SPH 3U0 Mr.

Casha Physics Exam Preparation/Review Exam on: Tuesday January 31, 2012
Units of Study: Unit 1: Kinematics Unit 2: Forces Unit 3: Energy Unit 4: Waves and Sound Unit 5: Electricity and Magnetism

Unit 1: KInematics Topics Covered:

Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits Conversions An Introduction to Motion Motion Position Scalar and Vector Describing Motion: Speed and Velocity Acceleration Instantaneous Velocity Analyzing Motion Graphs/Shapes of Kinematic Graphs Acceleration of Objects Near the Surface of the Earth Velocity Vector Components Projectile Motion Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Equations Cheat Sheet:

Accuracy, Precision & Significant Digits

Accuracy - The closeness of a measurement to the accepted value Precision - The ability of a measuring instrument to provide repeatable measurements - There is no such thing as an EXACT measurement - Each measurement contains a degree of uncertainty, an estimate - i.e. 29.79 cm - 29.7 cm represents the certainty if the measurement - The 5 (0.05 cm) at the end represents the uncertainty of the measurement - Therefore, the second value after the decimal is the, degree of uncertainty - When the certainty is combined with the uncertainty, the measurement 29.75cm is said to have 4 significant figures. Rules for Significant Figures/Digits 1. All non-zeroes are significant e.g. 313m, 3 significant figures 2. Zeroes are significant only: 1. When they are between significant figures e.g. 1002 cm, 4 significant figures 2. When they are all following non-zero numbers in integer measurements (a whole number) e.g. 20g, 2 significant figures 3. When they follow both the decimal point and a non-zero number in a decimal measurement. e.g. 10.0kg, 3 significant figures BUT: 0.0100 only has 3 significant figures (100) 3. All counts have infinite significant figures e.g. 3 apples, 24 cars, 6 horses Multiplying and Dividing Measurements - The result of the multiplication and/or division should be rounded off so that it has as many significant figures as the quantity with the lowest number of significant figures. e.g. 29.75 cm x 10.2 cm = 303.45cm (but since the lowest significant figures is 3...) = 303 cm Adding and Subtracting Measurements - The result of the addition and/or subtraction should be rounded off so that it has an many decimal places (to the right of the decimal point) as the least precise quantity. e.g. 125.74g - 13.6g = 113.14g (but since the lowest decimal place after the decimal point is 1...) = 112.1g Rounding Measurements - If the insignificant figure being dropped is above 5, then raise the last significant figure being retained by 1 e.g. 23.6cm = 24cm - If the insignificant figure being dropped is below 5, then the last significant figure being retained is unchanged. e.g. 11.34cm = 11.3cm - If the insignificant figure being dropped is exactly 5, then the last significant figure being retained must be rounded so that its an even number. e.g. 13.5cm = 14cm e.g. 27.65cm = 27.6cm

Conversions
A Conversion is taking one uint of measurement, and converting it into another unit - In order to do a conversion, we need conversion factors. Attempt to convert 100km/h to m/s: 1. Our Conversion Factors: - 1000m = 1km - 60s = 1min - 60min = 1hr 2. FInd a factor involving km (our initial measurement) and m (our final measurement)

3. Cancel the two similar factors

Now we have m/h, we need to find a factor that will cancel h 4. Cancel the two similar factors

Now we have m/min, we need to find a factor that will cancel min 5. Cancel the two similar factors

Now we have reached our final measurement of m/s, multiply to complete. 6.

An Introduction to Motion
Motion - There are two requirements for an object that has undergone motion: 1. the position of the object has changed 2. an interval of time has passed A Change in Position - The Initial Position is where the object is initially/first found - The Final Position is where the object is found after is has moved from its initial position An Interval of Time - Is an amount of time. - This interval could be the amount of time an object takes to move. What Is Position? - Position is the location of an object in relation to a reference point - i.e. A student is standing 12.5m east of room 24 at Mayfield Secondary School ****Position has the symbol: ****

Distance - When an object undergoes motion, it changes it position - Whenever the position of an object changes, the object has moved a certain length - The length that an object moves is called: Distance **** Distance has the symbol: ****

Displacement - Displacement is the length and direction that an object has been changed by hen moving for one location to another. - It is a straight line length starting at the initial position and ending at the final position **** Displacement has the symbol: ****

- It is a vector measurement Scalar and Vector - A scalar measurement is independent upon direction and is described by a number and unit only. - i.e. a distance of 10.0 m - A vector measurement is dependent upon direction and is described by a number, unit, and direction (located in square brackets) - an example of a vector is the displacement 2750 km [17 degrees west of north] - 2750 = number - km = unit - [17 degrees west of north] = direction in brackets

Units - Distance and displacement are both length measurements - Length measurements in the S.i )metric_ system have the base unit of the meter - m - Other units of length are commonly used in everyday life such as: mm, cm, and km - In most cases these units must be converted back into meters before used in physics problems.

Describing Motion Speed and Velocity

Motion An object has undergone motion when it has changed its position in an interval of time - The rate at which an object is moving is called speed - Speed is determined by dividing the distance travelled by the interval of time. Average Speed Average Speed: the total distance travelled, divided by the travel time interval. - in equation form

Where: - Va is average speed (m/s) - Delta D is distance (m) - Delta T is time interval (s) Different Types of Speed

- Average Speed: the total distance travelled, divided by the travel time interval. (i.e. a car travels 200km
in 2hrs, its average speed is 100km/h) - Instantaneous Speed: the speed of an object at a particular instant of time. (i.e. a police officer clocks your car with a radar gun at 120km/h at the instant you pass the speed gun) - Constant Speed: speed that does not change. (i.e. light travels at 3.00x10^8m/s in a vacuum) Velocity - All types of speed are scalar quantities ( i.e. they have no direction) - Velocity is a speed with direction, therefore its a vector quantity Velocity: the rate of change of displacement - It id determined my dividing the displacement by the time interval - In equation form

Where: - Vav is average velocity (m/s [direction]) - Delta D is displacement (m [direction]) - Delta T is time interval (s)

Acceleration
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity. Refers to how fast an object changes its velocity, and is determined by taking the change in velocity and dividing it by the time interval. The Acceleration Equation:

Where -A average is the acceleration (m/s^2 [direction]) - Delta V is the change in velocity (m/s [direction]) - Delta T is the time interval (s) Change In Velocity - The change in velocity is the final velocity, subtracted by the initial velocity. - In equation form

Where - V2 is the final velocity (m/s [direction]) - V1 is the initial velocity 9m/s [direction]) Common Acceleration Equation

Positive and Negative Acceleration - When an object speed up we usually refer to it as an acceleration, and when an abject slows down we usually refer to it as a deceleration. - However, acceleration should always be expressed as either positive, or negative (or with a direction) - When dealing with accelerating objects it is important to define a positive direction. - A Positive acceleration refers to an acceleration directed in the same direction as the defined positive direction. - A Negative accelerations refers to an acceleration directed in the opposite direction to the defined positive direction. Is it possible to have a Negative Acceleration, while speeding up?

If up is defined as the positive direction, an object thrown upwards accelerates downward (negative acceleration) while it slows down. BUT, when the object is moving downward, (after reaching maximum height) it is still acceleration downward (negative acceleration) while the object is speeding up.

Instantaneous Velocity
Using tangent lines to determine instantaneous velocity on a position vs. time graph for an accelerating object. Shape of a Position-Time Graph - The position-time graph for an accelerating object is represented by a curve. - This graph represents an object moving at a faster rate in the positive direction. Tangent Line: a straight line that just touches the curve at a given point. Tangents and Instantaneous Velocity - Instantaneous velocity is found by calculating the slope of the tangent line. - The slope represents the instantaneous velocity of the object at the time (t) that corresponds with the point at which the tangent is drawn. Determining Acceleration - Acceleration is determined by drawing a number of tangent lines on the position-time graph, and determining the slope of each. - Use the instantaneous velocities and corresponding times to generate a velocity-time graph. - Draw a line of best fit for the points on the velocity-time graph - Calculate the slope of this line of best fit. - This is the acceleration.

Position versus Time graph

Velocity versus Time Graph

Analyzing Motion Graphs - Position0time graphs are linear from uniform motion (constant velocity) and curved for non-uniform motion (acceleration)

Uniform Motion The slope of a position-time graph represents average velocity The area under a velocity-time graph represents displacement The slope of the position-time graph equals the constant velocity The slope of the velocity-time graph represents acceleration - The slope of the velocity-time graph equals 0 (no acceleration)

Non-Uniform Motion - The slopes of tangents in a position-time graph represents instantaneous velocities - The area under a velocity-time graph represents displacement - The slope of a velocity time graph represents the non-zero acceleration.

(Refer to shapes of Kinematics Graphs)

Acceleration of Objects Near the Surface of the Earth

Freely-Falling Objects - Objects at, or near the Earths surface will accelerate due to the force of gravity. - Gravity is a force the pulls objects downward. - If gravity is the only force acting on an object, that object is said to be in a free-fall. - An object in a free-fall will accelerate at a rate of 9.80m/s^2 [down]. The Acceleration Due to Gravity

- The accelertion of an object that results from the force of gravity (i.e. An object in free-fall) is called the
acceleration due to gravity. - The acceleration due to gravity is:

Air Resistance - Air resistance is a force that opposes the motion of a falling object. - It reduces the effect that gravity exerts on an object as it is falling, lowering the acceleration of an object to less then the acceleration due to gravity. - Therefore: - Air resistance increases in strength as an object moves faster through air. Terminal Velocity - When air resistance pushing the falling object upwards is equal to the downward force of gravity, the object can no longer increase in speed. - The object will fall at a constant downward velocity - This velocity is called Terminal Velocity. The Physics World - Unless otherwise stated, air resistance can be IGNORED. - That means that any object that is moving in the vertical direction will accelerate at the acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration Equations

1)

2)

Velocity Vector Components

Components - Velocity vectors can be broken down into horizontal and veritical components The Velocity vector components uses the symbol:

The Horizontal component uses the symbol:

The Vertical component uses the symbol:

Velocity Vectors with All Components

Trig Functions and Components

Type 1 Projectile Motion

The motion of a projectile can best be understood by analyzing the horizontal and vertical components separately. For all projectile problems we will ignore air resistance. The Horizontal (X) component of projectile motion is uniform.

The Vertical (Y) component of projectile motion is accelerated by gravity.

1. 2. 3.

General Steps in Solving Projectile Problems Separate the horizontal and vertical motions (planes) of the projectile. List all given information. Solve for the elapsed time in the appropriate plane. Use the elapsed time to solve for the required variables.

Type 1 Problems - In these types of problems the initial velocity has only a horizontal component (and no vertical component)

- Therefore:

Type 1 Configuration

Type 2 Problems - These projectiles are launched at an angle above the horizontal - They follow a parabolic path and return to the same vertical height from which they started. - The vertical displacement is ALWAYS 0 - Therefore:

- In order to solve these problems, the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity must be determined. Type 2 Configuration

Symmetry of Motion - The magnitude of the final velocity of a projectile will always equal the initial velocity of a projectile IF its vertical displacement is zero. (type 2) - The speed of a projectile is the same on its way up as it is on its way down at the same vertical height. - This is known as symmetry of motion. Type 3 Problems

- These projectiles are launched at an angle above the horizontal. - They follow a parabolic path and return to a different height from which they started.
- The vertical displacement is NOT zero anymore. - In order to solve these problems the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity must be determined and the quadratic equation MUST also be used to find time. - Quadratic equation:

Type 3 Configuration

Unit 2: Forces Topics Covered: Forces Newtons Laws of Motion Law 1: The Law of Inertia Law 2: F=ma Law 3: Action and Reaction Forces The Force of Gravity The Force of Friction

Equations Cheat Sheet:

Forces
Force: Is a push or a pull. It is a vector measurement (has a magnitude and direction), meaning that a force can cause the motion of an object to change. Measuring Force - The S.I units for force is the Newton (N) - 1 Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram object at a rate of 1 meter per second squared. (i.e. 1N=1 kgm/s^2) - Force is measured using an instrument called a Spring Scale.

The 4 Fundamental Forces of Nature. Gravity - the fore of attraction between all matter in the universe. Electromagnetic Force - the force of attraction and repulsion that results from electrical charges (i.e. like charges repel and opposite charges attract). Strong Nuclear Force - the force that is responsible for holding the nucleus of an atom together. Weak Nuclear Force - the force that is responsible for the spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei.

Everyday Forces - Everyday forces are forces that we commonly encounter. They are not fundamental forces (i.e. they are not necessarily acting all of the time throughout the universe). - Some of the common everyday forces include: - Tension - The Normal Force - Gravity

- Friction - Applied Force Tension ( ) - is the pulling force exerted on an object by a string or rope. The Normal Force ( ) - is the perpendicular force exerted on an object by the surface with which it is

in contact with. Gravity ( ) - at the Earths surface, is the force of attraction between the Earth and the object.

Friction (

) - is a force that resists the motion of, or attempted motion of an object.

Applied Force (

) - is the force that results form the pushing or pulling of one object by another due

to the fact that the objects are in direct contact with each other. Contact vs, Non-Contact Forces - The common forces that we encounter daily can be classified as contact or non-contact forces. Contact Forces: are forces that require direct contact in order for them to act. - The common forces that are contact forces are: - Applied - Friction - Normal - Tension Non-Contact Forces: are forces that act without the need for direct contact. - Gravity is the ONLY common non-contact force that we encounter on a daily basis (i.e. we are attracted to the Earth whether we are standing on the surface or falling from a tall building).

Free-Body Diagrams - A free-body diagram (FBD) is a drawing representing the object being analyzed and all of the forces acting on it. - The object is usually represented by a rectangle or dot. - The forces acting upon the object are drawn from the center of the object (i.e. the center of the mass), with the arrows pointing in the direction that the forces are acting. - The diagram is not drawn to scale, but larger forces (if already known) are ofter represented by longer arrows. Steps in Drawing FBDs Draw a picture of the situation. Circle the system (or object) of interest in you picture. Identify all the significant forces acting on the system and draw and label them. (Whenever the environment touches the system you will find contact forces. Include relevant non-contact forces, such as gravity.) 4. Redraw the system as a dot (or rectangle) with the lengths of the force vectors representing their magnitudes (if possible). 1. 2. 3. Net Force

- The total force (the vector sum of all forces acting on the object) is determined using free-body diagrams. - The symbol for net force is:

- Net force is the most important measurement when determining the motion of an object. - For example, when a projectile is thrown the net force acting on it is gravity. - The force of gravity causes the object to accelerate at the acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/s^2 [down]) -

What Net Force Tells Us - If the net force is ZERO, the forces acting on the object are BALANCED - Balanced forces result in an objects state of motion remaining unchanged (i.e. a stationary object will not move and a moving object will continue moving with the same speed and same direction) - If the net force is NOT ZERO the forces acting on the object are UNBALANCED. - Unbalanced forces cause the motion of an object to change (i.e. the object undergoes an acceleration in the direction of the net force). Balanced vs Unbalanced Forces Balanced Unbalanced

Newtons Laws of Motion: Law 1: The Law of Inertia

Inertia: is the tendency of an object to maintain its current state of motion (or lack thereof). It prevents a stationary object from moving, it also keeps an object already in motion moving with constant velocity (uniform motion). The Law of Inertia - An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion with constant velocity unless the object is acted upon by an external, unbalanced force. - When forces are balanced the net force acting on the object is zero. - No net force results in no acceleration (therefore the object stays at rest OR stays in uniform motion). Mass and Inertia - Inertia is directly proportional to mass (i.e. a very large mass has a very high inertia) - This is why it is hard to move a very hard object

- It is also why it is hard to stop a very heavy object from moving.

Law 2: Fnet = ma

Inertia or Not? - Newtons first law (inertia) deals with object with balanced forces acting upon them. - When unbalanced forces act on a body, it will undergo accelerated motion. - Newton studied how the acceleration of a body is affected by two factors: - mass - net force acting on it Net Force and Acceleration - Newton determined that as a larger net form was exerted on an object with constant mass, the object would accelerate at a higher rate. - Therefore acceleration is directly proportional to the net force -

- THE MORE FORCE... THE MORE ACCELERATION. Mass and Acceleration - Newton also determined a constant net force acting on a larger mass would result in a lower acceleration. - Acceleration is inversley proportional to mass -

The Second Law - Newton came to a conclusion that acceleration is directly proportional to net force and also inversely proportional to the mass of an object in the following equation:

Newtons Second Law and the Force of Gravity

- An object has only one force acting upon it (i.e. a projectile) - The net force for the FBD is: -

- The acceleration of the projectile is: -

- Newtons second law states: -

- The net force equation for this projectile becomes: -

The Gravity Equation - The equation for gravity is: -

Where: Fg is the force of gravity (N) M is the mass (kg) G is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s^2)

Newtons Third Law: Action and Reaction Forces

The Third Law - Newtons third law of motion deals with two different objects and the forces that act between them. - The third law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law. Action-Reaction - If object A exerts a force on object B ( called the action force), object B will exert a force on object A (called the reaction force) that is equal in magnitude (size) BUT opposite in direction. - For example, if a car slams into a tree with a force of 1000N [east], the tree pushes the car back with a force of 1000N [west] Newtons Third Law of Motion

- For every action force, there is a simultaneous reaction force that is equal in magnitude, BUT opposite in direction.

The Force of Gravity Objects at or near the surface of the Earth

Mass vs. Weight

- Mass refers to the quantity of matter in an object. - Weight refers to the force of gravity exerted on an object.
- The same object will have the SAME mass at a different location because it has the same amount of matter. - Weight may DIFFER between locations if the force of gravity is different. Mass

- Since mass is dependent upon the quantity of matter in an object, this does not change from the surface of the Earth to the moon (since it still has the same amount of matter). Weight - Weight depends upon the force of gravity at a location. Since the force of gravity is stronger on Earth, the object will weigh more on Earth. Gravitational Field

- Earth is surrounded by invisible lines of force that pull objects down, called the Gravitational Field.
- This field changes from one location to another based upon the vertical height of an object relative to the surface (altitude) - The higher the altitude, the weaker the gravitational field strength and vise versa. - For Example: gravity is weaker at the top of a mountain, then it is at sea level. Field Strength

- Gravitational field strength is measured in units of Newtons per kilogram (N/Kg)

- As Earth spins, it bulges at the equator and slightly flattens at the poles. - Objects at the equator are further from the center of the Earth then objects at the poles. - The gravitational field strength is weaker at the equator (9.7805 N/Kg) then at the poles (9.8322 N/Kg at the north pole) Average Field Strength - The average gravitational field strength at or near the surface of the Earth is 9.80 N/Kg

The Force of Friction Type of Friction and the Friction Equation

Friction: a force that opposes motion (or the tendency of a stationary object begin to move). It is caused by the electromagnetic force of attraction between two surfaces in contact with each other. Friction Depends Upon Two Factors

The nature of the two surfaces that are in contact. a.k.a - a ratio called the coefficient of static friction (depends upon the relative electromagnetic force of attraction between two materials) 2. The force that one surface applies to another surface. a.k.a - the normal force, FN (a large normal force will push two surfaces closer together, increasing that force of attraction between them.

1.

Static vs. Kinematic Friction Static Friction: is the friction that prevents a stationary object from moving. - It is directed opposite to the applied force (or force which is attempting to start the object moving). - Its usually the strongest of the frictional forces (because the stationary inertia must be overcome). Kinetic Friction: is the friction that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of moving objects. - It acts to resist the motion of an object. - It is usually not as strong as static friction (because the object wants to keep moving - inertia) Categories of Friction Sliding Friction: is friction that exists as a solid object slides over a solid surface. - It is usually a strong type of friction. - i.e. a child moving down a slide Rolling Friction: is friction that exists in the bearings of a wheel or other rotating body. - It is usually much weaker than sliding friction. - i.e. wheels are placed on the bottom of a heavy piano in order to move it around more easily. Fluid Friction: is friction that results from the motion of a solid object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas). - i.e. air resistance (or drag) is the fluid friction acting between a falling body and the air that is moving through (newtons 3rd law at work). Calculating Static Friction - The equation for static friction is:

Where: Fs is Static Friction (N) s is the coefficient of static friction (no units) Fn is the normal force (N) Maximizing (Limiting) Static Friction - The maximum amount of Static Friction is determined by using the following equation:

NOTE: FS can have a magnitude anywhere from 0 N it Fs (max).

Calculating Kinetic Friction - The equation for kinetic friction is:

Where: Fk is Kinetic Friction (N)

k is the coefficient of kinetic friction (no units)

Fn is the normal force (N)