Abstract Demographic statistics show that the percentage of the generation 60+ has risen considerably in the past

few years. This change has led to a new generation of seniors with other needs than the generation before them. Due to the growth predicted for this population group, there will be enormous challenges not only for the job market but also for retirement and nursing homes. Nowadays, a lot of people require a high standard of living and a high degree of selfdetermination even in the third phase of their lives. For this reason, all nursing homes will have to adapt to the needs of this new generation of seniors and provide them with more comfort and security using innovative technologies. The patented and innovative resistive capacitive identification technology (in short RCID) was developed and optimized for identification systems by the Swiss group KABA Holding AG. RCID uses the natural electrostatic charge of the human body to capacitively connect the key in the pocket with the door. Instead of looking for the key as usually and using it to unlock the door, the person carries a RCID medium near her body. By merely touching the door handle, the medium will connect with the door lock, which checks the access authorization. Due to the comfort resulting from RCID, particularly in nursing homes, this technology is able to make an important contribution to the preservation of self-determination and it may replace other access control systems. This new technology also offers a number of other fields of application in nursing homes.

Acknowledgements I would like to use this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who contributed to the success of my diploma thesis. A big thank you is owed to Mag. Franz Kopica for supervising this thesis and for supporting me by always lending an ear to my questions. I want to thank FH-Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Thomas Sommer for his assistance in editing the physical basics and for his second proofreading. Many thanks to KABA group and in particular to Theodor Wendt, who helped me with useful tips as well as documents and the equipment I needed. A special thank you to the employees of the nursing home Wienerberg and most of all to Ms. XXX who gave me the opportunity to conduct my practical tests in this retirement home. I want to thank all interview partners who took the time to answer my questions in many interesting conversations. My work would not have been possible without the information they gave me. Furthermore, I want to thank my family and my friends for their patience and support. In particular, I wish to thank my parents who made my studies possible and who have always supported me over the course of the years.

1 Introduction and Purpose

Nowadays, ubiquitous computing is getting more and more important and considerable for our daily lives. Devices disappear in our environment and become self-evidentas a matter of course;, we use them in the background, without thinking about how they work. in the background. We expect them to work at anytime and anywhere. A new technology that makes this vision even more realmore reality is the communication viaover the human body. Usually, there are numerous devices in our immediate environment, including i.e. smart phones, MP3 players and digital cameras. There are several technologies to connect these devices to one anothereach other. One option to exchange data, for example between a smart phone and a music player, is to connect each of them to a separate computer via a wire to a separate computer. Due to the fact that it iss unusual to carry wires and computers all the time around all the time, this technology does notnt fit into the constraints of ubiquitous computing. The vision is that, for instance, thatexample two devices that are close to each other will be able tocan build up a wireless communication line as if they were connected via cable. Other communication technologies which could be used are radio frequency and infrared technologies. In the former case, there is the problem that it is the nature of radiation's nature is to propagate to infinity until stopped and that it cannott be restricted to the near-field range of a Personal Area Network (PAN)1. The second technology mentioned technology is restricted by the problem of line-of-sight which does notnt match the criteria of ubiquitous computing neither. Therefore an alternative technology is needed to connect devices wirelessly which are in the range of a personal area network. Further it needs to be invisible and able to build ad-hoc networks between diverse gadgets. A new idea of a wireless technology which matches to the constraints mentioned above was first described by Zimmermann in 1995. Thise technology consists of two electrodes, the transmitter and the receiver, and the human body which acts as presents the transmitter medium. It is a physical layer technology which uses the natural electric field of a persons body to couple the transmitter tag to the receiver. The ground and air provide return paths for the signal. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996) Compared to the radio system it uses electrodes instead of antennaes to transfercarry information. Using the human body as a natural electric conductor this means very short

s. list of abbreviations

distance too. The short distance which is kept atby round about 2 meters2 makes it hard for third parties to get access to very personal data. DueBecause of its characteristics this new and inventive transmission technology meets all requirements of ubiquitous computing in PANs in a sophisticated and convenient manner whereas other technologies are not satisfying. The Swiss company Kaba Holding AG invented its own implementation of this new kind of technology and called it Resistive Capacitive Identification (RCID). In cooperation with Kaba Holding AG, which provided the hardware for testing, this paper aims at findingdetermines a high- quality access control solution with RCID for nursing homes.homes for the elderly. This paper shows that the use of RCID in nursing homeshomes for the elderly is a good alternative to other access control solutions such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) or biometric identifications systems. Remaining self-determinedIt in their daily life matters a lot tois very important to elderlyold people. to remain self-dependent in their daily life. Implementing RCID door locks in their homes rapidly increases the comfort and security. rapidly. Even people who are suffering from dementia or who have special needs experience an improvement by using this new locking system. By carrying the door key 3 somewhere near to the body, the person does notnt need to show it to a reader or to search for it in his/her hand bag or jacket.

(ZIMMERMAN, 1996)
3

hereinafterin here simply called tag

2 RCID Resistive Capacitive Identification

The Swiss group KABA Holding AG which specializes in access and identification systems presented their latest product named TouchGoTM in 2008. TouchGoTM strike plates and keys4 are based on the latest body-coupled communication (BCC) technology which is called RCID and was patented by KABA. The TouchGoTM tag is activated by merely touching the door handle and is thus able to identify the user to the access system.

Illustration: RCID technology by KABA (KABA, 2011) Kaba TouchGoTM recognizes if the person touching the door really carries an authorized tag. This new type of communication is used in cases in which organizations require a high standard of security and comfort. (KABA, 2011)

2.1 Characteristics
RCID is marked by the following characteristics: Passive identification No radiation Low data rates Battery included

hereinafter called tag or medium

Passive identification
Passive identification means that the user does not have to present his access data in order to receive access. If the user uses an RCID tag, all he has to do is carry a transponder on any part of his body in order to be identified. The transponder does not have to be held to the reader to receive electricity and be activated (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008).

No radiation
Unlike other technologies, RCID used electrodes instead of antennae to transfer data. If the human body is used as a perfect electric conductor, short ranges can be ensured as well. This range of a maximum of 2 meters makes it hard for third parties to intercept personal data. (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

Low data rates

The frequency range of RCID is below 1 MHz which already causes a high degree of radiation for the environment. As other electronic devices use this frequency as well, the transfer capacity of RCID is limited considerably due to the phenomenon of interference. For this reason, only low data rates (about 10kBit/s) are possible. However, these data rates are sufficient for a simple identification. (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

Battery included
RCID tags require their own battery in order to receive enough electricity. KABA TouchGoTM products were developed using extremely low energy restrictions. By integrating RCID transmitters in mobile phones, the mobile phone battery might be used to power the transmitter. (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

2.2 Comparison to other auto ID systems

Today, there are different technologies which enable automatic identification. This section aims at distinguishing RCID from other auto ID systems.

2.2.1 RFID
An RFID system consists, just like RCID, of a transponder and a reader. In the case of RFID, however, electromagnetic fields are being used to transfer data. Depending on the respective field of applications, different frequency ranges are used. (KERN, 2007)

Illustration: Functionality of RFID systems (CLARKE, 2011) There are two different types in terms of the electricity supply of the tags, namely active and passive tags. Active transponders use their own energy sources to create an electromagnetic field. Thus, considerably higher ranges can be reached compared to using passive transponders. In comparison to this, passive tags receive electricity via the radio waves of the reader. This type of tags is cheaper, however, it is only able to offer a low range, as mentioned above. (FINKENZELLER, 2008) Compared with RFID systems, RCID clearly offers advantages: No radiation, thus the data are better protected from third parties and more comfort due to passive identification.

2.2.2 Biometric systems

In case of biometric systems, personal characteristics are used as a key for identification. This key is thus to connect directly with the persons. Examples of biometric processes are, among others, fingerprints, face detection and iris detection.

Fingerprint
Sensors capture the structure of the fingerprint. Recognition is also possible below the top skin layer. In this way, attempts at forgery as well as illegibility due to scraping off fingerprints can be avoided.

Illustration: authentication via fingerprint (CLARKE, 2011)

Face recognition
Face scanners capture a two- or three-dimensional picture of the face and subsequently divide the face into segments in order to detect differences between faces.

Illustration: Scan of facial features (CLARKE, 2011)

Iris recognition
Special cameras are used to capture the eye's iris. Afterwards, the significant points are transformed into a two-dimensional bar code. Using appropriate algorithms, this bar code is being compared and attempts are made to identify the relevant characteristics.

Illustration: Anatomy of the iris (CLARKE, 2011) The error rate in iris recognition is considerably lower than in the fingerprint process or in face recognition. Compared to biometric systems, RCID offers the following advantages:

No denial of authorized persons No authorization of persons without authorization in case of read errors No problems with children Easier in case of temporary authorizations No direct line of sight necessary No read errors due to dirt

(KERN, 2007)

2.2.3 Bar code systems

In case of bar code systems, the reading beams scans the surfaces, recognizes the order of the lines as a reflexion and converts them using a binary signal. Nowadays, one- and twodimensional bar codes can be created using free software and printed with the aid of standard printers. These bar codes are also machine-readable. Moreover, bar code systems are really inexpensive, work securely and are easy to use. The probably best known code type is the EAN-13 (European Article Number) standard. An essential disadvantage of bar code systems is that line of sight is required to read a oneor two-dimensional bar code. The tilt angle must not be too high either, which means that in most cases, the scanner has to be led to the object or the object to the scanner manually.

Illustration: one-dimensional bar code

Illustration: two-dimensional bar code Staining might reduce the code's readability. Further disadvantages of these systems are the limited reading range of the scanners and the low copy protection of the bar code. Compared to bar code systems, RCID offers the following advantages: no direct line of sight required readability is not affected by staining

(KERN, 2007)

3 RCID ICT research area

This chapter shows into which area the information and communication technology RCID belongs.

3.1 Ubiquitous Computing UC

From time to time, all our communication devices, such as our computers or our mobile phones, are included in our daily activities. We use them as a matter of course and without thinking about how they work. (WEISER, 1991) A good comparison for data processing are letters which store language. This technology is used all over the world. You can find it everywhere, in newspapers, books, street signs and in many other places. If everyone is to know how a technology works, we would have to explain to everyone how ink is produced. But due to the fact that this technology has already become an integral part of our daily activities, people are able to use it without worrying and without knowing how exactly it works. (BAUER, 2002)

Illustration : Ubiquitous Computing

3.2 Personal Area Network PAN

The local area network, in short LAN, is the smallest known unit in terms of range and domain5 scope. A smaller and newer type of network is the personal area network. It defines
5

Logical partition of a network

wireless communication within a range of a few meters, connecting electronic devices with one another. An amazing feature is the creation of an ad-hoc network between mobile devices. The idea behind a PAN is the wireless connection of devices which are close enough to one another.

Illustration: Personal Area Network Compared to a LAN, a PAN has to meet two additional requirements. On the one hand, you have to consider that environmental influences may have a considerable impact on the transfer. On the other hand it is import to ensure that several PANs do not impede one another or even pose a security risk. In particular in environments with lots of PANs, the transfer of data to third parties without the user's knowledge has to be avoided. (BALDUS, CORROY, FAZZI, KLABUNDE, & SCHENK, 2009) RF6 solutions have already been developed for this type of network, however, due to their characteristics, they do not sufficiently meet the requirements stated above. RCID is an innovative PAN technology which enables a seamless connection between wireless devices and meets the requirements for a PAN to the best extent possible.

3.3 Body-coupled communication BCC

This type of communication uses the human body as a medium to create a PAN. BCC uses the human body as a transmitting medium in order to connect electronic equipment. The

Radio Frequency

communication is limited to the body's near environment and thus forms a highly individual and private PAN. Compared to other technologies such as bluetooth which establish a point-to-point connection, BCC makes it possible to integrate several knots into a mesh architecture. IEEE 802.15.4 is the basic technology for ZigBee7 and was designed for higher ranges and is unsuitable for a PAN. Technologies such as RFID and near field communication (NFC) have the disadvantage that the frequency areas they use might overlap and interfere in crowded rooms, e.g. in restaurants. BCC does not rely on electromagnetic technologies but on electric fields, unlike the technologies mentioned above. No antennae which radiate their environment are needed, but only electrodes which build an electric field. (BALDUS, CORROY, FAZZI, KLABUNDE, & SCHENK, 2009)

Bluetooth v. 2.0
Frequency 2.4 GHz

IEEE 802.15.4
2.4 GHz

RFID UHF
860-960 MHz

NFC
13.56 MHz

BCC
100kHz100MHz On and near the body 10Mb/s

Range Max. data rate

100m

20m

5m

0.1m

3 Mb/s

250kb/s

160kb/s

424kB/s

Table: Comparison of BCC with other technologies (BALDUS, CORROY, FAZZI, KLABUNDE, & SCHENK, 2009)

Body-coupled communication is divided into the following sub-categories: (DONKER, 2009)

a radio network technology for short ranges (10 to 100 meters)

Illustration: Body-coupled Communication (DONKER, 2009)

3.3.1 Interbody Communication

In case of interbody communication, two PANs are temporarily connected and are thus able to exchange data. In this process, two bodies establish physical contact using their individual PAN in order to exchange information. This type of network enables, among others, the exchange of digital business cards when two people merely shake hands. A communication like this is harder to establish from a technical point of view than, for instance, intra-body communication, as not all human bodies are compatible with one another. (DONKER, 2009)

3.3.2 Intra-body communication

In comparison to the interbody network which connect two body networks with each other, an intra-body network establishes a communication channel within a PAN. The communication range is connected to a body, which means to the connection of electronic devices within a PAN. Different objects directly near the body use this body as a transmitting medium. A distinction is made between devices that are to be connected and are carried directly on the body or those that become part of the PAN when people actively touch them. This class is divided into three different categories of use. (DONKER, 2009)

Person-bound
The connection of devices which the users carry on their bodies is part of this category. As an example, imagine a user who carries an MP3 player in his trouser pockets and puts on wireless headphones. Music data which are transferred to the headphones need a high data transfer rate. This also results in a higher energy use. (DONKER, 2009)

Illustration : Person-bound intra-body communication

Object to object
Similar to the person-bound network, people are not only able to connect devices they carry on their bodies, but also devices which are further away. A user may, for example, touch a tag on which a picture is saved and put his hand on a reading device which is connected to a monitor. In this way, the picture will be displayed. This is another type of communication which does not require high data rates and which hardly requires any energy. (DONKER, 2009)

Illustration: Object to object communication

Person to object
This category describes the communication between a person and a device. The best example of this is the authentication to an access system by merely touching the door handle. The person carries a transmitter on her body and uses it to authenticate herself to the reading device. The system recognizes whether the person is authorized to enter. This use does not require high data rates and therefore it does not require a lot of energy either. (DONKER, 2009) As can already be seen, RCID is in the category person to object of intra-body communication.

Illustration : Person to object communication

4 Concept of RCID communication

RFID is a widely used technology in order to gain access to offices or hotel rooms. Due to its characteristics, RCID has the potential to replace RFID in this area. This chapter uses an access control system to describe the concept of communication with the aid of the human body. IIllustration shows the basic concept for connecting the transponder and the reading device.

Illustration: access control system (KABA, 2011) The information which is saved on the tag is encoded and transferred to the body via an electric field. This signal is sent to the receiver via the human body. The receiver decodes the data again. The air and the ground offer a return path for the signal.

Illustration: Block diagram of BCC (ZIMMERMAN, 1996) Illustration shows a PAN transmitter and receiver. Both parts are battery-powered, electrically isolated and dispose of two electrodes each. The transmitter capacitively connects a modulated displacement current in the pico ampere range to the receiver via the human body. The earth ground forms the return circuit. It has to be electrically isolated from the human body to avoid a short circuit. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996) To better understand this system, the physical basics which this technology is based on are explained below.

4.1 Physical basics

The intra-body communication connects a transmitter with a receiver via the human body. For the characterization of the transmission, the following example can be used: a person carries a transmitter which she uses to authenticate to an access control system. In this case, the transmitter assumes the role of the sender and the door handle the role of the receiver. Instead of using electromagnetic fields as in the case of RFID, the principle of capacitive coupling is based on the electric field. In the following chapter, the electrotechnical basics are illustrated in order to explain data transmission using the human body.

4.1.1 The electrical charge

An atom consists of the nucleus and the shell surrounding the nucleus. In the nucleus, the nucleons (protons and neutrons) can be found and on the outside of the nucleus, there are the electrons. Protons are positively charged particles and together with the neutrons, they

form the nucleus. In the atomic shell, electrons circulate, they are negatively charged. If an atom contains as many protons as electrons, it is electrically neutral. If there is a lack of electrons, it is called positively charged and a so-called cation. In case of an excess of electrons, it is a negatively charged atom, an anion. Charges of the same name repulse each other, whereas charges of a different name attract each other. The electrical charge Q has the SI unit Coulomb (C) 8. Using the formula Q = I * t, the electrical current which has been moved in a certain time can be calculated with the aid of the intensity of the current I and the time t.

Illustration: Effects that charges of the same name and of different names have on each other A good example to verify electrical current is the foil electroscope which was described by Fischer & Schlitter. This a metal ball which is isolated from the housing and offers mounting for gold foils. If you touch this ball, for example with a charged rod, the charges on the foils are transferred. As explained above, charges of the same name repulse each other, the foils move away. (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

Illustration : electroscope (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

Named after the engineer Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)

4.1.2 Electric current

Electric current9 is a flow of electric charge, which means moving electric charge. Requirement for the flow of current is a closed circuit. Materials which are good at conducting electric current are called conductors and materials which are bad at conducting electric current are called isolators. Good conductors are, for example, metals, fluids and the human body10. Well-known isolators are glass, plastics and rubber as they possess a low electrical conduction. Zimmerman has made the following calculation for the human body as a conductor. Using the formula R= (L/A), in which is the specific resistance of the conductor, L the length and A the cross section of the conductor, the electrical resistance of the body can be calculated. In his calculations, Zimmermann assumed that the body is 2 meters long and has a cross section of 0.3m. The specific resistance was put at 10m. The calculation resulted in a resistance of 251 for the human body, which is very low compared to the air and clothing. Thus, the human body can be seen as a perfect conductor. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996)

Illustration: Electric circuit of intra-body communication (SOLCEPT, 2010) Applied to the example of intra-body communication, charge currents and discharge currents flow from the sender to the receiver via the body and from the ground back to the sender, as can be seen in this illustration.

Electric current has the SI unit ampere (A) and the formula symbol I.
10

More than 70% of the human body is water

4.1.3 Voltage
If there is voltage11 there is also electric current in case of closed electric circuits. Voltage is caused by the difference of the charges between two poles. A voltage source always has two poles. One pole is negatively charged and the second pole is positively charged. If two poles are connected via a conductor, this results in a discharge and electric current flows. Voltage does not only come from the power station. If a person walks on a synthetic carpet, for example, the body will be electrically charged due to the friction. If the person now touches a metal door handle, for instance, there is a charge transfer, the so-called induction. This phenomenon is described in the chapter I Induction. The term potential is often connected with voltage. The difference from voltage is that you always choose a reference point to state the potential. Often, the earth ground's potential, namely 0V, is chosen as a reference point. If you measure a positive value, the potential is higher than that of the reference point. If the value is negative, the potential is below it. The effective direction of the voltage between two potentials always points from the positive potential to the negative. Thus, the current flows from the higher potential to the lower. (SCHNABEL, 2010)

Illustration : Potentials (SCHNABEL, 2010)

4.1.4 The capacitor

The capacitor is a passive element which stores a voltage. This element consists of two electrodes which are good conductors. In case of a plate-type capacitor, these are two metal

11

The SI unit for voltage is volt (V)

plates. However, the two plates which are opposite each other are separated by a dielectric12 This means that between the plates there is an isolator. Electrode Isolator

Illustration: Composition of the capacitor The plates are connected to a voltage source. If this connection is established, the plates will charge electrically. One plate stores the negative charge carriers and the other the positive ones. Thus, an electric field is formed between the electrodes.

Illustration: charging of a capacitor (CASPARI, 2010) If you uncouple the voltage source from the capacitor, the charged particles remain stored on the plates as they are surrounded by an isolator. If you connect a consumer load such as a lamp instead of a voltage source G (generator), the two plates are connected to each other and current flows. In this process, the voltage sinks and the current flows as long as the voltage has sunk to 0 volt.

Illustration: Electric field of a plate capacitor (SCHNABEL, 2010) The potential on the top plate is V1 and the potential on the bottom plate is V2. The distance between the two plates is called d. Using these variables, the field strength can be
12

Called isolator or non-conductor.

calculated. Field strength E = U/d. U is the voltage between the two plates, which means the difference of potential V1-V2. The measuring unit is called V/m. If the distance between the plates is reduced and the voltage remains at the same level, the electric field strength will become higher. (DEIMEL & HASENZAGL, 2006) The charge that a capacitor can absorb is called capacity and further described in chapter C.

4.1.5 Induction
Induction is a charge transfer caused by external charges. In order the describe induction, here is an example by Lindner & Siebke. Two metals rods which touch each other and are neutrally charged are put into an electric field of a charged plate capacitor (a). Due to the natural power of attraction, the negative charge carriers assemble on the left side and the positively charged particles on the right side of the metal rods (b). In this way, the inner area of the metal rods, their touch point, becomes field-free. If you pull the rods in the electric field apart from each other, the charges remain and the inner electric field keeps neutralizing itself ( c ). If you now take the separated rods from the influence of the field, the rods will form a new electric field (d). If you measure the field strength using a galvanometer, you will find that there is voltage on the metal rods (e). (LINDNER & SIEBKE, 2006)

Illustration : Electric induction (LINDNER & SIEBKE, 2006) The phenomenon of induction can also be explained using the example of the human body. A person wearing leather shoe soles who walks on a carpet, will become electrically charged. The friction absorbs negatively charged particles from the shoes. Thus, the body is positively charged and no longer neutral.

If this person now touches a metal door handle, a charge transfer will take place. The electrons in the door are transferred to the person. For this to happen, the person does not even have to fully touch the door handle. A certain distance will suffice and a spark will strike. The person will feel this charge transfer as an unpleasant crackling, which does not cause damage, though. If the person wore rubber soles, they would absorb electrons from the carpet and charge the body negatively. This does not make a difference because in that case, the electrons would be transferred from the body to the door handle and the person would feel a small electric shock as well. (LEITNER, FINCKH, & FRITSCHE, 2007)

Illustration : Charge transfer on the door handle

4.1.6 Capacity
If you separate the capacitor from his voltage source, his charged will be retained. There will still be a difference of potential, which corresponds to the voltage that the capacitor was subjected to. The charges of the two electrodes of a plate capacitor and the voltage between them is called capacity C of the capacitor. The unit for capacity is Farad (F)13 and the connection between the charge, capacity and voltage is shown in the formula Q = C * U. Q refers to the charge in Coulomb, U to the voltage in volt and C to the capacity in Farad. (MARINESCU, 2009) The capacity depends strongly on the shape of the electrodes and the isolator between them. This fact is shown in the following formula for the calculation of the capacity of a plate capacitor: C = * (A/d). The variable A describes the surface of the electrodes, d the distance between the two plates and the dielectric constant of the dielectric. The dielectric constant describes the transmissibility of the isolator. (SCHNABEL, 2010)

Illustration: Calculation of the capacity of a plate capacitor The larger the surface of the electrodes, the higher the capacity. The same applies to the reduction of the distance between the plates of a capacitor. In this case, the capacity will
13

Named after the British natural scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867)

increase as well. If you change the dielectric, this will have an effect on the capacity, too. For example, the dielectric constant of vacuum (as an isolator between the two plates) amounts to r=114, Capacities are usually between 1pF (picofarad) and 1mF (millifarad). 1 Farad, for instance, means the following: In IllustrationIllustration the capacities of our example are shown next to the capacitors. With the aid of the capacitors, capacitive coupling can be illustrated in a circuit diagram. For example, the capacity between bodies and the electrode of the transmitter which faces the body is 10 pF (picofarad) and even 110 picofarad to the environment. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996)

4.1.7 The electric field

If two electrodes are charged differently, an electric field will form around them. In Illustration the force lines of this example are visible. The letters in this illustration represent the different capacities. The electrodes of the sender are coupled to the transmitter and the environment. Equally, the receiver is connected to the body and his environment. The electric circuit is formed starting with the transmitter (RCID tag) and via the body to the receiver (door handle) and back either via the air or the earth ground. Thus, an electric circuit is formed and data transmission becomes possible. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996)

In this picture, the transmitter is depicted as a capacitor which is connected in parallel to an oscillator. This oscillator is capacitively coupled to the body which in turn establishes a connection to the capacitor on the side of the receiver. The capacitor of the signal receiver is also connected in parallel to a differential amplifier. (FISCHER & SCHLITTLER, 2008)

14

(SCHNABEL, 2010)

Illustration: Electric field initiated by a transmitter (BALDUS, CORROY, FAZZI, KLABUNDE, & SCHENK, 2009) The capacities A and H shown in the Illustration are formed within the transmitter or receiver; they are called interelectrode capacities. According to Fischer & -Schlitter, they are not used for data transmission, but affect the energy use considerably. This is particularly unfavourable in case of the transmitter as it is only battery-powered. The field between the body and the transmitter electrode which is closer to the body is called C. This capacity is stronger than the capacity B between the body and the transmitter electrode which faces the environment. Between the body and the receiver electrode facing the body, capacity F is formed. The capacity between the body and the environment E reduces the PAN communication by short-circuiting the potential that the transmitter uses to affect the body. Zimmermann proved in an experiment that the communication between the transmitter and receiver which were both fixated to an arm, is reduced by 12dB in case of a barefooted person. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996)

4.1.8 Capacitive coupling

In case of intra-body communication, the human body is an ideal conductor due to its characteristics. It is isolated and acts like a big electrode plate. Both the transmitter and the receiver are plate capacitors, thus both possess an electrode which is facing the body and an electrode facing the environment.

Due to charging and discharging via the transmitter, the potential of the body changes. Thus it is different from the potential of its environment and an electric field is formed between the body and the environment. If the person touches a door handle, a capacitive coupling is thus formed between the body and the receiver electrode. rb. (ZIMMERMAN, 1996)

Illustration: Electric model of capacitive coupling of a person (ZIMMERMAN, 1996) The formula describes the impedance15 of a capacitor and formula =2f describes the circuit frequency.

ZC=1jC =2f
()

()

With the aid of the impedance and the circuit frequency, the formula for the voltage change, can now be deduced: UinUT= RR+1jCB = RR jCB+1jCB ).

UinUT= RR+1jCB = RR jCB+1jCB Uin = UT jCB R1+jCB R

()

15

Alternating-current resistance

As long as the body does not establish a connection between the receiver capacitor and the transmitter capacitor, the capacity CB is very low (CB * R < 1) and therefore the voltage change is close to zero.

Illustration: Voltage change in case of no touch. If the body touches both capacitors, this will result in a short-circuit and Uin = UT.

Illustration: Voltage change in case of touch The formula view. () shows the voltage change in case of touch from a mathematical point of

Uin = UT limCB jCB R1+jCB R= UT

4.2 Data transmission

()

The signal transmission via the human body requires a safe and simultaneously robust process. A modulation process which meets these requirements is Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). This technology converts a narrowband signal into a broadband signal. This conversion makes the data resistant to interference. Due to the characteristics of DSSS, this spreadspectrum technique was also chosen for RCID and a data rate of up to 10 kBit/s can be reached. (STUCKI, 2010)

Illustration: Data before and after the spread-spectrum technique In the transmitter, the original bits are connected with a chipping sequence16 using the logical operator XOR. The chipping sequence whose data rate is considerably higher than that of the original data is created using a PN generator17. The receiver also has to know the sequence to reproduce the data. The longer this sequence is the more band width is required. The signal disappears in the background noise, so that attackers can not access it and it can only by read by authorized receivers. (RUDOLPH, 2006)

16

specific bit pattern used to spread original data

17

A pseudo noise generator creates random sequences which can be reproduced if some parameters are known.

Illustration: Direct sequence-spread spectrum (RUDOLPH, 2006)

5 Kaba TouchGoTM
This chapter contains a detailed functional description of KABA's TouchGoTM products which are based on RCID. The TouchGoTM product range consists of strike plates and transponders.

5.1 Strike plate TouchGoTM c-lever

There are already several generations of strike plates, generation c-lever e100 is the oldest of them. This version is only limited to the RCID function and is able to save up to 100 user media. When the product was introduced, a connection to an online management did not exist yet. This means that accesses have to be programmed exclusively and directly using a master medium. This standalone solution is best suited for securing private houses.

Illustration: TouchGoTM c-lever strike plate (KABA, 2011) The second and currently most recent generation is c-lever e300 and provides some enhancements since the beginning of 2011. In strike plates of this version, already up to 4000 users can be stored, a combination with RFID becomes possible and an integration into Kabas's online management software is offered. This means, that access can be configured online and centrally via a proprietary system, Kaba elo Manager. Due to the ability to integrate in RFID, this version is also suitable for professional fields of use. (KAISER, 2011)

The black module on the strike plate which can be seen in the Illustration offers an additional acoustical and optical signaling for both the programmer and the user. A detailed technical specification of TouchGoTM c-lever can be found in annex A.

5.2 Transponder
In case of the transponders, there is a distinction between the master and access medium, the latter is available in different construction types. The master medium serves, as described below, for programming the access authorizations. This grey tag in the shape of a key ring is authorized to grant and delete accesses or to program, among others, the office mode.

Illustration: TouchGoTM master medium (KABA, 2011) The access medium is also available as a white or black key ring or as an ID holder.

Illustration: TouchGoTM access medium (KABA, 2009a) Both the master and the access medium are powered by a 3V lithium battery which can simply be exchanged by the user. A low or empty battery level will be shown on the transponder via an optical signal or indicated on the strike plate via an acoustical signal. (KAISER, 2011)

5.3 Functions
The following section describes the configuration option of the strike plate TouchGoTM c-lever e10. As this version is a standalone solution and cannot be managed centrally, the user

media are configured manually for each strike plate. A new version of the TouchGoTM c-lever strike plate, which is however still being developed, can be configured centrally using the proprietary Kaba software. The new version TouchGoTM c-lever e300 is still being developed and can be managed centrally using the management software Kaba evolo Manager. Up to 1000 user media per strike plate can be configured and seamlessly combined with RFID. These additional features contribute to a professional product which can also be integrated in work environments.

5.3.1 Granting access

In order to grant access to a user medium, you put the master medium to the strike plate of the outer door handle for a short while. As soon as you hear a short beep, the recognition of the master medium will be confirmed and the configuration can be started. In every configuration process, access can be granted to several user media.

Illustration: Granting access (KABA, 2009b) Once the master medium has been recognized successfully, the user medium that is to be configured is put to the outer door handle as well. This process is signaled by a short beep sound as well.

Afterwards, the master medium is put to the strike plate again in order to complete the configuration process.

5.3.2 Deleting access

If a master medium is granted access to a door, this access can be denied again using the master medium. In order to do this, the master medium is put to the outer door handle of the strike plate during the granting of the access authorization until a short beep sound can be heard. In every configuration process, several authorizations can be deleted again. Afterwards, the user medium is put to the strike plate for 3 seconds until 2 short beep sounds can be heard. They signal that the authorization has been deleted successfully and the process will be completed by putting the master medium to the outer door handle again.

Illustration: Deleting access (KABA, 2009b)

5.3.3 Deleting all accesses

If all access authorizations for a strike plate need to be deleted, this process is initiated using the master medium as well. In order to do this, you hold the master medium to the outer door handle for 10 seconds, until a short beep sound can be heard twice. This sound signals that all authorizations have been deleted successfully.

Illustration: Deleting all authorizations (KABA, 2009b) Using this process, all existing access authorizations which have been configured for this strike plate, will be deleted. In order to complete this process, you hold the master medium to the outer door handle until a short beep sound can be heard.

5.3.4 Office mode

In order to adapt the product to professional work environments as well, it was equipped with the office mode. This mode makes it possible to keep an office door open for other people who enter the room after the person who is authorized to enter. In this way, third parties do not require an authorized user medium. As long as the office mode is activated by the office owner, any person is allowed to enter the room. As soon as the authorized person leaves the room again and touches the outer door handle, the room remains closed to unauthorized persons. (KABA, 2010) In order to configure this mode for a user medium, you first put the master medium to the inner door handle until a short beep sound can be heard. Afterwards, you put the user medium that is to be configured to the inner door handle as well.

Illustration: activating office mode (KABA, 2009a) A short beep sound indicates that the office mode has been activated successfully. In order to complete the process, the master medium is put to the inner door handle again, until a long beep sound can be heard. Equally as in the process of deleting access authorizations, the office mode can be deactivated again.

5.3.5 Control function door locked

A further function enables users to check whether the door is really locked. If you leave a room and want to make sure that the door cannot be opened by strangers, you just put the user medium in your hand and touch the door handle.

Illustration: Control function door locked (KABA, 2009b) The resulting effect is called Faraday18 cage. The surface of the skin shields the user medium from exterior electric fields and the reading medium can no longer be recognized by the tag reader in the strike plate.

18

Named after the British natural scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867)

6 Study concept
There is hardly any empirical research about the use of RCID, in particular not about its acceptance by seniors. RCID has become established during the past years, but there are no analyses which take into account the usability for seniors as a target group. The scientific question which is answered in this thesis, is: Will the introduction of RCID improve the comfort and mobility of seniors in a nursing home? In order to find a satisfactory answer, this study is divided in practical tests and a theoretical analysis. The practical part of the thesis deals with checking the functional capability of the RCID strike plate on different conditions. Furthermore, acceptance and usability will be examined empirically within the framework of a field analysis at a nursing home. For the conduction of the practical tests, the company Kaba provided a TouchGoTM strike plate and the corresponding master and access media. The following analysis deals with the target group in view of the economy and the demographic change. There is an increasing demand for technologies which contribute to a longer phase of self-determination for elderly and needy persons. Due to this fact there is a huge potential for service providers19 in the areas of ubiquitous computing20 and ambient assisted living21 and thus for RCID.

19

(CIRKEL, HILBERT, & SCHALK, 2004)

20

Invisible technologies which are unknowingly used by humans

21

Assistance system which creates an intelligent environment

7 Seniors as innovations

target

group

of

technical

Demographic statistics show that the target group will continue to grow rapidly in the near future. Today's generation of seniors has higher demands for this phase of aging, compared to past generations. Nowadays, this phase has already risen to a length of 40 years.(MAIER & SCHOLZ, 2003)

Illustration: Population according to broad age groups (1950-2050) (STATISTIK AUSTRIA, 2011a) For the Austrian population in 2050, the percentage of the age group of 60 years and above is predicted to rise to 34.5%. Compared to this, it should be noted that today's percentage of the generation 60+ is at 23.3%. The trend of the demographic development cannot only be observed in Austria, but also in Europa and even all over the world. International statistics can be found in appendix B. Another statistic shows that already 32.5% of the population group between 65 and 74 years use a computer and 30.3 surf the Internet regularly. However, this statistic also shows that men are more inclined to use technology than women. (STATISTIK AUSTRIA, 2011b)

Illustration: Age pyramid of 2010, 2030 and 2050 (STATISTIK AUSTRIA, 2011a) Seniors want to lead independent and self-determined lives as long as possible and most of all, they want to retain the quality of life they are used to. For this reason, technical innovations should aim at fulfilling the special needs of a new generation of seniors. At lot of these senior-friendly products, however, are not sufficiently adapted to the needs of seniors. As elderly people react rather cautiously to technical innovations, it is most of all usability, but also simple operation of these products that have to be put into the foreground in the development of these products. In this way, seniors will accept technical developments which compensate physical limitations and facilitate mobility. (MELLER, 2008) As today's generation of seniors is already used to a high degree of comfort, they do not want to miss this comfort in old age. This is why the potential for companies which cater to this target group is increasingly on the rise. The service providers adapt to the individual

needs of senior citizens by introducing new and practicable concepts. (CIRKEL, HILBERT, & SCHALK, 2004) Due to its characteristics, RCID meets this requirement to the best extent possible. This technology also contributes to the integration of patients suffering from dementia instead of isolating them, and it is also extremely useful in the documentation and traceability of processes.