CERTIFICATE IN SECURITY MANAGEMENT

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION MODULE

March 2006

C.C. Tawamba

MODULE OVERVIEW
This Certificate in Business Functions Business Communication (CBS3) module helps the student in understanding some essential communication and management concepts as they relate to organisational communication. It further explores the application of the theoretical underpinnings of communication in management by providing the reader with relevant examples covering the three important areas of non-verbal, oral and written communication. Each unit in the module features at least three activities against which the student can measure his or her understanding of the discussed concepts. Material in the module is skillfully presented using the integrative approach broadly bringing to the fore all critical points from parallel areas of study as they relate to promoting effective communication in the organisation. For easy understanding, the module should thus be studied in that context. As is widely accepted in academic writing, theoretical concepts proposed by authorities are used only as a starting point followed by explanations. From these, students are expected to develop their own definitions and examples. The attribution of these ideas to authors does not imply that students should memorise them as formulae as may happen in certain subjects. This is why the use of footnotes and keys is perceived as being inconvenient as it forces the reader to refer to the end of the unit for details about the idea and the author. References used are conveniently listed at the end of each unit. The module as is common with other academic materials is not in anyway exhaustive on the subject but simply provides the keen student with a basic framework upon which deeper investigations can be carried out to broaden ones understanding of business communication.

OBJECTIVES

OF

THE

BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION MODULE
By the end of this module you should be able to:

1. Define communication. 2. Give reasons for the importance of communication in an organisation. 3. Identify the elements and barriers of communication. 4. Explain methods that can be used to reduce noise in communication. 5. Differentiate between managerial roles, functions and skills in relation to communication. 6. Define nonverbal communication and describe its unique categories. 7. Define listening and explain strategies used to overcome listening barriers. 8. Present different types of business documents using an appropriate layout.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS
UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

PAGE
1-14

UNIT 2

NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND LISTENING SKILLS

13 - 22

UNIT 3

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND BUSINESS DOCUMENT DESIGN

22 - 32

UNIT 4

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

33 - 40

UNIT 5

MANAGING CONFLICT

41 - 44

UNIT 1

DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
1:1 Introduction

This unit defines communication, discusses its importance, managerial roles and skills. It also explains the categories, barriers and elements of communication.

1:2

Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to: Define communication. Explain why communication is important in an organisation. Outline and explain the different managerial roles. Describe different managerial skills. State various sources of skills. Identify and explain the categories of communication. Describe the elements of communication. Define and state the categories and examples of barriers of communication. Give examples of ways to minimise barriers of communication.

1:3

Definition of Communication

According to Kaul (2005), communication is a Latin word, 'communis' which means 'to share', as in sharing ideas, concepts, feelings and emotions. It is viewed as a two way process in which there is an exchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually

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accepted direction or goal. Communication means more than just the dissemination of

messages to readers or listeners. It is a search for a common meaning. One-way communication, which is serial, is less effective than two-way communication, which is ongoing until there is a common identity between the individuals endeavouring to reach the same meaning.

1:4 The Importance of Communication in an Organisation

Communication is used to inform, remind, persuade and to entertain recipients. Communication has been commonly described as the lifeblood of an organisation to stress its importance. Without it, like a human being without blood in the body, organisations die. Management, which involves working with and through people, is under girded by communication, a tool used by managers to get things done in the organisation. Effective management is underpinned by the use of relevant communication, as there is no management in the absence of communication. When people talk about appointing managers, they should engage individuals who are articulate in presenting themselves adequately in the various facets of communication such as deportment, writing and speaking. Communication is the vehicle through which organisations set targets, mobilise, co-ordinate and monitor resources. Prudent managers use communication in, among other things: Setting goals, objectives, policies, rules, regulations, standards and procedures. Motivating employees to excel in their areas of responsibility.

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Disciplining employees who do not comply with the organisation's code of conduct.

Delegating authority to subordinates. Training subordinates to increase current perform. Following up subordinates. Supervising subordinates. Rewarding employees for instance; commending them when they meet their targets. Marketing and market research for example, in the designing of exclusive packaging material and questionnaires to be distributed to potential customers and customers.

Networking with peers, regulators and at times, competitors through face-to-face meetings, letters, electronic mail or through the telephone.

Activity 1.1 What is communication? What role does communication play in an organisation? Describe the relationship between communication and managerial effectiveness.

1:5

Elements of Communication

The context, sender, message, channel and receiver normally influence effective communication. The latter elements stressed by Dimbleby and Burton (1985) can influence the meaning of communication in a very profound way. 1:5:1 Context Context, which helps to define the communication, is the environment in which the communication takes place. The setting cannot be separated from the message as it

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always determines the text and the mode. Tenor describes the existing relationship between individuals going to affect each other in the communication scenario. The

nature of the relationship and the peculiar situation and circumstances predetermine the message as well as how it is passed on. Failure to address these: the why, where, when, how and who in communication somehow reflects one's ignorance and ineptitude in exhibiting one of the vital skills in life. 1:5:2 Sender Brody (1987) defines the sender as the message source. The attitude of the sender can precondition the message and the receivers. Brody advises senders of messages to cast them in terms understandable to prospective recipients. The sender of the message should be reliable and credible to promote real meaning. 1:5:3 Message According to Brody, the content should be assembled and sequenced so that meanings are clear and the potential for receiver uncertainty is minimised. This has to be done with the receiver's age, gender, attitude, knowledge levels, experience, skill and socio-cultural background in mind. 1:5:4 Channel Dimbleby and Burton (1985) define channel as the medium through which messages flow from source to receiver. The medium of communication can be oral, written or non-verbal like face- to- face meetings, telephone conversation, poster, letter, report, manual, flyer, dress and the like. Channel availability, cost, efficiency, preference and appropriateness are some of the variables that can be considered when sending messages effectively. 1:5:5 Receiver Stoner and Freeman (1989) describe receivers as individuals whose senses perceive the sender's message. Receivers can be mixed differing in age, values, attitude,

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beliefs, education, skills, knowledge, experience, gender and language. The receiver is the audience of the message just like one member of an organisation who receives a

message transmitted by another member. Receivers supply feedback to senders of messages and it is defined as communication in response to a previous message. Feedback is not an element of communication, as it cannot stand by itself without mentioning the aforementioned elements of communication especially the destination of the message. Feedback is critical in communication as it enables one to monitor and evaluate the impact or meaning of the disseminated message.

1:6

Managerial Skills

Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) perceive 'skill' as ability related to performance. Skills are special endowments or capabilities that are not inborn. These rare skills can be acquired by anyone through experience after being born and less commonly by a few through deliberate organised learning, training and development. Katz (1974) identifies technical, human, and conceptual skills as playing a pivotal part in the work of managers. 1:6:1 Technical Skills Managers use their expertise, tools and procedures at work. Managers coach and supervise their subordinates who work with things. Technical skills are more on demand among lower level employees than top managers. Managers should know how to fix things like equipment in order for their subordinates to be in a position to consult them when they encounter problems. 1:6:2 Human Skills Human relations skills are social skills exhibited when we interact with other people. Managers should be able to relate well with others in one on one or group encounters for example, knowing what to do when; like greeting customers, asking questions and having the dignity to respect others as well as giving them an opportunity to listen to what they are saying to you without interrupting them or being distracted and

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becoming emotional. It is very important for members of an organisation to communicate effectively and motivate others.

1:6:3 Conceptual Skills Conceptual skills relate to one's mental ability to devise plans. In them, we see one's ability to think, to be detail oriented, diagnostic, and break down an issue or a problem and to generate plausible solutions. People who possess critical thinking skills see the big picture, weigh options and think before they act. Where the majority is seeing the ordinary, those possessing conceptual skills go beyond and visualise the not so common the extra ordinary to make it in a competitive environment. Activity 1.2 Discuss the link between managerial levels and skills.

1:7

Managerial Roles

Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) define role as an organised set of behaviours. There are three sets of roles namely; interpersonal, informational and decisional roles.

1:7:1 Interpersonal Roles

In their interpersonal roles, managers often see themselves interacting with people or groups from communities in which the company operates. 1:7:1:1 Figurehead role Figurehead duties represent management's concern for employees, customers and the community when they attend ceremonial and symbolic functions like weddings, parties or community events such as a function held at a school. 1:7:1:2 Leader role As a leader, the manager directs and co-ordinates the work of subordinates to

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accomplish organisational goals. This can be experienced when employees are hired

promoted or fired. 1:7:1:3 Liaison role In this role, managers interface with outsiders who affect the organisation's operations. These groups could be government officials, customers, distributors and suppliers.

1:7:2 Informational Roles

Information is used to eliminate ambiguity, confusion and uncertainty in organisations so managers can be its monitors, disseminators and spokespersons. 1:7:2:1 Monitor role As a monitor, the manager seeks, receives and screens information, which may affect the organisation. Managers can gather information on what other players are doing to remain viable in terms of products, workforce, equipment and machinery. Not monitoring the environment can result in the organisation failing to accomplish its goals since contingent steps are not taken to manage certain harmful changes. 1:7:2:2 Disseminator role After or during monitoring, the manager shares relevant and adequate information with organisation members. 1:7:2:3 Spokesperson role In this role, managers pass on information about the organisation's official position regarding certain developments say, through a press conference or a press release to outsiders. This they do as specialists to promote a positive public image of the organisation since members of public have a genuine interest in knowing what is

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happening in the organisation.

1:7:3 Decisional Roles

Members of an organisation especially managers use collected information to make sound decisions in different areas. 1:7:3:1 Entrepreneur role This role involves designing and starting a new project or enterprise. 1:7:3:2 Disturbance handler role Also known as mediator role, the disturbance handler role is played by managers when addressing problems that are not immediately beyond their control like strikes by employees. 1:7:3:3 Resource allocator role Managers play this decisional role when they choose among competing demands for scarce resources such as: time, cash, equipment, vehicles and space. 1:7:3:4 Negotiator role As negotiators, managers meet with individuals or groups to discuss differences to reach a mutually profitable agreement. Activity 1.3 Of the above-mentioned roles, which ones do you normally find yourself engaged in?

1:8 Barriers of Communication

Barriers also known as noise are defined by O' Sullivan et al (1996) as any interference added to the signal between encoder and decoder that makes accurate decoding more

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difficult. Jandt (1998) describes barriers as anything that distorts the message that is encoded. Barriers of communication alter the reception of the message transmitted by the

sender. 1:8:1 Psychological barriers Psychological barriers emanate from the sender or receiver's mental disposition such as anxiety, sorrow, anger or a state of joy. 1:8:2 Perceptual barriers Differing experiences and backgrounds can lead to opposing points of view thereby hindering effective communication. Senders of messages should therefore be open minded, analyse their receivers first, ask questions where necessary, repeat and explain information to be understood. 1:8:3 Physiological barriers Bodily challenges like hearing impairment, poor eyesight, and headache or stomach pain can disturb listeners. 1:8:4 Environmental barriers Physical barriers such as noise, distractions, and discomfort like heat or cold can disturb receivers and senders of messages from sharing information effectively. 1:8:5 Linguistic barriers Language differences, accent, pitch, slang, jargon, and ambiguity divert the attention of readers and listeners from the central message. 1:8:6 Intellectual barriers Communication can be difficult if the message does not match the cognitive levels of receivers.

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1:8:7 Presentational barriers

The structure of a message including the speed used when presenting can distort meanings in receivers. The pulse can either be too fast or too slow. Organisations can also curtail the flow of communication by creating inflexible structures that clog the information. Some managers are not comfortable with information that moves fast as they want their power and status to be felt so they sabotage systems that are leaner when in actual fact they are meant to be mere facilitators. Activity 1.4 Suggest practical ways to minimise each of the barriers of communication discussed above.

1:9 Management Abilities

Naylor (1999) cites the work of Eccles and Noria in their description of what distinguishes good managers stressing their ability to take robust action. The management abilities listed and explained below refer to the ability that a manager has to fulfil the afore-mentioned managerial roles under pressure and when situations are unclear. 1:9:1 Acting under uncertainty Individuals who possess this ability are rarely able to wait for full information, they recognize as well as understand uncertainty and ambiguity coping with their knowledge gaps. 1:9:2 Preserving flexibility One needs to keep ones options open to create room for further change and decisions. Actions should increase the options available rather than reduce them.

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1:9:3 Political awareness As managers interact with other people, they should detect their agendas.

1:9:4 Timing Managers need to have a sense of timing to succeed for example when to enter new markets, scheduling daily activities or when to announce developments in the organisation. 1:9:5 Judgement Qualitative information is scrutinised subtly as opposed to formal calculation. 1:9:6 Using rhetoric effectively The individual effectively uses language to influence the way people think and act. 1:9:7 Running multiple agendas One should link actions from several agendas, keeping several balls in the air to take advantage of opportunities rather than focusing on one task.

1:10 SUMMARY
This unit focused on the definition of communication, the importance of communication in an organisation, managerial roles and skills, elements of communication as well as barriers of communication including critical management abilities.

REFERENCES
Brody, E.W. 1987. Communication for Survival. New York: Praeger.

Dimbleby, R. and Burton, G.C. 1985. More Than Words: An Introduction to Communication. London: Routledge.

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Hellriegel, D. and Slocum, J. 1996. Management. Cincinnati.

Jandt, F.E. 1998. Intercultural Communication. London: Sage Publications. Katz, R.L.1974. Skills of an Effective Administrator. Harvard Business Review 52 no.5 Kaul, A. 2005. Effective Business Communication. New Delhi: Prentice Hall. Naylor, J.1999. Management. London: Financial Times Management. O'Sullivan, T. et al, 1996. Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies. London: Routledge. Stoner, J. A. F. and Freeman, F.E.1989.Management.London: Prentice Hall.

12 UNIT 2 NONVVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND LISTENING SKILLS

2:1

INTRODUCTION

Unit two discusses non-verbal communication, listening, time management and group communication.

2:2 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to: Reasons why people do not manage time well. Describe time management techniques. Define and give examples of non-verbal communication. Outline the benefits of listening. Dive down the barriers of listening and explain different ways that can be used to minimise them. Describe ways of effective group communication.

2:3

Non-verbal Communication

Lesikar et al (1979) views non-verbal communication as accounting for more of the total messages than words and explains that it is all communication without words. Actions speak louder than words so even when we are quiet; we project certain meanings in people who observe us. Even as we speak, the messages we say orally are less effective on our audiences than what we suggest through our behaviours. 2:3:1 Categories words. These include: of Non-verbal Communication

Kreps (1986) identifies a number of ways which people use to communicate other than

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2:3:1:1 Artifactics Who we are and the artifacts we use send specific messages in people for example,

make up, jewellery, hair style, combs, purses, sculptures and the like. 2:3:1:2 Kinesics The way human beings use their bodies is known as kinesics. Emblems are direct verbal translations like waves, thumbs up whereas illustrators like clapping one's hands adds drama to what is being said and adaptors which are unconscious body movements such as scratching sweating as well as frothing at the mouth depict security. Posture in the form of crossed legs arms, fidgeting, palm on the cheek are a cue to one's mood. Activity 2.1 Which six postures can you think of and what do they mean?

2:3:1:3 Occulesics Facial expressions like the intensity of ones gaze, frowning and smiling communicate certain meanings. One can be warm, sincere or hostile through facial behaviours. Activity 2.2 Why is the face a primary centre for non-verbal messages?

2:3:1:4 Para-linguistics Paralanguage refers to vocal cues accompanying speech in the form of yells, sighs, grunts and yawns. 2:3:1:5 Tactilics Human touch can be welcome or unwelcome. It can communicate solidarity if

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welcome or aggression if not accepted. Human touch like a kiss, hug or handshake can communicate love, acceptance and solidarity.

2:3:1:6 Olfactics Olfactics is the study of communication through smell. Examples include body and environmental odours, perfume and bad breath. Activity 2.3 What do you think can be done to improve the cleanliness of your office environment? Why is this important?

2:3:1:7 Proxemics The distance between people and objects can promote or inhibit communication. Furniture arrangement in offices, venues of meetings, conferences, negotiations or interviews can create an atmosphere in which people either share common meanings or feel restrained to do so. The invasion of personal space reserved for friends or intimate space set aside for loved ones can result in discomfort, which in turn births fight, or flight. Neutral space or social space does not belong to anyone for instance, space at the bus stop, inside a lift since one cannot claim it if already occupied by other people. Activity 2.4 Suggest some of the spatial arrangements you would attend to to make your organisations centenary celebrations a success. 2:3:1:8 Chronemics The effect of time and behaviours patterned over time on communication is paramount.

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Managers should learn to organise their time resource based on the hour, day, week, month or year. Time, the paradigm in which change happens is usually taken for

granted. It is a culture bound message system that is marked and given value by the activities and events that people commit themselves to. Below, we briefly discuss issues relating to time management. 2:3:1:8:1 Why People Do not Manage Time Well Powell Edwards in Mattock (2003) gives three major reasons why people do not manage time well and these are human nature, lack of understanding of time management including ineffective tools and techniques explained below: Human nature

People stick to the things that they like doing, do everything themselves and are easily interrupted. Lack of understanding of time management

People do not possess the necessary knowledge to take advantage of the opportunities that they have at their disposal. Ineffective tools and techniques

Some individuals are not armed with instruments that help them to maximise the output of their time, getting the very best from their investment. 2:3:8:2 Time Management Techniques Step Step Step 1 2 3Set specific what, why, and how goals. Set time scales for each of your goals for example, short term, medium term and long term. Consider any obstacles to accomplishment by planning for the unexpected.

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Step

4-

Prioritise your actions via smaller steps to accomplish your goal.

Activity 2.5 List down the things that you normally find yourself doing at work and at home. From your list, identify five activities from each side, which are really worthwhile to maintain.

2:4

Listening Skills

Alessandra and Hunsaker (1993) hold that listening is an important facet in organisational communication. Exercising oneself in listening helps to: increase trust and credibility in relationships. reduce misunderstanding resulting in better products and services as well as profits. improve teamwork and build morale.

2:4:1 Barriers of Listening According to Ross and Dewdney (1989) there are five major difficulties associated with listening namely: selective perception, assumptions, supplying unsolicited advice, being judgemental and being defensive. Selective perception

People choose to listen to messages that fall within their view of the world filtering out new ones. Assumptions Listeners can jump to conclusions without listening to the full message.

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Supplying unsolicited advice

Prescribing unsolicited advice often results in them not accepting it.

Being judgemental

Some people criticise others without listening to what is being said. This is evident in negative comments like, 'you are wrong', 'silly', 'stupid' and many more during a conversation. Being defensive

People can defend their positions without listening to the other person's point of view.

2:4:2 Strategies for Improving Listening To overcome difficulties encountered in listening, Alessandra and Hunsaker (1993) put forward the CARESS Model discussed below. The CARESS Model The acronym CARESS stands for: C- oncentrate Focus your attention on the speaker to eliminate external environmental, internal physical and external speaker related barriers. A- cknowledge Show the speaker that you are listening by using attending skills for example: maintaining eye contact, asking questions and using verbal responses.

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R- esearch Get information from different publications to go into a topic in more depth and reinforce

parts of a speaker's message. Individuals who are already exposed to a subject or topic normally show interest than strangers to it. When is the last time you bought a book to inform yourself about a critical subject? E- xercise emotional control Do not over react to new ideas, accent, pronunciation, appearance or highly charged messages. Sense the non-verbal message Pick what the speaker says and does not say through the body. Determine the vocal and visual messages. S-tructure Organise the information as you receive it understand and retain it.

2:5 Categories of Communication

Dimbleby and Burton (1985) describe four levels at which human beings share and exchange ideas namely; intra personal communication, interpersonal communication, group communication and mass communication. 2:5:1 Intra personal communication Myers and Myers (19880 define intra personal communication as inside the head communication, communication which takes within a person. People should first of all think before they speak or write since meanings are intra personal and actions interpersonal. 2:5:2 Interpersonal communication According to Myers and Myers (1988), interpersonal communication is a transaction between people and their environments. Interpersonal communication is the sharing

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and exchange of information between two or more people. The behaviours of people

are the most evident parts of interpersonal communication as to be demonstrated in the section on no verbal communication. 2:5:3 Mass communication Dimbleby and Burton (1985) explain that mass communication is used or received by large numbers of people as experienced in the use of lectures, radio, television and print media such as newspapers and magazines carrying notices and advertisements.

2:5:4 Group Communication Group communication takes place within groups of people and by groups of people to others (Dimbleby and Burton, 1985).

2.6 Effective Group Communication

When working with teams to fully benefit from each member, the manager should seriously take note of the following: select an environment free from distractions. arrange furniture in a manner that does not inhibit effective communication. respect self and group members. inform every member about the group's goals. involve all team members. formulate adequate controls with members who are going to use them. delegate tasks to individuals who are best interested, competent, qualified and experienced to carry out the activity.

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reveal the benefits of compliance and the consequences of non-compliance before

engaging members. do not unnecessarily interrupt speakers- listen actively. ask questions for clarification. guide members to be patient and take turns to contribute meaningfully to the discussion. seek consensus from all members. record resolutions. follow up agreements and evaluate them against agreed standards. stick to deadlines but being flexible where it really matters.

2:7 Role Relationships Within the Group and Communication

Wofford (1977) et al explain that distinctions should be made between perceived roles, expected roles and enacted roles. Perceived role Perceived role is the set of behaviours that the occupant of the position believes he or she should perform. Expected role

The expected role is the set of behaviours that others believe one should perform. Enacted role

Enacted role is the actual set of performed behaviours. If there is variance between the three roles, there is stress upon the individual and this stress is called role strain. Role conflict occurs when a person is required to enact two incompatible roles simultaneously.

21 SUMMARY

Unit two concentrated on non- verbal communication, time management techniques, listening barriers, the CARESS Model, categories of communication and ways of promoting effective communication in groups.

REFERENCES
Alessandra, T. and Hunsaker, P.1993.Communication At Work. New York: Simon and Schuster. Dimbleby, R. and Burton, G.C. 1985. More Than Words: An Introduction To Communication. London: Routledge. Kreps, G.L. 1986. Organisational Communication. London: Sage Publications. Lesikar, R.V. Et al, 1979. Basic Business Communication. Burr Ridge: Irwin. Mattock, J, (ed), 2003. Cross Cultural Communication The Essential Guide To International Business. London: Kogan Page. Ross, C.S. and Dewdney, P.1989.Communicating Professionally. New York:

Neal Schuman Publishers Incorporation. Wofford, J. C. 1977.Organisational Communication. Tokyo: Mc Graw-Hill Kogusha Limited.

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UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION AND BUSINESS DOCUMENT DESIGN 3:1 INTRODUCTION

The following unit describes ways used to communicate effectively, compares written and oral communication and then lastly discusses the layout of business documents like memoranda, reports, notices and letters among others.

3:2 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to: Identify and describe the seven c's of effective communication. Define information overload and information under-load. Describe ways of wooing audiences Compare and contrast oral and written communication. Outline and describe the layout of business documents.

3:3

The Seven C's of Communication

Communication can be improved if speakers and writers of letters memoranda, notices, agendas, instructions and the like pay attention to the seven c's of communication namely; completeness, conciseness, consideration, courtesy, correctness, concreteness and clarity. 3:3:1 Completeness The information to be shared should be well thought out for it to be adequate so as to meet all the needs of the receivers. It is incumbent upon the sender of the message to

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first of all srutinise the collected data to have clear meaning(s) from it, fully comprehending it before passing it on prematurely and inadequately to others. 3:3:2 Conciseness The content needs to be short and simple to avoid supplying recipients with too much detail known as information overload. However, the details should no be scanty which results in information under-load leaving receivers' crucial questions unanswered. Since it is not always possible to disseminate all the information around us, the writer should use summarising skills to pick only the critical points and then order them logically. The sender of the message should determine which ideas best meet the information needs of the receivers. 3:3:4 Consideration Specific backgrounds of receivers should be recognised so as to meet their information needs. This relates to the type of message to be disseminated and the channel used to accomplish the objective. 3:3:5 Courtesy Senders should share messages in a way that promotes goodwill by using language, which shows respect. 3:3:6 Correctness Information transmitted needs to be accurate to promote trust and credibility. Spellings, punctuation, word order, layout and other writing conventions like appropriate vocabulary need to be attended to seriously. One should present accurate facts to eliminate any doubts in recipients. 3:3:7 Concreteness Diagrams, pictures, figures and graphs can be used to promote and reinforce meanings. Audio visual aids like charts, white boards, chalkboards and computers

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promote understanding in receivers. 3:3:8 Clarity Language used is expected to be straightforward. Senders should use terms that they know to be correct. Activity 3:1 Use the criteria highlighted above to write a paragraph of not more than one hundred words explaining managerial functions in relation to your job.

3:4

How to Get Audiences on One's Side

Receivers of messages should be deliberately made to pay attention and to get interested in the message that they should ultimately act on. Robinson (1990) suggests several ways of getting an audience to one's side. The speaker should: Rehearse. Dress reassuringly. Earn the respect of the audience by doing what is necessary as it is not automatic. Respect the audience. Empathise with the audience. Promise a timetable and stick to it. Use your natural voice. Involve your audience for example, through asking questions.

Activity 3:2 Discuss the methods which you would use to captivate your audience during a presentation.

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3:5

Comparison Between Oral and Written Communication

DISADVANTAGES It can be forgotten Time consuming

ADVANTAGES ORAL Eye contact Immediate feedback voice qualities like pulse, pitch and pathos Captivating if appropriate styles are used WRITTEN It is permanent It is believable Professional writing is not easy It can be read repeatedly

Adaptable to audience needs for example: Affected by absence of key members

Not adaptable Expensive

3:5:1 Types of Speeches

a. Impromptu Speech Impromptu speeches are instantaneous. When called upon to give a speech without prior arrangement, one should talk about major highlights of the proceedings. One should first of all establish the purpose of the speech so as not to stray. b. Speech of Introduction When introducing a speaker it is important to collect information on the background of the speaker.

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Such information can be obtained in a well-documented speakers curriculum vitae. It is critical not to exaggerate the speakers achievements or failing to pronounce ones name correctly.

c. Guests Speech When invited to give a speech, the guest of honour greets members being sincere avoiding stale jokes, being friendly, warm and remembering ones purpose in the whole presentation. d. Farewell Speech The farewell speech should be very short and presented early since guests are normally standing. The person who gives the speech should not use the first person but being inclusive making the member who is leaving feel missed by highlighting the members contribution to the organisation.

e. Presentation Speech When presenting an award or a gift, the speech whose purpose is to express recognition for a persons performance should be brief since people are in a mood to celebrate.

f. Speech of Acceptance After receiving an award or gift, one expresses appreciation showing the gift or award to the guests. Reference should be made to remarks made in the speech and if necessary saying something about the gift. g. Speech of Thanks Presented to thank guests, the vote of thanks should show that on was following the proceedings carefully. It is important to appreciate the time given by the guest

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of honour and the guests followed by something that one liked about the speaker.

3:5:2
3:5:2:1

The Presentation of Business Documents

Memoranda

A memorandum is an internal letter written to remind members about policies or to simply inform the about developments in the organisation. The presentation of business documents is not very mathematical but the memorandum can take the following format with the important parts highlighted:

MEMORANDUM ..............heading
TO: CC:
Name and title of receiver is stated

Members who may be interested in knowing about the subject receive copies of the memo

FROM: REF:

Sender's name and title are specified

For filing purposes, the memo is given a reference number like G/C/02 initials of the sender

DATE: SUBJECT:

The date is written in full ,22 March 2006

The central theme of the memo is stated in the subject line for example;' PRECAUTIONS ON

OPERATING MACHINES'

THE BODY

(a) (b) (c)

An introduction that captures the key subject. The idea stated in the topic sentence is expanded The last sentence states a future action for the reader for example; Should

you encounter problems, kindly alert me on extension 404.'

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Activity 3:3 Write an internal policy memorandum to members following certain

developments in your section during the past week.

3:5:2:2

Letters

Business letters often follow the format described below.

(a)

Heading

The heading carries the logo, physical and telegraphic address of the company. (b) line. (c) Date Reference

The reference like, MH/O2 is for filing purposes and should not be used on the subject

The date should be written in full as shown in our brief discussion on memoranda. (d) Inside address

The receiver's address is stated in full. At times, the name and title of the receiver are included just before the address.

(e)

Salutation

Depending on who is being written, the salutation reading, 'Dear Sir', 'Your Excellency' or 'Dear Mrs. Johnson' is written in this section.

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(f) Subject line The main theme of the letter is summarised in the subject line also written as, 'RE:' meaning about. As already stated, one should write not,'REFERENCE.'

(g)

Body

The body, made up of thematic paragraphs, starts with topic sentences on each paragraph supported in the rest of the remaining sections by ideas that focus on what has been initially stated. The last paragraph suggests an action for the reader. (h) Complimentary close

The complimentary close ends as, Yours faithfully if the receiver's name is not specified in the salutation and, Yours sincerely' if stated. (i) Signature and position

The writer signs and states name and position and if doing it on behalf of someone writes something like, 'For Managing Director.

3:5:2:3

Reports

Accident, progress and trip reports are used in making decisions in organisations. They can take different forms depending on what the specific instructions are. Normally, the report should contain a heading, terms of reference explaining who sanctioned the investigation when and why as well as by what date, background or introduction, definition of the problem, (symptoms warranting investigation), objectives, objective findings stating what it will do, conclusion and solutions perceived to solve the problem known as recommendations. Recommendations should be stated using concrete terms. Finally, the compiler writes his or her signature, states his or her name, job title and the date of compilation. Activity 3:4 What is the purpose of the terms of reference section in a report?

30 3:5:2:4 Notices, Agendas and Minutes

The minutes of a meeting are a permanent record of what transpired and they follow each

topic as it is outlined in the agenda accompanying the notice of the meeting. As given in the agenda, the minute taker records every thing that transpires in the meeting starting from the venue, date, who chaired the meeting, apologies, who was present and absent, the business of the day, what the specific resolutions were, any other business from members, date of next meeting and closure of the meeting at a specific time.

3:5:2:5

Meetings and Interviews

Managers should be very clear about the necessity of meetings and the different types of interviews in their organisations or sections. Face to face meetings such as counselling, disciplinary, selection and appraisal interviews despite their advantages should not be organised just for the sake of it for they can be time wasting. In face- to- face meetings, managers need to plan, follow the plan on paper, move the discussion, control those who talk too much, encourage participation and sum up the discussion. Following up what is agreed upon is crucial in management. Subordinates should be firmly monitored to ensure that they are complying with set and agreed standards, procedures and rules that govern the organisation. In helping employees through counselling and correcting them through various extrinsic disciplinary measures like verbal warnings, hearings, or even suspension and the like, managers should be conversant with the various statutory requirements governing their application so as not to unnecessarily cost the organisation from expensive lawsuits lodged by employees seeking fair treatment. Activity 3:5 (a) (b) (c) Discuss the key issues that you would raise in a: Selection interview Disciplinary interview Counselling interview Why would you raise the issues mentioned above? d) e) Appraisal interview and Exit interview.

31 SUMMARY
The main areas of discussion in this unit were the seven c's of communication, information overload, information under-load, advantages and disadvantages of oral and

written communication, interviews, business documents such as letters, reports, notices, minutes and agendas of meetings.

REFERENCES
King, F.W. and Ann Cree, D. 1997.English Business Letters. London: Longman. Robinson, N. 1990.Persuasive Business Presentations. London: Mercury Business Paperbacks.

32 UNIT 4 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

4:1

INTRODUCTION

This unit explores vertical, horizontal, diagonal and informal flow of communication in an organisation. Again, it explains the public relations concept and its importance as well as the application of technology in processing, storing, sending and receiving messages in the organisation.

4:2 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to: Define organisational communication. State three forms of organisational communication. Identify and explain factors influencing organisational communication. Distinguish decentralized communication networks from centralized communication networks. Describe the flow of communication in an organisation. Define public relations and give reasons for its importance in an organisation. Describe the link between communication and public relations. Describe the use of information technology in the communication process.

4:3 What is Organisational Communication?

Wofford (1977) uses a definition put forward by Guetzkow (1965) to define organisational communication as the matrix which links members to their organisations and which serves as the vehicles by which organisations are embedded in their environments. Organisational communication is viewed as the flow of information through the organisation.

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4:4 Forms of Organisational Communication Lesikar and Pettit (1999) state that that there is internal operational communication which

consists the structured communication within the organisation that directly relates to achieving the organisations work goals and built into the organisations plan of operation, external operational communication concerned with achieving the organisations work goals with the people and groups outside the organisation as well as personal communication which involves all incidental exchange of information whenever people come together. Personal communication influences workers values, opinions and attitudes.

4:5

Factors Influencing Organisational Communication

Lesikar in Davids (1977) point authority structure, job specialisation and information ownership as factors that influence organisational communication. 4:5:1 Authority Structure Authority structure refers to how status and power differences help to determine who will communicate comfortably with whom. 4:5:2 Job Specialisation Job specialisation is the division of work into standardised simplified tasks. Members of a common work group are likely to share the same experiences in time horizons, language, disposition, goals, tasks and personal styles. 4:5:3 Information ownership Information ownership is the possession of unique information and knowledge by certain individuals concerning their work.

34 4:6 Centralised Communication Networks and Decentralised

Communication Networks

Communication in an organisation can be centralised or decentralised. Centralised networks are well structured and have straightforward activities that can be carried out quickly and actively whereas decentralised networks are primarily circle and completely connected without having a central figure receiving information from two or more people and have greater levels of participation and satisfaction than centralised communication networks. The flow of communication in an organisation is either vertical (downward or upward), horizontal, diagonal or can leak through the grapevine. 4:6:1 Downward communication Kreps (1986) asserts that downward communication taking place between superiors and their subordinates is the most basic formal message system in an organisation. Communication between upper management and lower level employees advise, directs, instructs and evaluates. It gives job related information on policy, rules, regulations, standards and procedures but it can be overused and workers can be overburdened with messages. Again, accuracy and relevance can be lost through the bureaucratic structure and managements tendency to exercise power and control. 4:6:2 Upward communication Through upward communication, subordinates supply information known as feedback to their superiors in form of suggestions, requests for decisions, progress reports and explanations on current operations. 4:6:3 Horizontal communication Also known as lateral communication, horizontal communication cuts across the organisational promoting cohesiveness between departments. According to Puth (1994), it coordinates and integrates departments.

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4:6:4 Diagonal communication To evade problems such as delays caused by vertical communication,

organisation members resort to adjacent diagonal communication. Diagonal communication is fast and efficient. 4:6:5 Grapevine The grapevine also known as the bush telegraph is an informal message system .If formal channels of communication in the organisation do not meet the information needs of members, the members normally resort to the grapevine to know how certain developments in the organisation are going to impact the members. Managers should effectively utilise the grapevine to disseminate information related to certain key decisions.

Advantages and disadvantages of the grapevine ADVANTAGES It carries juicy news. Interesting. Information is salient. There are fewer status discrepancies. Quick feedback. DISADVANTAGES It promotes gossip. It can taint reputation. It an promote false rumours and even hurt peoples feelings.

4:5

The Importance of Public Relations in an Organisation

Kreps (1986) defines public relations as all communication activities of sending and seeking information between an organisation and its environment whereas Grunig and

36
Hunt (1984) present it as the management of communication between an organisation

and its publics. All communication attempts in an organisation carry with themselves the public relations thrust of creating goodwill for the organisation and its products. Any communication taking place within or out side an organisation ranging from notices, advertisements, reports, quotations, response to enquiries, telephone messages, letters, brochures and the like should be well conceived and structured for it to create an impression on recipients to enhance the image of the organisation as it operates in a competitive environment. Activity 4:1 Identify and explain situations in which you would use public relations to: a. b. c. d. inform entertain persuade remind in your organisation.

4:6

Communication Technology Used in Organisations

Wofford et al (1977) refer to the work of Thayer (1968) who observed that a given communication event is influenced by intra-personal (motivation and emotion), interpersonal (between two individuals), organisational (structure) and technological factors which include channels, coding systems, storing data and language. To select channels one should consider its richness, availability and effectiveness. 4:6:1 Computers Computers are important in the modern organisation as they are used to carry out various functions ranging from information processing, storage, transmission and retrieval. Information, pictures and graphs can also be stored in large quantities on the computer or on discs than when manual storage and retrieval systems are used. Although computers

37

are vulnerable to fraud like hacking, they are also efficient and accurate when processing and transmitting data as evidenced through sending messages by electronic mail and advertising an organisations offerings on the Internet. They can also be networked to cater for individuals within a confined local area and a wide area. More so, they can accept user passwords so as to prevent abuse and the leakage of confidential information apart from being used along with other equipment to monitor certain organisational processes like the use of cameras to ensure the security of the organisation. Activity Discuss solutions that can be implemented in your organisation to deal with the possible risks associated with using computers.

4:6:2 Using the Telephone Despite the fact that difficult problems are better discussed in face-to face conversations and that there is no record in most cases as well as the ease associated with writing down complex information, the telephone is probably one of the most used means of communication in organisations as it is fast, efficient, reasonably cheap and providing quick feedback especially if the message has been prepared in advance. People who speak on the telephone should pay attention to some of he following points: Write your main message down and appropriately time your call. Introduce yourself and explain your purpose. Be courteous. Listen actively especially to words that are often heard incorrectly. Use your natural voice variably as if you were in a face-to face conversation. Do not make misleading comments but offer genuine assistance. Do not leave the caller holding on for too long. Should you dictate information on the telephone, do it slowly, indicating punctuation

38
marks, allowing the person on the other end to ask questions and have a read back of

the full message before you end the call.

Activity 4.2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the telephone in business? 4:7 Dictation techniques

Lesikar and Pettit (1999) suggest different techniques to be considered when dictating a message to another person. One needs to: Gather the relevant facts. Plan the message. Use an appropriate style making the words flow. Speak in a clear strong voice. Avoid using asides, comments that have nothing to do with the message. Provide the typist with paragraphing, punctuation and other mechanics as needed. Read back what you have dictated as and when necessary.

SUMMARY
Unit four explained the concept of organisational communication and outlined the forms of organisational communication as well as the factors that influence organisational communication. Centralised communication was also compared with decentralised communication including the discussion on public relations roles, plans and programmes in organisations and the communication technology used in organisations. REFERENCES Lesikar, R. V. and Pettit J.D.1999. Business Communication Theory and Practice. Homewood: Richard D. Urwin Incorporation. 39 Naylor, J.1999.Management.London: Financial Times Management.

Wofford, J. C.1977.Organisational Communication. Tokyo: Mc Graw-Hill Kogusha Limited.

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UNIT 5 MANAGING CONFLICT 5:1 INTRODUCTION

This final chapter looks at the definition of conflict, its indicators, and reasons for resistance to change and how these can be addressed to resolve conflict.

5:2 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to: Define conflict. Give reasons for conflict. Identify reasons for resisting change. Describe the tactics of overcoming resistance to change.

5:3

Definition of Conflict

Lacey (2000) defines conflict as two or more sets of needs pulling in different directions. This strife or contest emanates from the fact that members have to interact but having different value, beliefs and behaviours. Involvement in conflict can be direct or indirect between an individual, an organisation and its stakeholders. Competition is conflict between organisations that vie for markets or customers. Activity 5.1 Name your companys competitors.

5:4

Indicators of Conflict in an Organisation

According to Lacey (2000), conflict is dominant if the situations outlined below obtain in an organisation:

41
No face-to-face communication.

More people working behind closed doors. Raised voices. Poor time keeping as in long telephone calls, tea and lunch breaks. Losing documents. Unacceptable delays. Inferior products. Low employee moral. Absenteeism.

5:5

Sources of Conflict

Conflict is essentially caused by: Differences in values, perceptions and priorities. Differences in goals. Inter-dependence of work activities. Inaccurate and incomplete information. Differing methods.

5:6

Dealing With Complaints

Conflict is unavoidable so managers should expect it to come up with creative strategies to handle it in a way that benefits the aggrieved party and the organisation. To deal with conflict, the manager should primarily have an understanding of the policies, rules, regulations, standards and procedures that govern and bind the organisation. It is also necessary to define the type of complaint as it relates to the achievement of the goals of the organisation. 5:6:1 The Four Step Conflict Resolution Model I. Specify or try to name the complaint or conflict.

42
II. Identify and discuss solutions with complainant. You can find a mediator if you

do not agree. III. Offer or implement tangible and the best solutions or changes. IV. Follow up and review progress.

5:7

Why Do People Resist Change?

According to Naylor (1999), people resist change as a result of lack of motivation, different beliefs, attitudes and values, lack of faith in leaders, disagreement on the procedure and lack of faith that the task will be performed. Activity 5.2 Using information from earlier units, explain how communication can be used to reduce resistance to change in an organisation?

5:8

Tactics for Overcoming Resistance to Change

To overcome resistance to change, one needs to: Communicate with individuals affected by the change. Support individuals affected by the change for example, providing them with a conducive working environment, adequate tools and equipment. Negotiate with individuals affected by the change to supply their needs. Manipulate people by giving them incentives like commissions. Co-opt influential people to be part of the decision makers. Coerce people by using force as in using threats (Naylor, 1999). Activity 5.3 List down the names of people and/ or groups you normally interact with and the possible areas of conflict with them.

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SUMMARY
Unit five concentrated on conflict, reasons for it, why people resist change, types of complaints and how to handle conflict and introduce change in an organisation.

REFERENCES
Naylor, J.1999.Management.London: Financial Times Management.

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