Chapter 1 The Real and Complex Number Systems 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.

8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33

Introduction The field axioms The order axioms . Geometric representation of real numbers Intervals Integers The unique factorization theorem for integers Rational numbers Irrational numbers Upper bounds, maximum element, least upper bound (supremum) The completeness axiom Some properties of the supremum Properties of the integers deduced from the completene The Archimedean property of the real-number system Rational numbers with finite decimal representation Finite decimal approximations to real numbers Infinite decimal representation of real numbers Absolute values and the triangle inequality The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality Plus and minus infinity and the extended real number Complex numbers Geometric representation of complex numbers The imaginary unit Absolute value of a complex number Impossibility of ordering the complex numbers Complex exponentials Further properties, of complex exponentials The argument of a complex number Integral powers and roots of complex numbers Complex logarithms Complex powers Complex sines and cosines Infinity and the extended complex plane C* Exercises
ix

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Discontinuities

4.58 Locate and classify the discontinuities of the functions/defined ing equations: a) /(A) = (sin A)/A b) f(x} = e1/x c) /(A) - el/x + sin (I/A) if x * 0,/(0) = 0. if A- * 0,/(0) = 0. if A- ^ 0, /(O) = 0.

d) /(A) = 1/0 - e1'*) if A jt 0,/(0) = 0. 4.59 Locate the points in R2 at which each of the functions in Exer tinuous.
Monotonic functions

4.60 Let/be defined in the open interval (a, b) and assume that for of (a, b) there exists a 1-ball B(x) in which/is increasing. Prove th function throughout (a, b}.

4.61 Let/be continuous on a compact interval [a, b] and assume th local maximum or a local minimum at any interior point. (See Exercise 4.25.) Prove that/must be monotonic on [a, b].

4.62 If/is one-to-one and continuous on [a, b], prove that/must b on [a, b]. That is, prove that every topological mapping of [a, b] on must be strictly monotonic. 4.63 Let/be an increasing function defined on [a, b] and let x:,. the interior such that a < xl < x2 < < xn < b. a) Show that JU [/(A, + ) -/(A,-)] </(-) -/(a + ). b) Deduce from part (a) that the set of discontinuities of/is c c) Prove that/has points of continuity in every open subinte 4.64 Give an example of a function/ defined and strictly increasing that/" 1 is not continuous on/(>S).

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n=i

This alternating series converges, by Theorem 8.16, but it absolutely.

Theorem 8.19. Let ]Tan be a given series with real-valued terms
n
Pn
^

~
' ^" 9

, _
~

1 2

Then:
ii) JfY\an\ both ^pn and^gn converge and we have
oo
an

i) If^_an is conditionally convergent, both ^pn and^gn diverg

2-^1 Pn ~~ L-J n=l

NOTE. pn = an and qn = 0 if an > 0, whereas gn = an and p

. We have an = pn - gn, \an\ pn + qn. To prove (i), a converges and 2|an| diverges. If # converges, then ~pn Theorem 8.8), since pn = an -f qn. Similarly, if ^pn converg converges. Hence, if either ^L,pn or ^qn converges, both mus deduce that ^\an\, since \an\ pn + qn. This contradiction proves To prove (ii), we simply use (4) in conjunction with Theore

8.9 REAL AND IMAGINARY PARTS OF A COMPLEX SER

Let ^cn be a series with complex terms and write cn an + ib are real. The series ^an and ^bn are called, respectively, the r parts of 2cn- In situations involving complex series, it is often the real and imaginary parts separately. Of course, convergenc ~bn implies convergence of cn. Conversely, convergence of vergence of both ^>n and ^n- The same remarks hold for abs

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EXERCISES Jacobians

13.1 Let / be the complex-valued function defined for each comp equation/(z) = 1/z. Show that //(z) = |z|~4. Show that/is one-to f~l explicitly.

13.2 Let f = (/1; /2, /3) be the vector-valued function denned (for every in R3 for which x + x2 + x3 ^ T) as follows:
xk
X

= 1, 2, 3)

+ x2 + x3}~4 Show that f i Show that /f(^l5 x2, x3~) = (1 + compute f"1 explicitly. 13.3 Let f = (/l5 ...,/) be a vector-valued function defined in R on R", and let /f(x) denote the Jacobian determinant. Let g1,...,g functions denned on R1 and having continuous derivatives g{, . . . , /*0i(*i)> . #nCO]> k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and put h = (Al3 . . . , An). Sho

13.4 a) If x(r, 9) = r cos 9, y(r, 6} = r sin B, show that

d(x, y) = r 8(r, 0)
b) If x(r, 9, </>) = r cos 9 sin </>, y(r, 6, $) = r sin 9 sin $, z =
d(x, >> z) . . _L_LZi_^ = - r 22s m ^. 3(r, 5, ^)

13.5 a) State conditions on / and g which will ensure that the equa y g(u, v) can be solved for u and u in a neighborhood of (x tions are u = F(x, 7), v = G(x, y), and if / = d(f, g~)/d(u, v)

dF_= 18g_ dx J dv

8F

Idf Jdv'

8G 8x

ldg_ Jdu

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l5

xz, x3)

There are similar expressions for the other eight derivatives Dkgt.

13.7 Let/ = u + zu be a complex-valued function satisfying the f u e C' and v e C' on the open disk A = {z : \z\ l};/is continuous A = {z:\z\ 1}; u(x, y} = x and u(x, y) = y whenever x2 + y2 = Jf(z) > OifzeA. Let B = f(A) denote the image of A under /and a) If J^is an open subset of A, then/(JO is an open subset 'of b) B is an open disk of radius 1. c) For each point UQ + iv0 in B, there is only a finite number that/(z) = w0 + w0. Extremum problems

13.8 Find and classify the extreme values (if any) of the functions def equations: a) f(x, y} = y~ + x~y + x4; b) f(x, y) = x2 + y2 + x + y + xy,

c) f(x, y) = (x- I)4 + (x- y)\) f(x, y)=y2 - x\9

x~ 4y = 0. Solve this problem using Lagrange's method and Lagrange's method.

13.10 Solve the following geometric problems by Lagrange's metho

a) Find the shortest distance from the point (<21; a2, a3~) in R equation is b-^x^ + b2x2 + b3x3 + b0 = 0. a^x^ + a2x2 + a3x3 + a0 = 0

b) Find the point on the line of intersection of the two planes

and
bx{ + b2x2 + b3x3 + bQ 0 which is nearest the origin.