipulated according to their will, turns out to be the most powerful agent of this novel. An through this strength she resolves her alienation from bourgeois society, not by accepting the conventions of that society but rather by overcoming the power through which those conventions had subdued her. The bourgeoisie Part 1 is concerned primarily with describing the condition of the established Spanish bourgeoisie in the Madrid of the early 1870s, as seen through the story of the Santa Cruz family. This society is one in which the narrator is quite comfortable; he is acquainted with all the Santa Cruz family and many of their friends, and he repeats the philosophical commonplaces of this class. He is presenting the history of a class whose ideology and attitudes he shares. This presentation, however, is not always sympathetic, for the narrator recognizes that the bourgeoisie has separated itself from its popular base during its period of ascendancy. Therefore he is critical of the way in which the modern age manifest in changing styles and ideas has been introduced in Spain (account of the change in the status of the mantn de manila). This attitude within the upper an middle classes demonstrates their desire to imitate the European sobriety which had accompanied the bourgeois revolution in other countries. This last sentence suggests that Spain had been unprepared for the bourgeois revolution which swept across Europe in the nineteenth century. So the narrator criticizes the upper and middle classes for imitating their European counterparts without considering the consequences to the national character. He further notes that this national character, as represented in the bright colors and the embroidered shawl, is retained solely by the populace. This commercial imitation was accompanied by imitation in the realm of ideas. Thus the principle of progress is an important thematic element throughout Part 1. It, along with its corollary, changing times, governs Baldomero Santa Cruzs attitude toward the education of his son. The idea of progress dominates all of Baldomeros attitudes, whether the subject be economics, politics, politics (he is a progressive), or the upbringing of his son. In this way he and his kind pay homage to the bourgeois revolution. 26

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 A product of this devotion to the ideal of progress is the creation of a new caste, the bourgeois seoritos, here represented by Juanito Santa Cruz. Because of his fathers and grandfathers success, Juanito is able to enjoy the leisure which previously had been the exclusive privilege of the aristocracy. Juanito has never had to work, has been provided with any money he might need, has been encouraged to travel, and, generally, has been free to conduct himself as he has pleased. The portrayal of this seorito is not, however, entirely favorable. The narrators ironic comments undercut the impression the young Santa Cruz gives of being a potentially great man and show him to fit the stereotype of the seorito whose apparent profundity gives way to a vacuous reality. Through his capricious political attitudes and his infidelity in love Juanito proves himself to be the epitome of inconstancy, and the narrator suggests that his inconstancy parallels that of Spanish society. [] There is even a temporal correlation between Juans surfeit of revolution and his restoration to Jacinta and the surfeit of revolution of the Spanish bourgeoisie and the Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. This correlation between Juanito Santa Cruz and Spanish society is further demonstrated in their mutual preoccupation with appearances. For example, Juanito is attracted to Fortunata each time she reappears in a different role. [] Through the parallel drawn between Juanito and Spanish bourgeois society we can see that these changes of government are inspired by a lack of conviction and not by any virtue or genuine, proper respect for order. The values of the seorito which are based on appearances and not reality are the values of this society. The dichotomy between form and substance is obvious in the language of the inhabitants of this bourgeois world. [] Juanito Santa Cruz is a model of glibness. This characteristic is especially obvious when he finds it necessary to convince Jacinta that he has not really been unfaithful. Juanito is not only attracted by forms, but he is also a master of them. By his skillful manipulation of language he could appear to know more than he really did, and as we see here, he can turn the ugly truth into a polished lie. Juanito, then, uses language to hide rather than to express reality. In spite of the narrators recognition of the flaws of this society, he affirms strongly its innately positive nature. In Part 1 we are still limited to the point of view of the bourgeoisie. On at a dinner at the home of the Santa Cruz a group of people which is supposedly a perfect sample 27

of all the social classes, at which the two representatives of the lowest social position are Pepe Samaniego who is in exactly the same position where Baldomero I was when he began building his commercial empire, and Estupi who is nothing more than a glorified servant of the Santa Cruz and Arnaiz families. Members of the wealthy bourgeoisie were able to intermarry with members of the declining aristocracy, thereby blurring the line separating these two classes. Money is a positive class distinction since bourgeois society is historically unique in that within it social relations have a purely economic articulation. Thus in spite of the occasional success of a Pepe Samaniego or an Estupi, the populace remains apart from the middle classes precisely because it cannot obtain capital. Maintaining that the laws of capitalism are as solid as the laws of physics, the narrator is merely echoing the opinions of bourgeois economists who cannot conceive of their system being superseded by another. In this rather long theoretical statement, then, the narrator expresses that view of society which is typical of the apologists of the bourgeoisie according to which the status quo represents a state of concord, and therefore any talk of class conflict must necessarily be irrational and unjustified. Many of the narrators other theoretical comments also reflect common bourgeois attitudes. For example, in chapter IV, The Dauphins perdition and salvation, is concerned with the period in Juanitos life when he immerse himself temporarily in the life of the common people. This temporary immersion is, of course, the perdition, and the salvation is his return to the norms of bourgeois life. To an extent, then, the narrator shares the patronizing bourgeois attitude toward the common people. This attitude is manifest in Juanitos feeling that The education of a man of our times is incomplete if he does not come into contact with all kinds of people, if he does not get a glimpse of all possible situations in life, it he does not take the pulse of all the passions. Its all a form of study an education. For Juanito, Fortunata and the entire working class exist merely as a plaything to amuse him whenever he wishes to be so amused. He regards them purely as objects, and he never stops to consider their humanity. This patronizing attitude is also manifest in Guillermina Pachecos treatment of the working class. She is charitable towards the poor but only within the limits of bourgeois ethics. Thus she condemns Fortunata but excuses Juanito, and she handles the affair of Izquierdo and the false Pituso as though this child were merely another

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 commodity. Like Juanito Santa Cruz, Guillermina sees the populace as an object which she can use to fulfill her egotistical needs without ever recognizing these peoples humanity. When Fortunata declares that she will always be working class, Juanito responds: Thats right, the common people Juan observed with a touch of pedantry. The narrator undercuts Juanitos sincerity by noting that this observation was made with a touch of pedantry. And his statement that when civilization loses touch with elemental emotions () it has to look for them in the unhewn block () of the common people is merely a rationalization of his whimsical sexual appetite. Again he crates a linguistic mask to hide the true nature of reality. Finally, he reveals again in this statement his condescending attitude toward Fortunata and the working class. They exist merely as an object (unhewn block) for the bourgeoisie (civilization) to exploit whenever it needs to do so. So Juanitos touch of pedantry allows him to justify his despicable treatment of Fortunata to himself and to his class. Guillermina repeats a philosophical commonplace similar to the one pronounced by Juanito, and she too shows again her patronizing attitude toward the working class which is prior to civilization while Guillermina, of course, lies in that advanced, progressive society characterized by the reconciliation of all classes. In spite of his previous criticism of Juanito, the narrator restates his adherence to the dominant bourgeois thought by reiterating and expanding Guillerminas statement. Now that, through its control of the national wealth, the bourgeoisie has established its separation from the populace, it must from time to time return to this unhewn block to rediscover the great truths it has left behind. This patronizingly benign attitude toward the common people is a further way of denying class conflict; if the civilized bourgeoisie is so willing to admit and even admire the virtues of the lower classes, then why should these primitive folk complain? And since in their poverty they are the retainer of the great truths, why should they aspire to anything else? The attitudes of the bourgeoisie are expressed clearly by such characters as Baldomero, Juanito, and Guillermina, and are further reflected in the observations made by the narrator. In his portrayal of the rise of the bourgeoisie and its current status the narrator has presented a comprehensive bourgeois consciousness; even his criticisms of the status quo have been only vague commentaries which in no way threaten the interests of the ruling class. And these criticisms have been counterbalanced by an affirmation of the eternal nature of the underlying 29

laws of capitalism and by the repeated denial of the existence of a basis for class conflict. Only as Fortunata emerges to become the dominant figure of the novel is the inadequacy of this stance fully revealed. The petty bourgeoisie In part 2 the novelistic center shifts to the petty bourgeois world of the Rubin family. The narrator is not so at home here as he was with the Santa Cruz. He has not known these people personally, and he is not too familiar with the history of this family. This lack of history contrasts with the detailed account of the rise of the house of Santa Cruz, and it reflects the secondary social importance of the petty bourgeoisie as seen from the narrators point of view. The children of this class do not have the leisure to complete two university courses. Rather, they must worry about practical economics. Lacking a university education, they do not mouth the commonplace philosophical sayings which came out of the university. So within this world there are no theoretical statements about the common propel or the reconciliation of the classes, for these are not matters of immediate interest to the members of this class. Since the petty bourgeoisie mediates the separation of the working class and the bourgeoisie, members of this class engage in daily interaction with the other two classes. From this intermediate position, the Rubin family can consider Fortunata in a way very different from that in which the Santa Cruz saw her. Whereas Juanito Santa Cruz family scorned Fortunata because of her inferior social position and was attracted primarily by her beauty, the Rubn family are mainly concerned with the state of her virtue and are attracted not only by her beauty but also by other qualities such as her thriftiness and sincerity. In spite of their somewhat sympathetic attitude toward Fortunata, the Rubn family, in different degrees, still regard her as an object through which they hope to satisfy egotistical impulses. Maximiliano is inspired by his desire to redeem her, to make her respectable. Maxi becomes so caught up in his plan of regeneration that he loses sight of the real Fortunata. Doa Lupe is attracted to Fortunata by a desire to reform her. Finally, Nicols Rubn sees in Fortunata an opportunity for him to show off the efficacy of his priestly talents. For all three of these characters, Fortunata becomes merely a means to an end, and her humanity ceases to be of

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 importance; in spite of their appreciation of certain of Fortunatas human qualities they see her as an unhewn block which they will model to suit their taste. Their method of educating her is based on bourgeois convention. Educators did not deal with Fortunatas personality. Fortunata is educated by convention and formula, and her educators expect this instruction to lead her to adapt herself to the established pattern of middle-class living. They are destined to fail because they treat Fortunata as an object and disregard the very human passion which is crucial to her existence. The working class The working class does not have any one part of this novel which is essentially all its own. The role of the most important representative of this class, Fortunata, is dependent upon her relations with members of the middle classes. In fact, since the narrator shares the perspective of the bourgeoisie, we can see that her story never would have been told had she not been found by Juanito Santa Cruz; the narrator asserts that if Juanito Santa Cruz had not paid that visit [during which he met Fortunata] this story would not have been written. Since Juanito is the only narrator of his first affair with Fortunata, our initial responses to her are based on his egotistical bourgeois point of view. Aside from the background information which Juanito provides about her, Fortunata too fills in a few details about her past. This lack of history shows that Fortunatas past is of little interest to the narrator because it would merely reveal a lack of variation in the role played by the common people. Unlike the middle classes, the lot of the working class was not improved during the nineteenth century, and so it produced none of the interesting details which the narrator found in the stories of the bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie. Whereas the histories of the Santa Cruz and Rubn families represented the rise which their respective classes experienced during the period of bourgeois ascendancy, the lack of history in Fortunatas case represents the constancy of the working class during that same period. Vacillation between her desire for respectability and her physical impulse persists and becomes the basis of Fortunatas behavior throughout the novel.

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This battle between her desire for respectability and her physical impulse is reflected in Fortunatas attitude toward Jacinta. She admires Jacinta in many ways, and she goes so far as to posit her rival as a model of moral perfection. After the two rivals meet, Fortunata feels a strong desire to be not just equal but superior to the other woman. This desire then turns into a reassertion of her physical impulse, this time in the form of scorn for Jacintas sterility. Fortunatas idea emerges, replacing her previous wish to be just like Jacinta. Although she still wants to be like Jacinta in some ways, in others namely the ability to have children she now recognizes her superiority to her rival. The previous contradiction of admiring Jacinta while still hating her is redefined as the opposition of a tempered admiration to a sense of disdain. Fortunata still admires and desires Jacintas respectability while on the other hand feeling that her rival is beneath her because of her sterility. As Fortunata struggles with her contradictory feeling she is continually developing an awareness of her situation. Her efforts to deal with the presence of Jacinta inspire a sense of class consciousness in her. Fortunata expresses her awareness of the privileges Jacinta enjoys as a member of the bourgeoisie. And she recognizes that differences in social position have distorted the equation which otherwise would have existed between her own essential respectability and that of Jacinta. She also despairs at being treated like a plaything by her middle-class companions. This recognition of her condition of objectness goes along with a preoccupation about whether or not she will ever be able to break the bonds of this condition. Fortunata has a good understanding of the nature of her condition. She has been handled as a plaything by Juanito Santa Cruz and by Maxi, Doa Lupe, Nicols, and even Guillermina. None of these characters understands the strength of Fortunata that comes from deep inside herself, the strength that is inspired by her sincerity and her constant love for Juanito Santa Cruz. She, too, remains unaware of this strength until her idea impels her to have guts. So, in their third affair, unlike the preceding ones, Fortunata is not merely letting herself be used by Juanito. Rather she is looking for something more than just her lovers company. She is seeking the fulfillment of her idea.

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Juanito cannot comprehend Fortunatas having an idea. For him she can have all the charm in the world, that is, the primitive substance contained in the common people, but she cannot have an idea, for that would violate his conception of her as a primitive, passive being. Unlike the passive role she played in the previous two affairs, here she will take the initiative necessary to fulfill her plan. The birth of this heir to the house of Santa Cruz, the incarnation of Fortunatas idea, represents the fulfillment of her wish to be not just equal but superior to Jacinta. Fortunata does not appeal to Juanito for recognition and assistance, for she knows from past experience that he is untrustworthy. Instead she demands recognition from Don Baldomero and Doa Brbara of their one and only grandson. Here Fortunata is dealing with the opposition between substance and form. According to form, in this instance the convention of marriage, Jacinta is Juanitos legitimate wife and Fortunata is nothing but a prostitute, and according to that convention Fortunata could never challenge Jacintas position. Yet Fortunata could never accept the reality of the conventional viewpoint. She eventually realizes that within the context of conventional legitimacy she can never contest Jacintas claim since bourgeois society would never admit a challenge to one of its conventions from a daughter of the people. Fortunatas response to this predicament is the formulation and fulfillment of her idea through which she establishes her position as an irreplaceable member of the Santa Cruz family. And this idea is based on an affirmation of substance and a rejection of form. Fortunata dismisses the institution of marriage as practiced by the bourgeoisie as an institution which becomes impotent when confronted by the natural she has understood that to bourgeois society she is nothing but a plaything, so to resolve her dilemma she has looked away from that society to the strength which she has deep inside herself. The contrast that exists between Fortunatas inner self and bourgeois convention is accentuated during the presentation of the events surrounding her death. Since she believes that she has had direct contact with an angle from above, she denies any need for sacraments. As the spokesman for conventional religion, she insists on having these sacraments performed. From its inception, this idea, because of its unconventional nature, has escaped Guillerminas comprehension. Now, as Fortunata is fulfilling her sacrifice for the Santa Cruz family, Guillermina is still insisting on convention. Fortunata has sacrificed her life so that there 33

could be an heir to the house of Santa Cruz, but Guillermina cannot comprehend this substantial action because it has not been accomplished according to established form. Through the fulfillment of her idea, Fortunata achieves the reconciliation of the opposing sentiments which have been the foundation of her behavior. She no longer envies Jacinta nor does she despise her. When she attacks Aurora (Juanitos current mistress), she does so in Jacintas name as well as in her own, maintaining that both of us have been wronged. And she feels that her final sacrifice qualifies her, too, to be an angel like Jacinta. In her effort to imitate Jacinta, Fortunata was forced to look into herself to discover how she too could achieve an angelical status, and through the result, her idea, she achieved the reconciliation of her desire for respectability and her physical impulse; her respectability, in the form of the recognition of her son as the one and only family heir is established precisely through the force of her physical impulse, her constant desire for Juanito Santa Cruz. This sense of companionship is shared by Jacinta. Although Guillermina is unwilling to admit Fortunatas angelical status, Jacinta cedes it to her by recognizing her as an equal. And this experience leads Jacinta to a new level of awareness. She rejects him. Jacintas experience of Fortunata has led to this qualitative change; her continual suffering now turns into disdain. As the novel ends, the structure of the relations among the central characters is rearranged. Fortunata and Jacinta began as Juanitos novel, and his presence had mediated the roles of his wife and his lover; with him as mediator, they had been enemies. At the end, however, Juanito is disowned and the companionship of the former rivals is now mediated by Fortunatas son. Profound effect that Fortunata has had on Jacinta, for here Jacinta too begins questioning the propriety of established circumstances. Fortunatas sacrifice has given the Santa Cruz not only a new life, but also a new sense of awareness since Jacinta now begins to question the conventions of bourgeois society which she had always observed so meticulously. She cannot erase the substance of the contribution made by Fortunata. Fortunata y Jacinta also began as the novel of the bourgeoisie, with the narrator as well as the principal characters serving as the articulators of the point of view of this class. We were told about a society which had achieved a benevolent confusion of [] classes. 34

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 We were led by that patronizingly benign attitude which saw the common people as a primitive unhewn block. In Part 4, however, this type of formulation of bourgeois attitudes is absent. We see, for example, a new confusion of [] classes at Fortunatas house in the Cava when, because of her son, such people as Guillermina, Jacinta, Brbara, and Maximiliano come to visit this humble establishment. This confusion is created not by Don Baldomeros patriarchal beneficence but by Fortunatas idea. The daughter of the people who was seen as nothing more than an object lacking all the qualities of civilized society, has now forced members of that society to come to her and recognize her as the most powerful agent of the novel. Fortunata has overcome the barriers which society has placed in her way, and this achievement is reflected in the elimination of those commonplace pronouncements which had defined all aspects of the novel according to the interests of the bourgeoisie. Not only has Fortunata transformed the lives of the other characters, she has altered the structure of the novel. Through her idea, Fortunata demonstrates a capability to act as agent that her middle class companions had denied her. So she shows that she is something more than an animal, and even more than the unhewn block of the common people, where those emotions have to be sought that civilization has lost by over-refining them. This commonplace attitude is shown by the action of this novel to be only a half truth. Fortunata proves herself to be more than just an unhewn block, for she does not allow herself to be molded according to the whims of her bourgeois companions. Instead she achieves self-fulfillment through a negation of bourgeois conventions. This novel has also shown that the working class is composed of many different individuals with difference between the personalities of Jos Izquierdo and Jos Ido, Severiana and Segunda, and Mauricia and Fortunata. Their outstanding similarities are their poverty and their alienation from the middle classes. The statements about the common people recognize this class as the retainer of the vitality of human existence which the middle classes are losing through their ever increasing preoccupation with things. For they are wrong in so far as they separate the common people from the rest of civilization. The working class is not content with its alienated condition. Rather, the desire to achieve respectability and so be accepted by the rest of society competes with its physical impulse. But, unfortunately for society, the patronizing attitude of the middle classes 35

towards the common people which, by denying its subjectivity, in essence is denying the humanity of this class, makes the fulfillment of this desire for respectability quite difficult. So a monument figure like Fortunata must break those barriers from below, thereby providing the middle classes with a new awareness of the inadequacy of its conventions. Through her influence on Jacinta, Fortunata gives bourgeois society a new consciousness. Previously Jacinta had accepted Juanitos glib rationalization. Now she rebels against the state of mismanagement of this worlds affairs. Jacinta finally recognizes that the platitudinous positivism preached by Juanito merely supports the position of those who benefit from it, and so she recognizes this necessity of challenging the status quo. In spite of the drastic changes effected by Fortunata, Fortunata and Jacinta is clearly not a revolutionary novel nor is the class conflict its only focus. Fortunata brings redemption rather than revolution to the middle classes. For, although, one degenerate element (the seorito, Juanito) has been disowned, and Jacinta has been given a new awareness and a new motivation, the foundations of bourgeois society have not been overthrown. This choice of redemption rather than revolution demonstrates the petty bourgeois nature of Galdss consciousness. For even though he was able to see and portray the immense contradictions (which a purely bourgeois, ruling class, consciousness would deny) in the smooth faade that Restoration society tried to present, he did not (as would proletarian consciousness) see the historical task of the proletariat as being the revolutionary transformation of society. Fortunata is unable to break definitively with the bonds which tie her to her betters, and consequently she ends up making a sacrifice for a healthier continuation of bourgeois society. The end of the novel is then necessarily ambiguous. To an extent is optimistic. The union between the seorito and the daughter of the people has produced an offspring; this child is not to become another forgotten member of the unhewn block. And the working class has provided the bourgeoisie not only with a new life but also with a new sense of awareness which should lead to a less conventional, more ital society in the future. Yet this optimism is guarded. The child may be raised to be a seorito just like his father. Maximilianos experience of Fortunata and especially of her death leads him, too, to a new sense of awareness. He admits that their marriage had been a mistake. Maxi, too, realizes that Fortunata was not merely the object he had conceived her to be. This recognition of his error 36

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 leads him to desire a withdrawal from this world which had fooled him so badly, and so he requests to go to a monastery. But, convinced of her nephews insanity, Doa Lupe has him taken to an asylum, Legans. Maxi, however, is not deceived. Only through this escape from the reality of everyday life can Maxi to solutions for all his problems, since his logic, which functions very well when it is not interrupted by emotions , in incapable of coping with the person of Fortunata. This ending suggests, then, that the only true proper, decorous situation is death and that absolute solutions can be found only in the realm of Pure Thought. Therefore the resolution offered by Fortunatas idea of the differences between the working class and the bourgeoisie can only be a potential solution to the problems of society, for those who must carry out this resolution continue, unlike Feijoo and Maxi, to live in the world of material reality where it does make a difference if one is in a palace or a dung heap and where idealist solutions cannot be realized.

37

Labanyi, Jo. Gender and Modernization in the Spanish Realist Novel. Oxford: OHS. 2000. 5. The Consumption of Natural Resources: Galdoss Fortunata y Jacinta (1886-1887) (pp. 165-208) Georg Simmels The Philosophy of Money (1900) argues that modernity is a product of the exchange economy. Simmel differs from Marx in focusing on consumption rather than production, for he is concerned with the ways in which capitalism is experienced by society at large. His premiss is that socialization is exchange and that money is nothing but the pure form of exchangeability. Money is therefore entirely a social institution and quite meaningless is restricted to one individual. In Fortunata y Jacinta, Maxi fills his replacement piggy-bank with worthless small change, and uses his savings to initiate himself into social relations. Simmel notes that, in the exchange economy, value is not fixed and inherent but fluctuating and based on the relationships between things. Girardss analysis of the importance of triangular desire in the nineteenth-century novel; Fortunata y Jacinta is a novel based on a network of interlocking triangular relationships. The abstract, symbolic nature of money is seen by Simmel as the basis of the modern cultural trend towards the replacement of reality by forms of representation. This, I shall argue, is the significance of nineteenth-century realism, in its desire to represent everything. Simmel notes that the replacement of reality by representation is made necessary by the increasing size and complexity of modern urban society, requiring the creation of representative symbols (money) and the delegations of power to representative agents (elected parliamentary deputies). As money increasingly becomes a symbol with no intrinsic worth, it depends more and more on its validation by public institutions and authorities. An increasingly abstract system of monetary representation goes hand in hand with the growth of the State, conceived as a representative body. Fortunata y Jacinta depicts a society dominated by the market and by the State. It is the first Galdss novels to explore in detail the problem of caciquismo, that is, an adulterated system of political representation. The exchange economy depicted in the novel is similarly marked by a fear of being passed off with adulterated goods for, if value lies in what things cost rather than in what they are, the distinction between the fraudulent and the legitimate becomes problematic. The novel illustrates Simmels contention that modernity, being mediated by money, is 38

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 characterized by relativism. All the relationships in the novel, even the most selfless, are mediated by money. The novel shows the impossibility of making clearcut distinctions in an exchange economy where everything is interconnected. It develops to the full the problem that of distinguishing between good fusions (marriage) and bad confusions (adultery, figurative incest). The parallels between private and public life have been read as political allegory; they can also be read as an illustration of the inextricable confusion of that which should be separate. The relativism resulting from this blurring of distinctions is articulated by the novels closing words: lo mismo da. The characters and narrator constantly comment on the complex interconnections behind disparate events: Juanito would not have met Fortunata if Estupi had not fallen ill; Nicols Rubn would not have been made a canon if Fortunata had not been unfaithful to Maxi. The first part of the novel turns into a history and geography lessons, for the most remote events have public and private repercussions: the British establishment of a trading post in Singapore and the construction of a railway across the Suez Isthmus change the course of the Madrid textile trade and with it that of the Arnaiz family. The global dimensions of the capitalist economy produce a sense of relative space, requiring artists to find a way of representing a world in which everything affects everything else. Fortunata y Jacinta is an attempt to write a novel about everything, for in the global exchange economy everything is relevant. The novels apparent openness is the other side of a vast network of connections that traps the characters within its confines; the story of the Rubn family becomes inextricably entwined with that of the Santa Cruz family so that we come back to them full circle at the end: an end which, with the birth of Fortunatas son, is another beginning. The image of this interconnectedness is the family: the enredadera of kinship relations which binds the different economic strata of Madrid, indeed of the nation, in an unintelligible tangle an image not so much of unity as of hopeless confusion. Chapters 2-5 of part I trace the process of nation formation that, since the late eighteenth century, has enveloped everything and everyone within its folds. In so doing, they articulate the anxieties underlying the novel as a whole. That Galds should choose the drapery business as a cipher of the modernization process is not accidental for it was the first forma of commerce to develop the characteristics of modern retailing, by introducing plate-glass shop windows, 39

window displays, and the gas-lighting that turned the newly modernized city into a theatrical display. The original Santa Cruz drapers shop, built up from 1796 by Don Baldomeros selfmade father, was inherited by him in 1848. Don Baldomero maintained his fathers practices unchanged, except that, with the tariff reforms of 1849, he started to import cloth from abroad. It was a family firm where the employees ate and prayed and went for walks with the owners: the capitalist split between household and business had not yet occurred. All this alters with the 1868 Revolution. Don Baldomero realizes the new economic climate will bring changes he is not suited to handle and sells the business off, instituting the private / public split. However the split is imperfectly realized, reflecting Spains incomplete transition to modernity, for the firms new owners are his nephews. The novel stresses the incestuous tendency of pre-1868 Madrid commerce, both because the owners of different establishments were related and because the firm was not yet separated from the family. Brbaras fathers business also illustrates the lack of division between public and private spheres, with the family living over the shop, and the latter hosting a tertulia which provides a forum for public critical debate at a time when clubs (casinos) did not exist and patriotic societies were still exclusive. Brbaras father imports textiles from the Philippines, China, Japan, and India. The narrator comments that the nacional obra de arte, the mantn de Manila, is an oriental product, for in the capitalist system the foreign contributes to the making of the national. In the 1850s Brbaras sister-in-law, Isabel Cordero, effectively takes over running the family business, abandoning oriental imports for French, Belgian, British, and Swiss novedades, specializing in white linen as plans to supply Madrid with running water anticipate a time when people will wash and change their clothes regularly. In the 1870s , after the public / private split has been effected, Aurora Samaniego who manages several departments of a department store also specializing in white linen will be made an adulteress, for women who occupy both public and private roles are now a problem. In introduction female fashions, Isabel Cordero is unwittingly ushering in a new age of free trade, when things are no longer kept in the family and women start to leave the home to go shopping. If the earlier period was incestuous, the new age will be marked by adultery. The change from a society based on the family unit to one based on free flow is figured by the 40

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 generational shift from Don Baldomero and Dona Barbaras common matrimonial bed to the separate beds of Juanito and Jacinta, in line with the recommendations of late nineteenth-century hygiene manuals that air should be allowed to circulate freely between bodies. The narrator comments that the bourgeoisies mid-century takeover of the public sphere has been called el imperio de la levita, but that it is more aptly symbolized by ladies fashions. Womens entry into the market as consumers mirrors the blurring of the public and the private created by the traffic of money and goods, and by the States increasing invasion of private life through legislation, tax, and social reform. The construction of a national economy includes the incorporation of women as consumers. Things go into circulation and women follow. The Santa Cruz family quite literally inhabits Madrids main labor market, which turns persons into economic resources or human capital. From the mid-nineteenth century, as production became separated from the household unit, domestic labor became increasingly feminized that is, restricted to unproductive domestic service in the form of housekeepers and maids which changed the face of the human market in the Plaza de Santa Cruz. The significance of this context of market relations should be obvious. Despite his opposition to free trade, Don Baldomero supports the general belief in progress, understood by him in terms of Bastiats doctrine of laissez-faire and the higienist Pedro Matas view of the individual and collective body as a self-regulating, self-renewing system. The healthy body is one in which flow is unimpeded. Don Baldomero uses this argument to justify allowing his son to do what he likes, with the result that Juanito consumes without feeding anything back into the system. A generation later, the novel ends on a note of exhaustion and pessimism: belief in the bodys capacity to renew its energies has been lost. This is not, as is commonly stated, the result of a change form production to consumption as Don Baldomero sells off the family firm: his drapers shop was always a retail outlet stimulating consumption, and in investing his money he is still contributing to the national wealth by facilitating the flow of capital. What has happened is that the capitalist dynamic initiated in the first half of the century has, with the removal of controls in 1868, overflowed the systems limits. Estupias love of the market-place logically makes him a smuggler avoiding customs duties for he sees State control as a threat to individual freedom. This points to the central 41

contradiction in the liberal project, which furthers individual rights while extending the powers of the nation-State. Juanitos and Jacintas first major stop is Barcelona, where they visit the modern textile mills, giving Jacinta an insight into the reality that lies behind commodity fetishism. She is the one who perceives the dreariness of the factory girls machine-like existence. Her nascent philanthropic concern is that of a woman for other women: again the first hint in the novel of new all-female social configurations, bypassing men. The novels treatment of national politics from 1869 to 1876 is set against the consumption of food and drink, at the Santa Cruz table or in Madrids many cafes. Despite the Santa Cruz familys origins in the drapers business, most of the consumption that takes place in the novel is not of fashions but of food, for the stress is on the exhaustion of natural resources. In Fortunata y Jacinta, the sociedad de los vagos constituted by Madrids political aspirants is a public family that lives en la calle; that is, in the cafe. The novel describes this caf society as a feria or market where ideas and jobs are exchanged: a kind of bourgeois and considerably less socially useful equivalent of the labor market for which the Plaza de Santa Cruz was famous. For Juan Pablo Rubin, the caf is what the hogar domestico is to the buen burgues; he lives with a mujer publica, Refugio because he has no concept of privacy. The State is an extended family which includes appendages related not by kin but through a favor system. The extended family is an adulterated family, for its appendages standing, like the adulterer, inside and outside the family unit blur its boundaries. The most noticeable feature of the political families at the Santa Cruz table and in Madrids cafes is their promiscuity, for the Restoration was based on a politics of conciliation. The novel shows that this political promiscuity a fraternity based not on an incestuous keeping things in the family but on a adulterous bringing everyone in goes back to the sexenio revolucionario: Juan Pablo Rubin and Jose Izquierdo oscillate between Carlism and republicanism. These changes of loyalty make it easy for the Restoration to unify the nation; the result is a family of disparate, unfaithful bedfellows. Caf society has ceased to be the public sphere of critical debate between private individuals because it no longer sees its function as that of an opposition; the proliferation of State employees was largely responsible for this loss of critical independence. 42

Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Feijoo, the only member of this caf society who is indebted to no one, conserves the critical spirit of Spains major Enlightenment intellectual, Padre Feijoo, but he too makes use of the Sate favor system, albeit to help others. With the Restoration, in addition to getting Nicolas Rubin appointed canon, he persuades Villalonga to give Juan Pablo a job in the prison service, where he had worked before the Republic. In 1876 Villalonga appoints Juan Pablo Provincial Governor of his province, making it clear that his job is to subdue all opposition; we are told that Romero Robledo has given him carte blanche to use whatever methods are necessary. Juan Pablo instantly promises to make one of his caf friends his inspector of police. Juan Pablo had started his career as a traveling salesman in the provinces, helping construct a nationwide market. His later career in the prison service and in the violent enforcement of State authority shows how the other side of nation formation is centralized regulation and control: that is, the massive invasion of private life. Juan Pablo justifies this Estado tutelar based on coercion since el pueblo espanol esta ineducado y hay que impedir que cuatro pillastres enganen a los inocentes. His incompatible mixture of socialismo sin libertad, combinado con el absolutismo sin religion, acquired from his variegated political past, suits him admirably to the job of enforcing el espiritu conciliador of the Restoration. He does not give up his mistress Refugio but keeps her out of sight in Madrid, for the Restoration is about having it both ways. Feijoo also engineers Fortunatas reconciliation with Maxi as otra Restauracion designed to help her have it both ways as a wife and adulteress; but there is a fundamental difference here, for Feijoos golden rule is the inviolacy of privacy. Jose Ido, obsessed with his own wifes supposed adultery, defines this adulterous politics of reconciliation as libertad. As a former teacher, Ido supports the project of national unification through State regulations. Ido corrects spelling mistakes found in the street, just as Maxi corrects Fortunatas non-standard speech. Galdoss refusal to standardize or correct his lower-class characters speech can be seen as a protest against this homogenization. When the narrator of Fortunata y Jacinta praises the dichosa confusion de clases of modern Spanish society which has solved class conflict by creating la concordia y reconciliacion de todas ellas, he is setting out the political program of the Restoration, rightly attributing this national unity to the State bureaucracy, the State education system, and the leveling effects of money. We must remember that the narrator is a friend of Villalonga, fully involved in enforcing the Restorations supervised freedom. 43

The narrator goes on to describe Spains supposed social harmony as a revoltijo, labyrinth, and enredadera. That the Restorations espiritu conciliador is a bad confusion of things that ought to be separate is implied by the analogy drawn between the nations changes of political allegiance and Juanito Santa Cruzs marital prevarications. The Restoration is the culmination of the sexenio revolucionarios oscillation between order (monarchy/marriage) and anarchy (republic/adultery), reconciling the two by fusing them simultaneously. It is not just that Fortunatas otra restauracion permits her to have it both ways (for a while); Juanito is reconciled with Jacinta, on the day Alfonso XII enters Madrid, because he is attracted to her as if she were la mujer de otro. The relationship between husband and wife has itself become adulterous. As Jacinta comments, Juanitos marital caresses are sobras de otra parte which vienen muy usadas. To confuse things more, Fortunatas constant love for Juanito makes adultery a form of fidelity. Marriage and adultery are becoming indistinguishable. The vagaries of national politics and Juanitos sexual prevarications are both described as subject to fashion. Juanitos new style of dressing betrays his affair with Fortunata; the changes of political regime keep the drapers happy because the new incumbents and their wives update their wardrobes. Politics enters the novel in the form of gossip or news; as such, it becomes fashion. The Restoration is the culmination of the realm of fashion initiated in the mid-century because it is an attempt to harmonize modernization with stability; that is, the new with the eversame. As in fashion, this signifies standardization (national unity) through the imitation of foreign models. Juanitos relations with women are those of a consumer driven by desire for the latest model possessed by others; apart from being attracted to his wife as if she belonged to another, his desire for Fortunata is rekindled when he learns she is dressed in the latest Parisian fashions and with another man, and again when he hears she is married. He tires of her because, unlike his friends mistresses, she fails to assimilate fashionable French manners and her constancy represents an imperviousness to fashion. It is logical that he should replace Fortunata with Aurora: a Frenchmans widow and manager of the novedades sections of a new department store.

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Juanito is the flaneur consuming the citys preasures. He rejects his fathers suggestion that he make his money productive by investing it and devotes it entirely to consumption. His controlled dissipation is an image of capitalist excess within limits. Feijoo comments on his meanness in buying Fortunata off. The same Don Baldomero who is reluctant to introduce advertising insists that Juanito should have his fun in Paris. Dona Lupe remarks that, despite her dissolute morals as a prostitute, Mauricia is an extremely efficient commercial representative logically, for both activities signify entry to the market. Feijoo is similarly concerned with allowing sexual expenditure without overspending. His advice to Fortunata to reduce her excessive emotional output is another version of Restoration compromise. But he devotes himself to restoring her energies: he is more concerned with her health than her morals, and he delights in watching her eat, whereas Juanito consumes he while conserving his own energies. It is not just a problem of limiting expenditure, but of making it flow reciprocally so that energies are renewed and not drained. Fortunata may be uninterested in fashion, but she cannot escape the market economy that is all around her. Her association with the market links her in every sense with prostitution, as a form of economic trafficking and as possible source of moral and physical contagion. Fortunata became a prostitute out of necessity. Her incorporation into the market as an exchange commodity thus makes her a victim rather than a free agent. Shopping, however, gives her a measure of freedom. Feijoo increases her independence by giving her some shares and some sound management advice: entry to the market does give freedom if one knows how to play it and if one has some start-up capital. Fortunatas first adultery with Juanito, like her original affair with him, was governed by blind instinct; her second adultery with him, after Feijoos lessons, is consciously chosen. This second adultery, in which she freely disposes of her property in her person, culminates in what, for market theory, is the litmus test of individual freedom: the making of a contract freely disposing of her property, as she dictates a will leaving her child to Jacinta and her shares to Guillermina.

45

True to her liberal definition of freedom, it is her ownership of property (some shares and a son inscribed in the property-owning system as the Santa Cruz heir) and her consequent ability to dispose freely of it that makes her a free individual. She thus achieves her aim of being recognized as the bourgeois, property-owning Jacintas equal. Her will is a contract between three women, leaving Juanito out of the picture. It is this final contract between women that empowers Jacinta to dictate the terms of a de facto legal separation to Juanito. Jacinta hereby not only declares Juanito free, but establishes her own claim to freedom. Moreno Isla, a London banker stands at the apex of the capitalist system. Moreno knew how to manage money but died of a heart attack because he could not manage his bodily economy: his doctors advice is to avoid overtaxing himself emotionally. Contemporary hygiene manuals saw the passions as an illness excessively draining the bodys reserves. Morenos death is caused by a circulation problem (high blood pressure), producing congestion and subsequent hemorrhage. Fortunata, also good at managing her finances but unable to manage her emotional expenditure, likewise dies of a hemorrhage after attacking her rival Aurora, while recovering form childbirth. Moreno dies because he dams his emotions up; Fortunata dies because she lets them out: the result in both cases is a fatal draining of reserves. These two contrasting failures to achieve balance signal an unbalanced economic system. Morenos emotional and physical congestion figures capitalist over-accumulation. Conversely, Fortunata represents the pueblo who feeds the system but does not consume. The distinction between marriage and adultery is further complicated because consumerism, associated with female adultery because both take women into the public sphere, is in this novel also associated with marriage. But Fortunata commits adultery for love, refusing Juanitos offer of gifts. However, she marries for money. [[185]]

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Fortunata y Jacinta 1886-87 Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Poor Max's Windmill: Aquatic Symbolism in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 50.4 (Autumn 1982): 427-37. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The Perils of Interpreting Fortunata's Dream." Anales Galdosianos. 34.( 1999): 113-24. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The So-Called Problem of Closure in Fortunata y Jacinta and Tristana Revisited By Means of Musical Structure." Decimononica: Journal of Nineteenth Century Hispanic Cultural Production. 4.1 (Winter 2007): 12-22. Ribbans, Geoffrey. "Interpreting Galdos' Fortunata." Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. 82.3-4 (May-June 2005): 447-63. Arroyo Almaraz, Antonio. "La casa como nucleo estructurador del espacio urbano en la novela del siglo XIX: Fortunata y Jacinta de B. Perez Galdos y La febre d'or de N. Oller." Revista de Lengua y Literatura Catalana, Gallega y Vasca. 7.(2000-2001): 17-28. Tsuchiya, Akiko. "Maxi and the Signs of Madness: Reading as Creation in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 56.1 (Winter 1988): 53-71. Labanyi, Jo. "Galateas in Revolt: Women and Self-Making in the Late Nineteenth-Century Spanish Novel." Women: A Cultural Review. 10.1 (Spring 1999): 87-96. Jagoe, Catherine. "The Subversive Angel in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 24. (1989): 79-91. Perez Galdos, Benito. Fortunata y Jacinta. Edicion de Francisco Caudet. Madrid: Catedra. 1994.

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"Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Perez Galdos (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV)." Ed. Peter B. Goldman London: Tamesis, 1985. 145 pp. Coleccion Tamesis, Ser. A-Monogs. 90. London: "Fortunata and Jacinta: Two Stories of Married Women." Athens: U of Georgia P, 1986. xxiii, 818 pp. "Fortunata y Jacinta." Ed. German Gullon Madrid: Altea, Taurus, Alfaguara, 1986. 416 pp. "Fortunata y Jacinta: Claves de lectura." Ed. Yolanda Arencibia and Ma del Prado Escobar Tenerife: Pubs. de la Univ. de La Laguna, 1989. 120 pp. "Textos y contextos de Galdos." Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 209 pp. Adler, Robert Leon. "The Converso Problematic in Larra and Galdos." Dissertation Abstracts International. 46.2 (Aug. 1985): 437A. Anderson, Farris. "La ciudad como diseno de la novela: Madrid en Fortunata y Jacinta." Madrid, de Fortunata a la M-40: Un siglo de cultura urbana. Ed. Edward Baker and Malcolm Alan Compitello Madrid, Spain: Alianza, 2003. 59-85. Anderson, Farris. "The City as Design for the Novel: Madrid in Fortunata y Jacinta." Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies. 3.( 1999): 85-104. Andrade, Graciela. "Las expresiones del lenguaje familiar de Prez Galds en Fortunata y Jacinta." Dissertation Abstracts. 17.( 1958): 3008-09. Andreu, Alicia G. "Dialogo de voces en Fortunata y Jacinta." Actas del VIII Congreso de la Asociacion Internacional de Hispanistas, I. Ed. A. David Kossoff, Jose Amor y Vazquez, Ruth H. Kossoff, and Geoffrey W. Ribbans Madrid: Istmo, 1986. 153158. Armistead, S. G. "The Canarian Background of Prez Galds' echar los tiempos." Romance Philology. 7.( 1953): 190192. Arroyo Almaraz, Antonio. "Benito Perez Galdos y Narcis Oller: Formulacion y percepcion narrativas de la ciudad." Revista de Lengua y Literatura Catalana, Gallega y Vasca. 6.(1998-1999): 17-27. Arroyo Almaraz, Antonio. "La casa como nucleo estructurador del espacio urbano en la novela del siglo XIX: Fortunata y Jacinta de B. Perez Galdos y La febre d'or de N. Oller." Revista de Lengua y Literatura Catalana, Gallega y Vasca. 7.(20002001): 17-28. Barrio Olano, Jose Ignacio. "Claves y caracterizaciones: Ensayos literarios." Coyoacan, Mexico: Ediciones y Graficos Eon, 2005. 153 pp. Berenguer, Angel. "Teatro y teatralidad en Galdos." Galdos en el centenario de Fortunata y Jacinta. Palma de Mallorca: Prensa Universitaria, 1989. 14-26. Bisetti, Enrica. "La piazza: Realta e immaginario. Scene da Fortunata y Jacinta e da Misericordia di Benito Perez Galdos." Torre di Babele: Rivista di Letteratura e Linguistica. 3.( 2005): 4352. Blanco Aguinaga, Carlos. "Having No Option: The Restoration of Order and the Education of Fortunata." Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Perez Galdos (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV). Ed. Peter B. Goldman London: Tamesis, 1985. 13-38. Coleccion Tamesis, Ser. A-Monogs. 90. London: Blanco Aguinaga, Carlos. "La historia y el texto literario: Tres novelas de Galdos." Madrid: Nuestra Cultura, 1978. 127 pp. Blanco Aguinaga, Carlos. "La 'originalidad' de Galdos." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 179-83. Bly, Peter A. "Al perder la virginidad tres heroinas galdosianas." Insula: Revista de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. 48.561 (Sept. 1993): 11-13. Bly, Peter A. "Cafes in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Studies in Honour of Geoffrey Ribbans. Ed. Ann L. Mackenzie and Dorothy S. Severin Liverpool: Liverpool UP, 1992. 139-46. Liverpool Monographs in Hispanic Studies Liverpool: Bly, Peter A. "Choices and Consequences: Refocussing the Debate on the Meaning of Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 33.( 1998): 103-13. Bly, Peter A. "El factor F: Frigilis y Feijoo como figuras clave en el destino novelistico de Ana Ozores y Fortunata." Luz vital: Estudios de cultura hispanica en memoria de Victor Ouimette. Ed. Ramon F. Llorens and Jesus Perez Magallon Alicante, Spain: Department of Hispanic Studies, McGill University, 1999. 39-48. Bly, Peter A. "Give and Take: Ironic Verbal Echoes in the Last Chapter of Fortunata y Jacinta." Critica Hispanica. 13.1-2 ( 1991): 69-85. Bly, Peter A. "In the Factory: Description in Galdos." Naturalism in the European Novel: New Critical Perspectives. Ed. Brian Nelson New York: Berg, 1992. 210-25. Berg European Studies Series New York: Bly, Peter A. "La calle vetustense y el arbol madrileno, o la estructuracion parodica del escalafon de personajes de La Regenta y Fortunata y Jacinta." Siglo Diecinueve. 1.( 1995): 21521. Bly, Peter A. "Ripples on the Pond: Interdependent Approaches to the Galdos Chapter." Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by Perez Galdos (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV). Ed. Peter B. Goldman London: Tamesis, 1985. 7394. Coleccion Tamesis, Ser. A-Monogs. 90. London: Bonet, Laureano. "Don Elias Orejon, el espia que surgio de la sombra: La fontana de oro." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 55-65. Boring, Phyllis Zatlin. "The Streets of Madrid as a Structuring Device in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 13.( 1978): 13-22. Bourne, Louis. "The Animals We Are: Images of Bestial Reduction in La Regenta (1885) and Fortunata y Jacinta (1887)." MIFLC Review. 10.(Fall 2001): 52-63. Braun, Lucille V. "Galds' Re-Creation of Ernestina Manuel de Villena as Guillermina Pacheco." Hispanic Review. 38.1 (Jan. 1970): 32-55. Braun, Lucille V. "The Novelistic Function of Mauricia la dura in Galdos' Fortunata y Jacinta." Symposium. 31.( 1977): 27789. Braun, Lucille Virginia. "Problems of Literary Creation in Five Characters of Galds' Fortunata y Jacinta." Dissertation Abstracts. 22.( 1962): 4011. Brooks, J. L. "The Character of Doa Guillermina Pacheco in Galdos' Novel Fortunata y Jacinta." Bulletin of Hispanic Studies. 38.( 1961): 86-94. Buffum, Mary E. "Galds's Usage with Regard to the Enclitic Pronoun." Modern Language Journal. 11.1 (Oct. 1926): 33-37. Calvo Garcia, Joaquin, Jose Javier Gonzalez Higueras, Celestino Lopez Alvarez, and Francisco Torecilla del Olmo. "La dialectica naturaleza/sociedad en Fortunata y Jacinta." Nuevo Hispanismo. 1.(Winter 1982): 137-155. Calley, Louise Nelson. "Galds's Concept of Primitivism: A Romantic View of the Character of Fortunata." Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese. 44.4 (Dec. 1961): 663-65. Caminals-Heath, Roser. "The Madman in Spanish Literature: Cervantes and Perez Galdos." Mid-Hudson Language Studies. 8.( 1985): 53-62. Cardona, Rodolfo. "En torno a Fortunata y Jacinta: Presentacion." Anales Galdosianos. 9.( 1974): 5.

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Casalduero, Joaquin. "Sobre Fortunata y Jacinta." Insula: Revista de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. 35.404-405 (July-Aug. 1980): 14. Caudet Roca, Francisco. "Jose Izquierdo y el cuarto estado en Fortunata y Jacinta." Actas del Tercer Congreso Internacional de Estudios Galdosianos, II. Las Palmas: Excmo. Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, 1990. 25-30. Caudet, Francisco. "Fortunata y Jacinta: El 'naturalismo espiritual'." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 91-104. Ciplijauskaite, Birute. "El lenguaje de la rebeldia." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 185-88. Constantini, Guillermina I. "La Restauracion vencedora: Un caso de narracion interior en Fortunata y Jacinta." Filologia. 28.1-2 ( 1995): 173-79. Copeland, Eva Maria. "Varones y degenerados: The Construction of Masculinity in the Spanish Nineteenth-Century Social Hygiene Movement and in Three Novels by Benito Perez Galdos." Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences. 65.4 (Oct. 2004): 1389. Cornbleet, Edward Lehr. "Nuns in the Novels of Galdos." Dissertation Abstracts International. 45.2 (Aug. 1984): 536A. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "A Further Consideration of Carnal Appetites in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 20.2 ( 1985): 51-59. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Aristophanes' The Birds and the Ornithological Tour de Force in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 55.2 (Spring 1987): 165-80. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Idealism versus Reality: Galds's Critique of Platonism in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese. 67.1 (Mar. 1984): 43-51. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Juan Valera and Galdos's Characterization of Juanito Santa Cruz." Anales Galdosianos. 22.( 1987): 25-31. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Juan Valera y la caracterizacion de Juanito Santa Cruz en Fortunata y Jacinta." Actas del X Congreso de la Asociacion de Hispanistas, I-IV. Ed. Antonio Vilanova, Josep Ma Bricall, and Elias L. Rivers Barcelona: Promociones y Pubs. Universitarias, 1992. II: 1237-41. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "New Insights Regarding the Creation and Character Delineation of Maxi Rubin and Placido Estupina in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 36.( 2001): 99-110. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "No Annulment: Three Women Characters of the Mid-1880s Confront the Problem of an Impossible Marriage (Manuel Cubas, Sawa, Galdos)." Decimononica: Journal of Nineteenth Century Hispanic Cultural Production. 4.2 (Summer 2007): 19-32. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "Poor Max's Windmill: Aquatic Symbolism in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 50.4 (Autumn 1982): 427-37. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The First and Annotated, Illustrated Edition of Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 16.( 1981): 133-136. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The Importance of Goethe's Die Wahlverwandtschaften in the Creation of Galds' Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 54.4 (Autumn 1986): 443-55. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The Perils of Interpreting Fortunata's Dream." Anales Galdosianos. 34.( 1999): 113-24. Chamberlin, Vernon A. "The So-Called Problem of Closure in Fortunata y Jacinta and Tristana Revisited By Means of Musical Structure." Decimononica: Journal of Nineteenth Century Hispanic Cultural Production. 4.1 (Winter 2007): 12-22. Chamberlin, Vernon A., Kay Engler, Leo T. Hoar, Jr., Walter T. Pattison, and B.J. Zeidner Bauml. "Benito Perez Galdos." Symposium. 24..( 1970): Chamberlin, Vernon. "A New Version of Fortunata y Jacinta on the Spanish Stage: A Sesquicentenial Salute to Perez Galdos." Estreno: Cuadernos del Teatro Espanol Contemporaneo. 21.1 (Spring 1995): 7-10. Chamberlin, Vernon. "Echoes from the World of Rossini and Beethoven in Galdos's Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 37.( 2002): 89-101. Dale, Scott. "La dialectica Guillermina de Fortunata y Jacinta, o la primera 'rata eclesiastica' de la Restauracion." Lexis: Revista de Linguistica y Literatura. 24.2 ( 2000): 283-301. De Gregorio Cabellos, Alicia. "El proceso de conquista de una voz por Fortunata en Fortunata y Jacinta de Benito Perez Galdos." San Antonio de Bexar y el Hispanismo. Ed. Maria Jesus Mayans Natal (No place): Asociacion de Licenciados y Doctores Espanoles en Estados Unidos, 2004. 103-24. de Gregorio, Alicia. "Seres de palabra en Fortunata y Jacinta: Una aproximacion bakhtiniana a Galdos." Dissertation Abstracts International. 56.10 (Apr. 1996): 3988A. del Pino, Jose Manuel. "El fracaso de los sistemas de orden en el cierre de Fortunata y Jacinta." Revista Hispanica Moderna. 44.2 (Dec. 1991): 207-16. Delgado-Jenkins, Humberto. "El tres de Galdos en Fortunata y Jacinta." Explicacion de Textos Literarios. 2.( 1973): 61-66. Diez-Alonso, Andres A. "Estructuralismo y realismo critico en Fortunata y Jacinta." Dissertation Abstracts: Section A. Humanities and Social Science. 32.( 1971): 2681A-82A(Ind.). Dorca, Toni. "El mundo al reves: Una lectura carnavalesca de Fortunata y Jacinta." Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. 84.2 (Mar. 2007): 193-206. Eoff, Sherman. "The Treatment of Individual Personality in Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 17.4 (Oct. 1949): 269-89. Estebanez Calderon, Demetrio. "El lenguaje politico de Galdos: 'Revolucion' y 'Restauracion' en Fortunata y Jacinta y en los Episodios de la ultima serie." Boletin de la Biblioteca de Menendez Pelayo. 61.( 1985): 259-283. Estebanez Calderon, Demetrio. "Naturaleza y sociedad: Claves para una interpretacion de Fortunata y Jacinta." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 81-90. Faulkner, Sally. "'Las alas cortadas': El genero y el espacio en las adaptaciones al cine y a la television de Fortunata y Jacinta de Perez Galdos." Espacios de genero. Ed. Pilar Cuder Dominguez, Mar Gallego Duran, and Auxiliadora Perez Vides Seville, Spain: Alfar, 2005. 223-31. Coleccion Alfar/Universidad 129. Seville, Spain: Faulkner, Sally. "Literary Adaptations in Spanish Cinema." London, England: Tamesis, 2004. viii, 198 pp. Coleccion Tamesis: Serie A, Monografias 202. London, England: Fernandez, Alvaro. "Juegos estructurales galdosianos: La novela pitusiana en Fortunata y Jacinta." Filologia. 28.1-2 ( 1995): 181-92. Fernandez, Joseph A. "Deformaciones populacheras en el dialogo galdosiano." Anales Galdosianos. 13.( 1978): 111-119. Fernndez, Mara Soledad. "Estrategias de poder en el discurso realista: La Regenta y Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese. 75.2 (May 1992): 266-74. Fierro M., Carmen Luisa. "Desconstruccion y construccion del discurso realista en Fortunata y Jacinta." Acta Literaria. 8.( 1983): 87-98. Figueroa-Melendez, Manuel. "Dos viajes de novios: Galdos y Emilia Pardo Bazan ante un mismo topico literario." Revista de Estudios Hispanicos. 17-18.(1990-1991): 55-63. Frank, Claudine. "Tragic Relief: An Intertextual Reading of Galds's Fortunata y Jacinta and Zola's La Joie de vivre." Comparative Literature. 43.3 (Summer 1991): 209-29. Franz, Thomas R. "Galdos the Pharmacist: Drugs and the Samaniego Pharmacy in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 22.( 1987): 35-46.

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Fuentes Peris, Teresa. "Drink and Social Stability: Discourses of Power in Galdos' Fortunata y Jacinta." Bulletin of Hispanic Studies. 73.1 (Jan. 1996): 63-77. Fuentes Peris, Teresa. "Images of Filth: Representation of the Poor in 'Una visita al Cuarto Estado'." New Galdos Studies: Essays in Memory of John Varey. Ed. Nicholas G. Round Woodbridge, England: Tamesis, 2003. 59-72. Coleccion Tamesis: Serie A, Monografias 192. Woodbridge, England: Fuentes Peris, Teresa. "The Control of Prostitution and Filth in Fortunata y Jacinta: The Panoptic Strategy in the Convent of Las Micaelas." Anales Galdosianos. 31-32.(1996-1997): 35-52. Fuentes, Vctor. "El realismo integral de La Regenta y Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 57.1 (Winter 1989): 43-56. Fuentes, Victor. "La dimension mitico-simbolica de Fortunata." Anales Galdosianos. 22.( 1987): 47-52. Galerstein, Carolyn. "El paisaje urbano de Fortunata y Jacinta." Cuadernos de Aldeeu. 1.2-3 (May-Oct. 1983): 249-257. Garcia Bolivar, Margarita. "Film Representation of Galdos' Female Character in 'Nazarin' (1962), 'Tristana' (1969), 'Fortunata y Jacinta' (Film: 1969, television series: 1987) and 'El Abuelo' (1998)." Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences. 64.2 (Aug. 2003): 519. Garcia, Carlos Javier. "Tristana y Fortunata: Formulas sociales y escision del personaje." Les Traites de savoir-vivre en Espagne et au Portugal: Du moyen age a nos jours. Ed. Rose Duroux Clermont-Ferrand: Assn. des Pub. de la Fac. des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Clermont-Ferrand, 1995. 323-30. Collection Litteratures Clermont-Ferrand: Gelz, Andreas. "Eine andere Geschichte der Moderne? Der Skandal als Schlusselbegriff der spanischen Kulturgeschichte." Psyche und Epochennorm. Ed. Henning Krauss, Christophe Losfeld, Kathrin van der Meer, and Anke Wortmann Heidelberg, Germany: Universitatsverlag Winter, 2005. 357-365. Studia Romanica 126. Heidelberg, Germany: Gilman, Stephen. "Feminine and Masculine Consciousness in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 17.( 1982): 63-70. Gilman, Stephen. "La novela como dialogo: La Regenta y Fortunata y Jacinta." Nueva Revista de Filologia Hispanica. 24.( 1975): 438-48. Gilman, Stephen. "La palabra hablada y Fortunata y Jacinta." Nueva Revista de Filologia Hispanica. 15.( 1961): 542560. Gilman, Stephen. "The Spoken Word and Fortunata and Jacinta." Galdos. Ed. Jo Labanyi London: Longman, 1992. 57-76. Modern Literatures in Perspective London: Goetz, Lily Anne. "'Fortunata y Jacinta': A Narratological Approach." Dissertation Abstracts International. 54.2 (Aug. 1993): 546A. Goetz, Lily Anne. "La Pitusa y la Delfina: The Role of Epithets in Fortunata y Jacinta." Revista de Estudios Hispanicos. 22.( 1995): 59-74. Gold, Hazel. "Problems of Closure in Fortunata y Jacinta: Of Narrators, Readers and Their Just Deserts/Desserts." Neophilologus. 70.2 (Apr. 1986): 228-238. Gold, Hazel. "Therapeutic Figures: The Body and Its Metaphors in Fortunata y Jacinta." A Sesquicentennial Tribute to Galdos 1843-1993. Ed. Linda M. Willem Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1993. 72-87. Hispanic Monographs: Homenajes 8. Newark, DE: Goldman, Peter B. "'Cada peldano tenia su historia': Conciencia historica y conciencia social en Fortunata y Jacinta." Galdos y la historia. Ed. Peter Bly Ottawa: Dovehouse, 1988. 145165. Ottawa Hispanic Studies 1. Ottawa: Goldman, Peter B. "El trabajo digestivo del espiritu: Sobre la estructura de Fortunata y Jacinta y la funcion de Segismundo Ballester." Romance Quarterly. 31.2 ( 1984): 177-187. Goldman, Peter B. "Feijoo and the Failed Revolution: A Dialectical Inquiry into Fortunata y Jacinta and the Poetics of Ambiguity." Conflicting Realities: Four Readings of a Chapter by

Perez Galdos (Fortunata y Jacinta, Part III, Chapter IV). Ed. Peter B. Goldman London: Tamesis, 1985. 95-145. Coleccion Tamesis, Ser. A-Monogs. 90. London: Goldman, Peter B. "Juanito's chuletas: Realism and Worldly Philosophy in Galds's Fortunata y Jacinta." Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association. 18.1 (Spring 1985): 82101. Goldman, Peter B. "Las dos artes y el combinar de la vida: Sobre lenguaje, realismo y realidad en Fortunata y Jacinta." Actas del VIII Congreso de la Asociacion Internacional de Hispanistas, I. Ed. A. David Kossoff, Jose Amor y Vazquez, Ruth H. Kossoff, and Geoffrey W. Ribbans Madrid: Istmo, 1986. 631-636. Goldman, Peter B. "O maquina buena o mujer mala: Vision determinista y conciencia temporal en Fortunata y Jacinta." Revista de Estudios Hispanicos. 21.3 (Oct. 1987): 67-91. Goldman, Peter B. and Andres Villagra. "Personajes y transformaciones en Fortunata y Jacinta." Romance Quarterly. 39.1 (Feb. 1992): 61-70. Goldman, Peter B., Paul J. Hoff, and Neil A. Rice. "Being, Doing, and Representing: Secondary Characters and Third-Rate Fictions in Fortunata y Jacinta." Critica Hispanica. 13.1-2 ( 1991): 87-97. Gomez-Perez, Ana. "La manipulacion de la naturaleza en Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanofila. 133.(Sept. 2001): 17-30. Gomis-Izquierdo, Vicente. "'Siempre hubo clases': Clases medias y modernizacin en la literatura hispanica decimononica." Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences. 68.12 (June 2008): 5064-5065. Gonzalez Arias, Francisca. "Diario de un viaje: Las cartas de Emilia Pardo Bazan a Benito Perez Galdos." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 169-75. Gonzalez Santana, Rosa Delia. "Solidaridad femenina en Fortunata y Jacinta y Nana." Actas del IX Simposio de la Sociedad Espanola de Literatura General y Comparada, I: La mujer: Elogio y vituperio; II: La parodia; El viaje imaginario. Ed. Tua Blesa, Maria Teresa Cacho, Carlos Garcia Gual, Mercedes Rolland, Leonardo Romero Tobar, and Margarita Smerdou Altolaguirre, et al Zaragoza, Spain: Universidad de Zaragoza, 1994. I: 189-98. Granados, Pedro. "La novela como responso y elegia: La distribucion de lo lirico en Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 37.( 2002): 103-12. Gullon, Agnes M. "Fortunata y Jacinta en ingles." Actas del Primer Congreso Internacional de Estudios Galdosianos. Las Palmas: Excmo. Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, 1977. 376-81. Gullon, Agnes Moncy. "Fortunata and Jacinta: A Polyphonic Novel." The Art of Translation: Voices from the Field. Ed. Rosanna Warren Boston: Northeastern UP, 1989. 64-83. Gullon, German. "El subtexto de Fortunata y Jacinta." Critica Hispanica. 13.1-2 ( 1991): 99-109. Gullon, German. "Fortunata y Jacinta en el vertice de la modernidad." Textos y contextos de Galdos. Ed. John W. Kronik and Harriet S. Turner Madrid: Castalia, 1994. 195-209. Gullon, German. "Problemas del pluralismo critico: Perez Galdos: Fortunata y Jacinta." Hispanic Review. 49.2 (Spring 1981): 183-195. Gullon, Ricardo. "Tecnicas de Galdos." Madrid: Taurus, 1980. 256 pp. Gutierrez, Lance Christian. "Figures of Addiction in Benito Perez Galdos." Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences. 64.12 (June 2004): 4487. Hart, Stephen. "Galdos's Fortunata y Jacinta: An 'Inoffensive Hen'." Forum for Modern Language Studies. 22.4 (Oct. 1986): 342-353. Herrero, Javier. "El manton de Manila contra el sombrero de copa: Indumentaria y comida en Fortunata y Jacinta." Ideas en sus paisajes: Homenaje al profesor Russell P. Sebold. Ed. Guillermo Carnero, Ignacio Javier Lopez, and Enrique Rubio Alicante, Spain: Universidad de Alicante, 1999. 255-62.

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Hoddie, James H. "Fortunata y Jacinta and the Eroica." Anales Galdosianos. 14.( 1979): 133-139. Hoddie, James H. "Need, Honor, and Romance in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 20.2 ( 1985): 39-50. Holmberg, Arthur Carl. "Louis Lambert and Maximiliano Rubn: The Inner Vision and the Outer Man." Hispanic Review. 46.2 (Spring 1978): 119-36. Holmberg, Arthur. "Balzac and Galds: 'Comment aiment les filles?'." Comparative Literature. 29.2 (Spring 1977): 109-23. Ilie, Paul. "Fortunata's Dream: Freud and the Unconscious in Galdos." Anales Galdosianos. 33.( 1998): 13-100. Jackson, Edith Moss. "Myth and Meaning: A Paradigmatic Analysis of Galdos' 'Fortunata y Jacinta'." Dissertation Abstracts International. 50.1 (July 1989): 157A. Jagoe, Catherine. "The Subversive Angel in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 24.( 1989): 79-91. Javier Lopez, Ignacio. "El poder de Pigmalion: Galdos y la creacion del personaje." Insula: Revista de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. 48.561 (Sept. 1993): 9-11. Kattan, Olga. "Madrid en Fortunata y Jacinta y en La lucha por la vida: Dos posturas." Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos: Revista Mensual de Cultura Hispanica. 250-52.(1970-1971): 54678. King, Sarah E. "Food Imagery in Fortunata y Jacinta." Anales Galdosianos. 18.( 1983): 79-88. Kirsner, Robert. "Esclavitud y rebeldia en Fortunata y Jacinta." Actas del Sexto Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas celebrado en Toronto del 22 al 26 agosto de 1977. Ed. Alan M. Gordon, Evelyn Rugg, and Rafael Lapesa Toronto: Dept. of Sp. & Port., Univ. of Toronto, 1980. 423-425. Kirsner, Robert. "Galds' Attitude towards Spain as Seen in the Characters of Fortunata y Jacinta." PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 66.2 (Mar. 1951): 124-37. Kirsner, Robert. "Honradez, matrimonio y cortesania en Fortunata y Jacinta." Studies in Language and Literature. Ed. Charles Nelson Richmond: Dept. of Foreign Langs., Eastern Kentucky Univ., 1976. 301-04. Krauel, Ricardo. 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