AL-TAHADI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Building Materials Lecture Notes

Part One

Prepared by:

Balsam J. M. Farid
Lecturer Civil Eng. Department
Fall 2008-2009

Introduction
Civil engineering consists of the design, construction, maintenance, inspection and management of characteristically diverse public works projects, from railroads, to high-rise buildings to sewage treatment centers. Their construction may be under or above ground, offshore or inland, over mile-deep valleys or flat terrains, and upon rocky mountains or clayey soils. The thought that all these creative efforts are made possible through the marvelous spirits of civil engineers is in itself comforting and appealing, as well as challenging for prospective civil and construction engineers. The gigantic achievements of the past stand as a flashing beacon to promote the potential of civil engineering. At the core of civil engineering rests the investigation of materials and methods that can satisfy the needs of the community. For example, shelter is provided for through housing; dwellings are built in accordance with a method that is appropriate for the material selected, the method of construction changing with the material.

MATERIALS AND TYPES

An introduction to various types of engineering materials is given in this section. An material is defined as a substance or thing from which something else can be made. Cloth, cement, sugar, brick, aluminum, soil, and water are all examples of materials. In engineering, materials are employed to design and build structures, elements, or products. Buildings are made of concrete, tennis rackets are molded out of reinforced plastics, boats are carved out of wood, and roads are made from asphalt concrete. The subject of materials science examines the whys and hows of materials , making it possible to advance the development of new materials. The term materials engineering refers to the understanding and review of properties and uses of materials commonly used in engineering. Materials can be divided into several categories; some of the common groups of materials are introduced in the following. Brittle Materials. Brittleness denotes relatively little or no elongation or increase in length at fracture. A material that exhibits brittleness is called a brittle material. Examples: Cast iron, concrete, and glass. Ductile Materials. Ductility is the property that makes it possible for a material to be drawn out or stretched to a considerable extent, from a significant sustained load, before rupture. It is usually measured as the percentage of elongation (increase in length), or as the percentage of the reduction in the cross-sectional area, when the material is subjected to tension. Examples: mild steel, aluminum, and wood. Building Materials. Materials that are used in the building industry, such as cement, steel, brick, plastics, wood, glass, ceramics, and concrete, are called building materials. Cementitious Materials. Materials in which the principal binder is Portland cement or another type of hydraulic cement are called cementitious materials. Concrete, mortar, grout, and roller-compacted concrete, which are obtained by combining cement, aggregates, and water, are the most common cementitious materials. The products of the reaction between cement and water form compounds that bind the aggregate particles together, so that the resulting material can be considered homogeneous. The aggregates are of two types, fine and coarse; and both contain particles of various sizes,

from large to small. All cementitious materials are porous, the porosity depending upon many factors, such as the amount and type of cement, and the amount of water. Ceramic Materials. The word ceramic comes from the Greek, meaning burned earth When something is burned, it combines with oxygen in the air; ceramic materials are nonmetallic materials often based on clay (silicate mineral). They are usually crystalline and brittle, do not conduct heat or electricity very well, and can withstand high temperatures. When loaded, they remain mostly elastic and exhibit practically no plastic flow. Many ceramic materials are used for insulation thermal (firebricks), building (fiberglass), and electrical. Examples: glass, cement, china, stone, and brick. Clay Brickwork. Brick is a burned clay masonry unit, generally rectangular and solid. The term brickwork refers to masonry built with bricks and mortar, primarily as vertical members subjected to compressive and bending forces. The coefficient of thermal expansion of brickwork is approximately 5-7 x 10-6 per C, which is about half that of concrete and twice that of limestone. The expansion of clay brick from moisture is about one-fifth that of concrete. Construction Materials. A construction material is any material used in the construction industry. Examples: Concrete, cement, soil, stones, aggregates, plastics, and asphalt. Elastic Materials. Elasticity is the ability of a material to deform under a load, without a permanent set or deformation upon the release of the load. Springs, rubber bands, and cricket balls behave elastically. Elasticity can also be defined as that property of a material by virtue of which deformations from a load or stress disappear after the removal of the load. Some materials (gases, for example) possess elasticity of volume only (that is, the volume is the only characteristic that remains unchanged), but solids such as metals may possess elasticity of form and shape as well. As an example, the top of a metal desk will not deform in shape, form or volume from the stresses caused by a stack of books piled on the desk. A perfectly elastic material should recover completely its original shape and dimensions when loads are removed. None of the materials known today remain perfectly elastic throughout the range of stress leading up to failure, but all exhibit elastic properties up to some stress level. Metals such as steel remain elastic over very high stress levels, whereas some materials such as polymers and concrete can be considered elastic only at low stress levels. An elastic material behaves in-elastically when the stresses exceed the elastic limit, beyond which changes in the volume, shape, and form are Insulating Materials. Materials that are provided for sound, thermal (heat), or electrical insulation are called insulating materials. Manufacturing Materials. These are materials used in machinery or in manufacturing industriesindustries that make products. Examples: metals, plastics, ceramics, and rubber. Masonry Materials. A mason is one who builds with bricks, stones, and blocks. Masonry is the part of a building or structure that is made from combining the masonry units: stone, block or brick, and mortar. Egyptians built their pyramids (called mastabas) first using mud brick masonry and later (around 2500 B.c.) with stone masonry using gypsum mortar. Romans employed a type of masonry construction for walls in which the space between two parallel layers of burned brick was filled with concrete. Mortar from bitumen was used to bond the

bricks in some early masonry construction. Masonry was also used for building columns and towers, such as the Tower of Pisa, and arches, such as the 83-ft span semicircular arch in the Basilica of Constantine (A.D. 313). Masonry walls are erected today using the same two types of materials: masonry units and mortar. The common masonry units are clay bricks and concrete blocks, although stones, mud bricks, and fly ash bricks can also be used. Masonry units can be solid (such as burned clay bricks) or hollow (such as hollow concrete blocks). The hollow spaces, called cells, in hollow-block masonry can be kept hollow or filled with grout. Plastic Materials (Plastics). Plastics are organic-based materials derived primarily from the petrochemical industry, which are capable of being formed into any shape. Raw Materials. Natural products or materials that are transformed through manufacturing processes are called raw materials. Examples: Coal, petroleum, iron ore, and limestone. Repair Materials. These are materials used to repair a deteriorating structure of concrete, masonry, or steel. They may include several classes of materials such as fillers (materials used as the base for the sealant in full-movement joints), sealants (to seal the joints), waterproofing compounds, and materials for general repair work. Examples: rubber (filler), cork (filler), mastics such as asphalt (sealant) and hot-applied rubber-bitumen compound (sealant), polyurethane (sealant and repair mortar), cement mortar, and concrete.

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The basic materials used in civil engineering applications or in construction projects are: Wood Cement and concrete Bitumen and bituminous materials Structural clay and concrete units Reinforcing and structural steels These are sometimes called structural materials. Added to these are plastics, soils, and aluminum. All these materials are employed in a variety of civil engineering structures such as dams, bridges, roads, foundations, liquid-retaining structures, waterfront construction, buildings, and retaining walls. The basic materials most common to highway construction are soils, aggregates, bituminous binders, lime, and cement. Wood is derived from trees, and can be put to use directly, as pieces of lumber cut from a log, or as a raw material in the manufacture of various wood products or manufactured components. Plywood, glue-laminated timber, and oriented strand- board are some of the wood products most commonly found in the construction of buildings and bridges. Concrete is one of the most common construction materials, in which Portland cement is the essential ingredient. Portland cement (and other types of hydraulic cement) is also a key ingredient in the manufacture of many other cementitious products, such as masonry blocks, soil-cement bricks, and plaster. In combination with other materials, such as reinforcing bars, polypropylene fibers, and high- strength strands or wires, different types of concrete are produced, such as reinforced, fiber, and prestressed concrete. Bitumen, which comes in a variety of forms, is mixed with other raw materials for the construction of pavements, roof shingles, waterproofing compounds, and many other materials. Structural clay and concrete masonry units, commonly called bricks and blocks, are the principal elements in the construction of masonry walls.

Structural steel, which is fabricated in many forms and shapes, is employed in the construction of railroad ties, high-rise buildings, roof trusses, and many more structural elements. These basic materials or products are selected for their properties, performance, availability, aesthetics, and cost. Knowledge of all these aspects is essential in selecting a suitable material for a particular situation. In addition to the materials mentioned above, there are a significant number of secondary construction materials common to engineering projects. Sealants, adhesives, floor and wall coverings, fasteners, and doors and windows fall into this category. Most of these, also called nonstructural materials, are chosen based on quality guidelines and aesthetic considerations.

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Materials for engineering applications are selected so as to perform satisfactorily during service. The material for a highway bridge should possess adequate strength, rough surface, and sufficient rigidity. A water-retaining structure would be built with a material that is impermeable, crack-free, strong, and does not react with water. A road surface needs such materials that show little movement under the impact of loads, are water-resistant, and are easy to repair. Performance requirements, or property specifications, are not the same for all structures or structural materials. What is expected of a material used for the construction of a liquidretaining structure is not the same as that chosen for a pavement. To evaluate the performance characteristics of engineering materials, and to assist an engineer in the selection of the most appropriate and economical material for a particular application, one needs to study the properties of the materials of construction. In general, the common properties of engineering materials are grouped under three major headings: Physical properties Mechanical properties Chemical properties

Physical properties are those derived from the properties of matter or attributed to the
physical structure. They include density, porosity, void content, moisture content, specific gravity, permeability, and structure (micro or macro). In addition, properties such as texture, color, and shape fall under this classification. Physical properties are helpful in evaluating a material in terms of the appearance, weight, permeability, and water retention of a structure. By knowing the specific gravity, the density (or mass per unit volume) of a material can be established. Perhaps the earliest use of this term was by Archimedes (287212 B.c.), who discovered that a comparison of the specific gravity of the material used in the kings crown with that of a block of pure gold is enough to establish the purity of the gold in the crown. The knowledge of permeability of materials lets us compare them in terms of their effectiveness as moisture barriers. An under-standing of porosity and moisture content of construction materials is essential in assessing the performance of structures during service. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Mechanical Properties may be specifically defined as the proper ies which relate to the behavior of the material when subjected to acting loads. Those properties serve as the language by which the designer can express his needs for a material and also serve as a basis for comparing different materials and for comparing the uniformity of different samples of one material. Mechanical properties are usually expressed in terms of quantities that are

primarily function of stress or strain. Occasionally, they are expressed in terms of other quantities such as time and temperature. The fundamental mechanical properties are Stress : It is the intensity of the internally distributed forces that resist a change in the form of the body. It is a measurement of density of forces; defined as force per unit area of cross section. The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to a force of one Newton acting on an area of one square meter. Since the Newtons is small unit of force relative to the square meter so, we shall use MPa instead of Pa MPa =MN / m2 = N / mm2 Strain It refers to the proportional deformation produced in a material under the influence of stress. It is measured as the number of meters of deformation suffered per meter of original length and is a numerical ratio. Strength : It is a measure of the externally applied forces which are necessary to overcome internal forces of attraction between fundamental particles within the material. It is a measure of the resistance of the material to rupture. Strength is measured by stress at which some specified limiting conditions develops. The principle limiting conditions or criteria of failure are: i. termination of elastic action ii- rupture Stiffness: It is the property of a material that enables it to resist elastic deformation. Elasticity : All deformation is removed upon the load removal. Plasticity : It is the ability of a material to deform in the inelastic or plastic range without rupture or the property that enables a material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture. A perfectly plastic material is one which does not make any recovery of its original dimensions after stress removal. Ductility :It refers to the degree of extension which takes place before failure of a material in tension. All ductile materials are malleable but malleable materials are not always necessarily always ductile since a soft material may lack strength and thus tears apart very easily in tension. Malleability and Ductility can be taken as a measure of plasticity. Brittleness It is the inverse of ductility. It is the property of the a material which makes it fracture before any noticeable deformation is observed. Hardness It is the resistance of the material surface to scratch, indentation, abrasion and etc. Endurance It is the property of a material to withstand repeated application of load. The endurance limit is the highest repeated stress that can be applied infinite number of times without causing failure. Chemical properties are those pertaining to the composition and potential reaction of a material. The compounds of composition, such as oxides and carbonates, describe the chemical nature of the material, and the way it would behave in a certain environment. For example, by reviewing the proportions of the principal compounds in various cements, we will be able to choose the right type of cement for a particular application. Knowledge of the chemical composition of clays is indispensable in evaluating the characteristics expected in burned bricks. Chemical properties such as acidity, alkalinity, and resistance to corrosion of materials are especially noteworthy. In addition to the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, the thermal, electrical, magnetic, acoustical, and optical properties of materials are also of relevance in civil engineering. For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, which is a thermal property, is fundamental in assessing the expansion potential of concrete slabs. Thermal properties, customarily, represent the behavior of a material under

heat and temperature. Acoustical properties such as sound transmission and sound reflection are critical in choosing materials that should offer sound resistance and function as sound barriers. Optical properties such as color, light trans mission, and light reflection are considered in determining the energy consumption capacity of a material. Measures of other properties, such as electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability, are needed in materials used in electrical works. In civil engineering construction, though some materials are selected primarily for their physical properties or characteristics, most are chosen because of their mechanical properties and durability. For example, lightweight aggregates, such as pumice and shale, are selected for the manufacture of lightweight concrete floors due primarily to their low density. In areas of high seismic activity, structural steel is preferred for the columns and beams of high-rise buildings over reinforced concrete, for its high tensile strength and ductility. Thus a proper understanding of the environment and the constraints within which a particular project is to be developed is crucial in the material selection process. The goal of engineering design should be to select the most appropriate material for a particular job. A general knowledge of all relevant properties of the various materials that are available, and an appreciation of their performance characteristics, are fundamental in achieving this goal. A brief description of general strength and deformation properties and the definitions of some common terms in solid mechanics are presented in the following sections.

MATERIALS TESTING
1. INTRODUCTION
All branches of engineering, especially those dealing with structures and machines are intimately concerned with materials. Therefore, the engineer must have a clear and accurate understanding of materials and a knowledge of how materials will react when subjected to any types of loads. The principle function of the construction materials is to develop strength, rigidity and durability adequate to the services for which they are intended These requirements largely. define the properties that the material should posses and hence broadly determine the nature of the tests made on the materials. The testing of material will supply the engineer with the necessary data required to define the various properties of these materials. Mechanical testing is concerned with the determination- measures of mechanical properties.

2- CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS TESTING

Materials testing may be classified according to different factors as follows 1- With the Respect to the Object: a. Commercial or control tests to supply routine information on the quality of a product. b- Research tests to develop a better information on a known materials or to develop new materials. c- Scientific tests to obtain accurate measurements of fundamental properties. 2- With Respect to Place of Testing: a- Field tests. b- Laboratory tests. 3-With Respect to General Method of Attack: 6

a- Tests on full size structure, members or parts. b- Tests on models of structures, member or parts. c- Tests on specimens cut from finished part. d- Tests of samples of raw material. 4- With Respect to Usability of The Material After Test a- Destructive tests, testing the material to failure. b- Non-destructive tests for finished products (inspection on the job). 5- With Respect to The Rate of Load Application: a- Static tests. If the load is applied over a relatively short time ( ranging from several minutes to several hours ) and gradually such that the speed of the testing can be considered to have a practically negligible effects on the results. b- Dynamic tests. If the load applied very rapidly such that the effect of inertia and time are involved. In special case where the load is applied suddenly, as by striking a blow, the test is called an impact test. c- Long- dine tests, lithe load is sustained over a long period, say months or even years, (creep test is a special ease). 6- With Respect to the Number of Times of Load Application. a- A single application of a load. This includes most of tests. b- The load is applied many times, millions of times if necessary. Fatigue test is an example.

Properties of Concrete Materials

Introduction and Definitions

Concrete: is a word of Latin derivation ( con together ) ( crete to grow ) and its history
can be charted from 5000 BC. It is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of aggregate. In hydraulic cement concrete the binder is formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water. Concrete composites of :1- Cement 2- Aggregates 3- Water 4- Admixtures

Cement: an organic material or a mixture of inorganic materials that sets and develops
strength by chemical reaction with water by formation of hydrates and is capable of doing so under water.

Aggregates: Granular materials, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or iron blast- furnace
slag, used with cementing medium to form concrete or mortar. Aggregates act as a relatively inexpensive inert filler, providing stability against volume changes and influencing strength and stiffness.

Water: It reacts with the cement and also lubricates the fresh concrete enabling it to be
placed into position and compacted.

Admixtures: They are chemicals that can be added to the concrete immediately before or
during mixing and significantly change its fresh, early age or hardened state to economic or physical advantage.

Aggregates
The mineral aggregates comprise the relatively inert filler materials in a Portland-cement concrete. As the aggregate usually occupies from 70 to 75 percent of the total volume of a mass of concrete, its selection and proportioning should be given careful attention in order to control the quality of the concrete structure.

Classification of aggregates:
Aggregates can be classified as to :

1- Size:
a- Fine aggregate: Aggregate smaller than (5 or 4.75 mm) in diameter is classified as fine aggregate or sand. b-Coarse aggregate: Aggregate larger than (5 or 4.75mm) in diameter is classified as coarse aggregate.

2- Source:
a- Natural aggregate: The natural sands and gravels are the product of weathering and the action of running water, while the stone sands and crushed stones are reduced from natural rock by crushing and screening of quarried material. b- Artificial aggregate: are usually produced for some special purposes, for example: burned expanded clay aggregate for making lightweight concrete. Some artificial aggregates are a by-product of industrial process such as blast furnace slag.

3- Unit weight:
a- Normal weight aggregate: It is usually the natural aggregate for which the unit weight is between (1500 to1800) kg/m3.

Normal weight aggregate

Lightweight aggregate (Pumic)

b- Lightweight aggregate: It can be artificial or natural. The artificial lightweight aggregates are produced as both coarse and fine materials. They have a lower density due to increase in porosity which results in an overall lowering of the concrete strength ceiling. Lightweight aggregates are not as dense as normal weight aggregates ( unit weight less than 1000 kg/m3) and because their elastic modulus is lower, produce concrete with a lower elastic modulus and a higher creep and shrinkage. Lightweight aggregates can be of natural sources such as Pumic ( a volcanic rock). c- Heavyweight aggregate: Where concrete of a high density is required, in radiation shielding for example, heavyweight aggregates can be used. The unit weight can be larger than 1800 kg/m3. Concrete densities of 3500-4500 kg/rn3 are obtained by using Barytes (a barium sulphate ore). Even greater concrete densities are obtained using lead shot - around 7000 kg/m3.

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4- Particle Shape:
The particle shape is important in that it affects the workability of the plastic concrete. The more rounded an aggregate the lower the inter particle friction, the smaller the surface/unit volume and therefore less water is required for a given workability. Therefore, a potentially higher strength is possible. Crushed aggregates can be used to produce higher strength concrete ( greater than about 80 N/mm2 ) as a greater bond strength can be achieved between the aggregate and the paste due to the rough angular texture of the aggregate surface. Natural gravels and sands tend to have a more rounded shape as a result of attrition water, whereas crushes rock aggregates tend to be more angular in shape. Aggregates can be classified as to shape into:

Note: Rounded, Irregular and Angular particles are more suitable for concrete mixes. 5- Surface Texture
Smother particles tend to produce a more workable concrete. The bond strength is, however likely to be higher with rough textured materials. The particles can be Glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed.

Properties of Aggregate
In fact, aggregate is not truly inert because its physical, thermal and, sometimes, chemical properties influence the performance of the concrete, for example, by improving its volume stability and durability over that of the cement paste. Generally Specifications require certain properties of aggregate to be tested to accept the using of aggregate in the concrete mixes. Other properties can be required for calculating concrete mix proportions.

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A-Main Properties required for compliance with specifications:

12345678Particle size distribution. Resistance to degradation of coarse aggregate by abrasion. Presence of Materials finer than 75m. Presence of Clay lumps Soundness. Presence of sulfate or chloride ions in aggregates. Flakiness or Elongation of the aggregate particles. Presence of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates.

B- Properties required for choosing mix proportions

1234Specific gravity and absorption. Moisture content. Loose or rodded unit weight of aggregates. Nominal maximum size of aggregate and fineness modulus.

There may be other properties needed for special uses or conditions. The above properties will be discussed here shortly before talking about the laboratory tests used to determine these properties.

A-Main Properties required for compliance with specifications: 1- Particle size distribution:
The actual size of the aggregate particles influence the concrete mix. In practice it is desirable to have particles of different sizes. The aggregate is usually split into at least two different portions for ease of batching: The common dividing point is 5mm ( or 4.75mm). Material larger than 5mm is termed coarse aggregate or gravel and the material smaller than 5mm is termed fine aggregate, fines or sand.

The distribution of the different sizes of particles in the coarse or fine aggregates is termed grading. The grading may be coarse or fine depending on the distribution of the particles and may be continuous (particles of different sizes) or single sized (particles of predominantly one size). The particle size distribution is extremely important in the design of any concrete mix. For most practical concretes it is desirable to have the particle sizes evenly distributed from the maximum size of coarse aggregate down to the smallest sand particles. This will enable the aggregate to compact in the densest form leaving the minimum number of voids to be filled

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by the more expensive cement paste. It will also minimize the risk of segregation of the plastic concrete during handling & placing. The test method covers the determination of the particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregates by sieving, is Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates, (ASTMC 136 96a) or (BS 812-103.1).

2-Resistance to degradation of coarse aggregate Hardness is the resistance of an aggregate to wear and is normally determined by an abrasion test, while the toughness of an aggregate is defined as its resistance to failure by impact. Hardness and toughness are particularly important when aggregates are to be used in a concrete road pavement or heavy duty wearing surfaces. A test used as a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of standard grading resulting from a combination of actions including abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding is "Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine" ASTM C 131 96). Another test used for the determination of the aggregate crushing value (ACV) which gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load is "Methods for determination of aggregate crushing value (ACV)" (BS 812-110) 3&4-Presence of Clay lumps and materials finer than 75m Clay may be present in aggregate in the form of surface coatings which interfere with the bond between the aggregate and the cement paste. In addition, silt and crusher dust may be present either as surface coatings or as loose material. Even in the latter form. Silt and free dust should not be present in large quantities because, owing to their fineness and therefore large surface area, they increase the amount of water necessary to wet all the particles in the mix. Material finer than the 75-m (No. 200) sieve can be separated from larger particles much more efficiently and completely by wet sieving than through the use of dry sieving. Therefore, accurate determinations of material finer than 75 m in fine or coarse aggregate are desired. Materials Finer than 75-m (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing (ASTM C 117 95) and for clay lumps, the test is "Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates" (ASTM
C 142 97)

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5-Soundness. The soundness of an aggregate is a measure of its durability. which is defined as: The ability of individual particles to retain their integrity and not suffer physical. mechanical or chemical changes to extents which could adversely affect the properties of the concrete in either engineering or aesthetic respects. The physical causes of large or permanent volume changes of aggregate are freezing and thawing, thermal changes at temperatures above freezing, and alternating wetting and drying. If the aggregate is unsound such changes in physical conditions result in a deterioration of the concrete in the form of local scaling, so called pop-outs, and even extensive surface cracking. Unsoundness is exhibited by porous flints and cherts, especially lightweight ones with a finetextured pore structured pore structure, by some shales, and by other particles containing clay minerals. The degree of unsoundness is expressed by the reduction in particle size after a specified number of cycles. A test method covers the testing of aggregates to estimate their soundness when subjected to weathering action in concrete or other applications. This is accomplished repeated immersion in saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying to partially or completely dehydrate the salt precipitated in permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion, simulates the expansion of water on freezing. "Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate"(ASTM C 88 99a) 6-Presence of sulfate or chloride ions in aggregates. Because of the danger of chloride- induced corrosion of steel reinforcement, the BS specifications specifies the maximum total chloride content in the mix. The chlorides may arise from all ingredient of the mix. Apart of the danger of corrosion of steel reinforcement, if salt is not removed, it will absorb moisture from the air and cause efflorescence- unsightly white deposits on the surface of the concrete. The presence of Sulphates will cause low ultimate strength and disintegration due to expansion. "Methods for determination of sulphate content"(BS 812-118) For chloride ions: "Method for determination of water-soluble chloride salts" (BS 812-117) 7- Flakiness or Elongation of the aggregate particles. The particle shape is of importance with regard to the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Particles with high ratio of surface area to volume are of particular interest as they lower the workability of the mix. Elongated and flaky particles are of this type. The latter can also adversely affect the durability of concrete as they tend to oriented in one plane, with water and air voids forming underneath. The presence of elongated or flaky particles in excess of 10 to per cent of the mass of coarse aggregate is generally considered undesirable, although no recognized limits are laid down. Methods for determination of particle shape (BS 812-105.1) for Flakiness index and (BS 812105.2) for Elongation index of coarse Aggregate. 8- Presence of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates. Natural aggregates may be sufficiently strong and resistant to wear and yet may not be satisfactory for concrete-making if they contain organic impurities which interfere with the hydration process. The organic matter consists of products of decay of vegetable matter in the form of human or organic loam, which is usually present in sand rather than in coarse aggregate, and is easily removed by washing. A test method used for that is "Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for Concrete" (ASTM C 40 99) 14

B- Properties required for choosing mix proportions

1- Absorption and Specific gravity. The following definitions can be useful: Absorptionthe increase in the weight of aggregate due to water in the pores of the material, but not including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight. The aggregate is considered dry when it has been maintained at a temperature of 110 + 5C for sufficient time to remove all uncombined water Specific Gravitythe ratio of the mass (or weight in air) of a unit volume of a material to the mass of the same volume of water at stated temperatures. Values are dimensionless. Apparent Specific Gravitythe ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of aggregate at a stated temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Bulk Specific Gravitythe ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate (including the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the voids between particles) at a stated temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD)the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate, including the weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in water for approximately 24 h (but not including the voids between particles) at a stated temperature, compared to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Significance and Use 1 Bulk specific gravity is the characteristic generally used for calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregate in various mixtures containing aggregate, including Portland cement concrete, bituminous concrete, and other mixtures that are proportioned or analyzed on an absolute volume basis. Bulk specific gravity is also used in the computation of voids in aggregate in the unit weight test. 2 Bulk specific gravity (SSD) is used if the aggregate is wet, that is, if its absorption has been satisfied. Conversely, the bulk specific gravity (oven-dry) is used for computations when the aggregate is dry or assumed to be dry. 3 Apparent specific gravity pertains to the relative density of the solid material making up the constituent particles not including the pore space within the particles which is accessible to water. 4 Absorption values are used to calculate the change in the weight of an aggregate due to water absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent particles, compared to the dry condition, when it is deemed that the aggregate has been in contact with water long enough to satisfy most of the absorption potential. The laboratory standard for absorption is that obtained after submerging dry aggregate for approximately 24h in water. Aggregates mined from below the water table may have a higher absorption, when used, if not allowed to dry. Conversely, some aggregates when used may contain an amount of absorbed moisture less than the 24-h soaked condition. For an aggregate that has been in contact with water and that has free moisture on the particle surfaces, the percentage of free moisture can be determined

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by deducting the absorption from the total moisture content determined The test method used for calculating the specific gravities and absorption is (ASTM C127&128-88)

2-Moisture content.
One of the properties of the aggregates which should be known to design a concrete mix is its moisture content. It is necessary in order to determine the net water -cement ratio in a batch of concrete and to adjust batch quantities of ingredients for concrete. The test method used for that is Moisture Content of Concrete Aggregate (ASTM C-566- 84)

3-Loose or rodded unit weight of aggregates

The following definitions can be useful: Bulk density, of aggregate, the mass of a unit volume of bulk aggregate material, in which the volume includes the volume of the individual particles and the volume of the voids between the particles. Expressed in [kg/m3]. Unit weight, weight (mass) per unit volume. (Deprecated termused preferred term bulk density.) Voids, in unit volume of aggregate, the space between particles in an aggregate mass not occupied by solid mineral matter. Note: Voids within particles, either permeable or impermeable, are not included. Bulk density values are necessary for use for many methods of selecting proportions for concrete mixtures. The test method : Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate in its compacted or loose condition (ASTM C 29 89) is used to determine bulk density values that are necessary for use for many methods of selecting proportions for concrete mixtures.

4-Nominal maximum size of aggregate and fineness modulus

Nominal Maximum Size (of aggregate), in specifications for, or description of aggregate, the smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of the aggregate is permitted to pass. Specifications on aggregates usually stipulate a sieve opening through which all of the aggregate may, but need not, pass so that a stated maximum proportion of the aggregate may be retained on that sieve. A sieve opening so designated is the nominal maximum size of the aggregate. The larger the aggregate particle the smaller the surface area to be wetted per unit mass( specific surface). Thus, extending the grading of aggregate to a larger maximum size lowers the water requirement of the mix so that, for specified workability and richness of the mix, the water/cement ratio can be reduced a consequent increase in strength. However, there is a limit of maximum size of aggregate. Fineness Modulus, a factor obtained by adding the percentages of material in the sample that is coarser than each of the following sieves (cumulative percentages retained), and dividing the sum by 100: 150-m (No. 100), 300-m (No. 50), 600-m (No. 30), 1.18-mm (No. 16), 2.36-mm (No. 8), 4.75-mm (No. 4), 9.5-mm (38-in.), 19.0-mm (34-in.), 37.5-mm (112-in.), 75-mm (3-in.), 150-mm (6-in.). Usually, the fineness modulus is calculated for the fine aggregate rather than for coarse aggregate. Typical values range from 2.3 and 3.0, a higher value indicating a coarser grading. The usefulness of the fineness modulus lies in detecting slight variations in the aggregate from the same source, which could affect the workability of the fresh concrete.

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Moisture Conditions of aggregate The porosity, permeability and absorption of aggregate influence the bond between it and the cement paste, the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, as well as chemical stability, resistance to abrasion, and specific gravity. When all the pores in the aggregate are full, it is said to be saturated and surface-dry. If this aggregate is allowed to stand free in dry air, some water will evaporate so that the aggregate is air-dry. Drying in an oven will remove the moisture; the aggregate is now oven dry. The aggregate can be also moist or wet when all voids are full of water and the surface is wet also.

Moisture conditions of aggregate. Deleterious Materials

These are materials that can prove harmful to the concrete if present in sufficient quantity.

Some impurities can be removed by careful washing and screening at the aggregate production plant.

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Sampling and testing

Two things to remember when performing a test on any material are: 1. The test must be performed in exactly the same way each time so that any change in the result is only indicative of a change in the property being measured. 2. The sample being tested must be truly representative of the total quantity. When testing aggregates the total weight of the sample being tested is no more than a few kilogram's yet it has to be representative of a stockpile of several tonnes. Sampling aggregates for concrete is usually based on random selection with each part of the stock pile having an equal chance of being sampled. The first requirement is to define the batch or stockpile quantity to be sampled, then to take a number of scoopfuls which are then combined into a representative sample to be reduced into one or more laboratory samples. At the laboratory, the sample is reduced to an appropriate size using a riffle box or a quartering board.

Details of tests are shown in the laboratory manual

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