Test Number 3~

Horomone- a chemical that is secreted by an endocrine gland and is conveyed by the blood to other organs whose activity it influences. Most hormone has more than one target and more than one action. There are several different classes of hormone but were mainly focusing on the steroid hormones. Sex hormones are steroid hormones. Androgens includes Testerones is a class of sex hormone. The other one is the Estrogens including estradiol. Both sexes have both but its just the differing amount. Some of these hormones will activate the sex limited gene and therefore it will be much stronger in one sex than other. Androgens are responsible for facial hair in men. The sex hormone has organizing and activating effect. The organizing effect occurs well before birth. They will determine whether the brain and the body will develop as male or female. Activating effect occurs during life, puberty. Sexual differentiation is in chromosome, male XY and female XX. Very early in fetal development both genders have mullerian and woffian ducts along with primitive sex organ. The male Y chromosome contains the SRy gene which causes the primitive sex organ to develop into testes and begin to secrete testosterone. It also causes the woffian ducts into seminal vesicles and vas deferens. The MIH (Mullerian inhibiting Hormone) causes the degeneration of the mullerian ducts. Because females dont have the SRy gene, their primitive sex organ develops into ovary and the Woffian ducts degenerate. A high level of testerones will cause a male sexual pattern. A low level will cause a female sexual pattern. This sensitive period in human is 3-4 months in fetal development. You also see some hormonal producing organizing differences in the brain. In the hypothalamus in an area called the Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus, which is larger in males than female, contributes to some male behaviors. In human, testorone can cause these neural changes by itself. In animals testosterones enters the cell and is converted to estradiol. Females dont get masculinized because they have the Alpha-Fetoprotein, which prevents estradiol from entering the cell. The Activating Effect can cause increase in sexual arousal in male and sexual arousal in preovulation in female as well as the menstrual cycle. Oxytocin is responsible for breast-feeding. Gender Identity occurs in human and is uniquely human, and it is related to gender role, a behavior that we expect from a particular sex. Gender roles are determined by culture and environment. Most individual acquires the gender identity that matches their external features, and hormones are a huge part of this acceptance. Some individual that are born with anatomies that are somewhere between female and male.

A common cause of this is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) is excessive amount of testosterone is secreted. It occurs during development and after development. It causes male external genital. These individual are referred to as Intersex. Some XY individual are insensitive to all androgen including testosterone. The disorder is called Androgen Insensitivity. They will have all the appearances of a female along with breast development in puberty but menstruation doesnt occur making them infertile. They will also develop normal female identity. People may not find this out all the way until they get treatment for infertility. Homosexuality is a preference for same sex partners. Hetersexuality is a preference for different sex partner. Both exist in every species in nature. There has been several study to determine the hereditability of homosexuality. For monozygotic twin of a gay male the heredibitiablity rate can be 52% (90s) to 15% (last year). If youre a brother of a dizygotic twin gay male the concordance rate can be 22% to 10%. If youre an adopted brother of a gay male chances are 11% to 4%. Lesbian monozygotic 20%, dizygotic 15%, adopted 6%. There is some genetic component there. Neuroanatomical differences, brain differences, are there. There are hemispheric differences. Heterosexual males have a right hemisphere that is larger than that of heterosexual females and homosexual males. The right amygdala has more synaptic connection in heterosexual males as oppose to hetero females or homo males. The Aneterior commissure (the other way beside the corpus collusum) is larger in hetero females and homo males than in hetero males. The SCN in homo male and hetero female is shaped differently than hetero males. Interstitial nucleus 3, part of the hypothalamus, is smaller in hetero female and homo male than hetero male. Emotions, James-Lange theory said that we are aroused first and then feel the emotion. Insular cortexViolence is genetics and environment. MAO has a form that makes you violent if you have a bad environment. When youre older this is exaserbated because you decide who you hang out with and you tend to hang out with people like you. The Amygdala is important. Part of the amygdala is in the temperal lobe. And people with temporal lobe epilepsy have intermittent explosive disorder, where they try to kill someone and not remember it after. Its also important for priming aggressive behavior, when someone makes you mad youre likely to be even angrier or angry again within 20 minutes. Hormones, there is a real but weak correlation between testosterone and aggression. Men in general fight more, get arrested for violence, insult more than women. These behavior are the worse at the age 15 to 25, and that is when testosterone level is the highest. In a few instances, especially in protection of offspring, females can be as aggressive as males. Seratonin, 5HT, is important for aggression. Low serotonin has been correlated with violent crime and violent suicide. Seratonin levels vary within us 5-10% in a year. In Belgium people discovered that Seratonin is lowest in the spring and highest in suicide. Should we use that to determine who gets out on parole and out of mental hospital. The serotonin measure isnt perfect (there is a chance to get a false positive or vice versa) and it is just a correlation.

Neuron synthesize serotonin from tryptophan which is something we get in our diet. Typtophan has to be transport across the blood brain barrier and shares that transport channel with Phenylalanine so diet high in phenylalanine stops some tryptophan to get into your brain and then you dont get serotonin. Maize, neutrasweet (in diet coke and stuff). You have an enzyme, tryptophan hydroxylase, that converts try to ser. This is from a gene, and if this gene is less active in people will also report being more aggressive and depress. Aggression though isnt associated with depression but violent suicide is. During an aggressive event, the brain releases serotonin. It could be that serotonin is important to inhibiting certain aggressive behavior. Escape. Fear typically has a defined time but anxiety is almost always present. Just as was the case with aggression, the amygdala is also important for fear and escape. The amygdala can detect emotionally provoking stimuli before were even consciously aware it. Destruction of the amygdala is responsible for lack of fear. (Destruction of the temporal lobe leads to Kluver busey because some of the amygdala is in the temporal lobe) Urbach Wiethe disease causes the amygdala to waste away. These individuals have great difficulty recognizing emotions in other especially fear. This lady cant draw a frightful face, and she has difficulty looking at peoples eye, the primary spot for fear. She got beat up several time because of this and she has no sense of personal space. An extreme form of anxiety is Panic Disorder. Individual who suffer from this suffers from extreme sympathetic arousal. There might be some hypothalamic component to Panic Disorder. Drugs that block the receptor for orexin block panic attacks. Important anxiety neurotransmitter are CCK and GABA. In the amygdala CCK is excitatory and Gaba is inhibitory. For example if you inject CCK into the amygdala, you enhance a startle. If you inject a gaba antagonist you can cause a panic attack. Anxiolytic drugs stops anxiety. These drugs work by enhancing gaba. Very early on in the Fifties, the barbituates were used. They were strongly habbit forming and easily overdosed. In 1961 Librium was introduced. It was a part of a new class of drugs called Benzodiazepines, minor tranquilizers. They are prescribe in cases of minor pathology. Theyre sedative, hypnotic drugs. They treat minor cases of pathology. Alcohol is a minor sedative hypnotic and worksthe same way as the Benzos. These drugs work at the GABAa receptor sites and allow Gaba to bind more effectively. There are four binding sites on aGaba receptor. Gaba binds to one of them and the Benzos bind to the other three. When this happens, they twist the receptor sites allowing gaba to bind more strongly. Theyre not really agonist, theyre not enhancing or mimicking. Theyre allosteric modulators because they allow Gaba to bind more effectively. Benzos: The positive effect is reduced anxiety. They also increase sleep, reduce convulsions, relax muscles, and have negative effect on memory. (Barbituates have more sideeffects: theyre much more strongly to be addicted and its easier to overdose.) This is because the amygdala isnt the only place the effect occurs. These effect works 70-80% of the people. The anxiolytic are schedule IV. The barbituates

are schedule III. Thalium and Zanex are both benzos. There can be dependency if theyre taken in higher dose then theyre prescribed for and negative side effect like increase anxiety, insomnia, muscle tightness. Gaba pills arent that useful because it cant cross the blood brain barrier. We make endogenously the endozipenes that works the same way as the benzos receptors. One example of an endozipene is DBI. Glial cells release these endozipenes not neurons. Binding of the endozipenes actually make us more anxious. A lot of fears can be learned. Once a fear occurs, something extremely occurs. That fear within us becomes consolidated. It is a fact that if something happens to have us recall that fear, that memory becomes a kind of flexible, more malleable. We can change it a little bit and reconsolidate it. If you have someone with an extreme fear, that memory is malleable and you can change it a little and make it less frightening. This idea is used to treat phobia as well as PTSD Stress. Fight or Flight. SAM response has two components: neural and then following it is neuroendocrinelogical. When there is something in your environment that scares/stress you, your brain recognizes it and is sent down you spinal cord and you see the sympathetic nervous system which is a part of the autonomic system kicking in (increase in heart rate, breathing, blood pressure). The SAM activation results in the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Then the neuro-endocrinlogical part kicks in. This result in more epinephrine and norepinephrine being release hormonally from your adrenal gland. This prolongs the response. Overall this prepares the body to run or fight. There are also a few effects on your brain like turning on the part of your memory so you can remember the scary part so you can avoid it in the future. Your instincts take over. Along with that other part of your brain shuts down like your prefrontal cortex, as in turning off your ability to behave appropriately in a socially accepted away. Many events can cause sympathetic arousal, mostly negative or even positive. There is not much different in responses to these sympathetic arousals. There is nothing special about lying. Polygraph test do not measure lying they measure sympathetic arousal, and they dont work. Its based on two incorrect assumptions: if youre lying you must be nervous, and if youre nervous then you must be lying. Therefore theyre not admissible in a court of law. Studies with fMRI show that it uses more brain power than telling the truth. Aldridge James is a sociopath and a traitor, but the sociopathy allows him to pass the polygraph test. Voodoo curses kills you because of your belief. You have to believe youre curse and youre about to die. These individuals are completely terrified, and are hyper sympatheticly aroused so much so that when the parasympathetic system comes in and try to slow it down, it does too much and kills you. The HPA axis is the second part of your stress response. Cortisol and endorphins are release from the adrenal due to this. In a flight or fight situation, one of the thing that cortisol does is it mobilizes glucose and enhances the immune system. The endorphins are the painkillers (endogenous opiates are immuneenhancing while the exogenous opiates are immunosuppressing). Over time the cortisol no longer becomes immunosuppressing.

Lots of research has gone into these stress response. Up until the 90s for the most part they used male subjects (mice and rats). Physiological kind of studies tend to use males. There was the researcher in the early 2000 that took a look at all the physiological response and said it make sense for male. This researcher came up with Tend and Befriend, a lot coming from human social psych research deals with affiliation and stress. There is a tremendous difference in this. Females under stress want to be with other people while males want to be by themselves. The idea is that the initial SAM reaction is the same but in female you have hormone coming in and change that initial response in males and females. Students were given and exam and measured their cortisol level. In anticipation of the exam, the males cortisol shot straight up like expected. In females the cortisol went straight down. PsychoNeuroImnology (PNI). The basic role of your immune system is to differentiate between self and nonself (virus, bacteria, or even someone elses kidney). Foreign things are called antigen. People who go through transplant have to stay on the immunosuppressant for life. Two major descriptives of the immune response is specificity and memory. Specificity means some of your immune response is specific. Antibodies for one pathogen is different from another. Memory: the very first time youre exposed to an antigen youre going to mount an immune response against that virus but its going to take a while (7-8 days), but if you are exposed to that same antigen youre going to mount another immune response to it, but its going to be a lot faster and stronger. Thats how vaccines work. When your body was fighting the antigen the first time, it creates lots of the antibodies that can kill it and some of these antibodies become memory cells. How long do memory cell last? We dont know for sure but atleast 30 years. Maybe. Cells of your immune: T-cells are involved in all kind of immune responses. They are important in helping other cells create antibodies and for checking to see if you have cancer. The disease HIV wipes out T-cells so you have no immune response. Other immune cells are B-cells theyre the cells that eventually produce antibodies. Another kind of immune cell you have is neutrophils. They attack any antigen in your system and try to kill it. They are the kamikaze of your immune system. When they kill something theyre killed in the process. Many of these immune cells are known as white blood cells including neutrophils. Pus is dead neutrophils. Macrophages. Humeral response and cell mediated response. The humeral response results in the production of antibodies. The cell mediated response is important for your immune to check to see if you dont have cancer or infected with a virus. The intersection of stress and the immune system is PNI. The entire field of PNI came about because a psychologist doing work in taste aversion. Robert Ader was doing taste aversion work using rats. For his experiment, his CS (novel taste, conditioned stimulus) was sugar water and the US (unconditioned stimulus) cytoxin. He was interested in extinguishing taste aversion which is difficult to extinguish. He would have to re-expose the animal and re-expose them. He began noticing that the animals in the experimental group was dying, and he was sure that it wasnt the cytotoxin. Then he researched his drug and found out that cytotoxin is a very common chemotherapeutic drug. It suppresses your immune system as a sideeffect for killing the cancer cells. So he though that maybe, just maybe everytime he rexposes these animals to the CS, their system is also remembering the immunosuppressant drugs. So he was conditioning a immunosuppressant condition in addition to the taste condition. Prior to this people

thought that the immune system was independent of the brain. But his idea involved classical conditioning, learning, the brain, and that would mean the the immune system has to talk to the brain. He talked to an immunologist, Nick Cohen, who thought he was crazy but decided to experiment it anyways and they saw the conditioning of the immune system. This means that the brain is connected to the immune and theyre interrelated. The nervous system and the endocrine system coexist. You actually see neuroinervation of immune tissue. Throughout your body you have several immune organs: spleen, thymus, lymph nodes. What you see are neuron going into these organs. Under an electron microscope you can actually see neuron synapsing on immune cell. On immune cells, there are receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters. Some of the receptors are Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol. So all the things that get release because of stress, your immune system has receptors for it. If cortisol is continually release, like in a chronic stressing situation, youll see a suppressed immune system. Psychosocial events matter. There was a study about control of stress with rats. They had three groups of rats. Before the study began, every single rat was injected with a tumor cell line that would guarantee cancer in 50% of the subject. The first group was control, placed in a schockbox without any electricity for 30 minutes. They have a second group of animal that was shocked in the shock box, but there was a lever that could turn off the shock. There was a third group yolked control, the shock started the same time for rat 2 and rat 3 and turned off when rat 2 turned off. The first group got around 46% cancer rate. The second group had a 37% cancer rate. The third group had a 73% cancer rate (statistically significant). In England (where you can induce people with disease), an experiment was conducted to see the effect of control and immune. They either expose people to a cold virus or placebo. There was a correlation with the amount of stress and the cold. Learning and Memory How is learning represented in the brain? People used to assume that there was an engram, a physical change in the brain as a result of learning. There is two kinds of learning: classical conditioning (theres a conditioned stimulus (salivation), unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response (salivating for the bell), and unconditioned response (salivating to food). Pavlov won a Nobel prize for and taste aversion is a form of conditioning. The other kind is operant conditioning, a response is followed by a consequencepositive reinforcement (press the button and get food), negative reinforcement (press the button and stop the shock), and punishment (press the button and start the shock). A researcher named Carl Lashley went looking for engram. He came up with two laws about the cortex and learning. The Law of Mass Action states the more involved all the cortex (the more intact it is) is the better the learning. The law of Equipotentiality states that all parts of the cortex contribute equally to learning. There is two unnecessary assumptions: 1) the cortex is the best place to look and 2) all memory was physiologically the same. Work has shown that you can condition a rabbit without a cortex.

There are multiple types of memory. There is Short term memory, memory for events that just occurred. There is Long term memory, memory for events from previous time. They differ in three ways: capacity (short term memory is 7+/- 2 and long term memory is infinite), need for rehearsal (it is only required for short term memory), permanence (if you forget something in your short term memory its gone). Working memory the memory you can remember for a while but not forever. Working memory and short term memory can consolidate to long term memory. Most often, things that are most often remembered are the more vivid and emotional memory. This is usually due to the release of EPI and NE which helps memory retention. This only occurs to a point, but if the memory is too vivid and emotional then you cant remember it. Working memory has three components. The first one is Phonological loop, the part of your brain that stores the sounds or words of the memory. The second is the Visuospatial Sketchpad, and it stores sight or written word with that memory. The Central executive directs your brain to the appropriate stimulus to be stored in working memory. Another kind of memory is implicit memory involves the influence of memory on a behavior without really realizing youre using a memory. An example of an implicit memory is a Procedural memoral, riding a bike or tying your shoe. Then there is Explicit memory, a deliberative recall of information that you know is a memoryfacts and what not. Declarative memory is the ability to state a memory in words. There are two kinds of declarative memory. The first is episodic memory, things you remember that happened to you. The other is semantic memory, text book facts. When you have to remember something, its called Retreival. There are two reasons for forgetting. Either it has never been consolidated or they just cant retrieve. There is two types of Amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia is a loss of memory following some event. They cant form new memories. The other kind is Retrograde Amnesia, you forget things that happen before the event, the past. Korsakoff's syndrome is a neurological disorder caused by the lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the brain.

1. retrograde amnesia, severe memory loss 2. anterograde amnesia 3. confabulation, that is, invented memories which are then taken as true due to gaps in memory sometimes associated with blackouts 4. meager content in conversation 5. lack of insight 6. apathy - the patients lose interest in things quickly and generally appear indifferent to change. When researchers are studying memory in a lab they use several different techniques: 1. Delayed match two sample task (DMTS). Mostly pigeons. First a key with a triangle lights up. Then two signals show up. The first one is a circle and the second one is a triangle. The bird is rewarded for pressing the triangle

2. Delayed nonmatch two sample (DNMTS). This time the circle is rewarded. Both of this are a good measure of working memory. 3. 8 armed maze. There is animal, rat, in the middle of a maze and each arm has food at the end. 4. Morris water tank big tub of water that the animal has to try to swim to the platform to test spatial memory. Three area important for memory: Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, and Basal Ganglia. Hippocampus is important for the delayed nonmatch two sample but only if new stimuli is used each time. If it is the same stumili, damage to the prefrontal cortex matter. Your prefrontal cortex is important for working memory. Your hippocampus is important for declarative memory. Your basal ganglia is important for procedural memory. The basal ganglia is important for movement so it make sense that the basal ganglia would be important. Harry Moliasom (HM) is a classic case of hippocampal damage. He had 10 severe grand mal seizures a day, so in 1953 he had his hippocampus (the area that causes his seizures) and some of his amygdala removed. Personality and Intelligence wise he was fine. He suffered moderate retrograde and severe anterograde amnesia (he could not form new long term memory). His short term and working memory was just fine. His implicit memory was fine. He could do things like puzzle just fine and actually gets faster at doing it. Another group of individual with severe memory problem are those who suffer from Korsakoff syndrome, caused by a thiamine (B1) deficiency. Vitamin B1 helps your brain use glucose. Korsakoff is almost exclusively occurring in Alcoholic. You get brain damage in multiple area but the one more important to memory is the prefrontal cortex. These people have better implicit memory than there explicit along with both kind of amnesia. They also confabulate. They make up memory, some wild guess, especially if you ask them about themselves like what they did yesterday. We also study individuals with Alzheimer disease, another cause of sever memory lost. It starts out as minor confusion and advance to sever memory lost and delusions. Alzheimer is not that typical, less than 5% of people ages 65 to 84 but once you reach 85 your chances sky rockets. Some researchers believe that if you live long enough you will develop it. Just like the other two these people have better implicit memory. People have been looking for genes and other hint for Alzheimer. The vast amount of case is in older adults with no known relative. Chromosome 21 is for sure implicated in Alzheimer. Down syndromes (trisomy 21) have the same brain anatomy as those with Azheimer. Plaques and tangles are apparent in both population. A Plaque is a build of the protein Amyloid Beta. If it is produced directly it is important for neuronal growth and development, if not then it causes Plaque outside the cells. Tangles is the result of the protein Tau, which builds up inside the cell. This result in neurons not working very well. A number of Ach neuron are damaged because of these buildups. There are drugs that are designed to increase the activity of Ach. It is interesting because they can diagnose it as demtia of Alzheimer type, and you cannot diagnose it until you autopsy it.

Semantic demtia. Individual with damage to particular area of the temperal cortex. These people lose their memory of book facts. Infant Amnesia refers to the fact that we cant remember things from our earlier years. There are many theories, one of these is that it is your hippocampus that is immature at birth. Other says it is a result of lack of language; we cant remember something we dont have words to describe.
Scientist use an aplysia, a ugly sea creature, because they have a very simple nerve system. The learn, through the aplysia, how habitualization, forgetting your underwear, and sensualization, remember that youre wearin it, work. The best case for learning something at the cellular level is called Long-term potentiation. If a presynaptic neuron repeatedly sends the same information to the postsynaptic neuron than the postsynaptic neuron is more likely to respond. An example would classical conditioning, CS, US, CS, US. You also see Long term depression, which is thought to be involved in forgetting. See handout. Contralateral control is on opposite side. Ipsilateral means same side control like the case of taste and smells. The Corpus Callosum and the Anterior & HA Commissure are used to communicate information between hemisphere. Your left hemisphere is specialized for language. This division of labor between the two hemisphere is termed Lateralization. Some people that suffer epilepsy might experience seizures that will bounce back and forth between the two hemisphere. The best treatment might be to get the corpus callosum has been cut. This allows a significant decrease in the number of seizures as well as severity. These people with severed corpus callosum are refered to split brain patient. Usually these individual function very well. It is only when information is limited to one side of the body its when you see problem, but only in the beginning of the surgery. When you try to write two different thing with each hand, normal people would have problems with this, but Split brain to patient can do it without any problems. If something is shown to the left hemisphere, right visual field, the person can name it. However if youre showing to your right hemisphere they cant name it but they can point to it. Sometimes they cant communicate well, one hand buttons the other unbuttons. When youre giving a split brain patient a picture and ask what they saw in a yes/no way. Even though the right hemisphere saw it and so the left language hemisphere threw out a guess, the right hemisphere frown. Right hemisphere is known as the original vice president. It doesnt control speech or writing, but it does understand speech and writing. Right hemisphere is important to the emotional component of speech, the affect and intonation. People with right hemisphere damage cant sound angry, they have to vocalize it, Im angry right now. They also miss humor and irony in someone elses speech. It is much more adept in dealing with more complex visual patterns, your visual imagination for example. Magnocellulars cells which is responsible for visual movement are stronger in the right hemisphere. Left hemisphere is more sequential, analytic, and more time dependent. Normal people listen better in their left ear, right hemisphere. Musicians listen to it better in their right ear, left hemisphere. The

Planum Temporale is larger in the left hemisphere and is responsible for language. You have a Lateral Fisher is also larger in the left hemisphere in 15% of the people. Your corpus collossum is slowly decreased in neuron size as it matures. As such there is some interesting experiment with kids of different age. 3 year old and 5 year old can tell the different feel of fabric at two different time, but only 5 year olds can do it simultaneously. Some child arent born with the corpus collosum they function fine because the anterior the HA commisures take on the role quite fast. 10% of the population is left handed. Their corpus collosum is bigger and explicit memory is better. They also dont switch their dominance. Language Is language a human trait. Chimps cant speak because of their vocal cord but can they understand us. Can they acquire language. The first chimp, Washoo, can sign 130 words. Researchers believe they can communicate but critics dont think so. Chimps only ask for reinforcements, they dont form new words, and if you mix up the sentence order they would be confused. Bonobo chimps are our closest chimp cousin. Latata was trained to speak in symbols, and she was okay. Her infants were much better. They can use language to explain the past, and they were talking to each other. There has been two theories of language aquisistion. The first is that language is a byproduct of bigger brain and intelligence, but was discarded because we dont have the biggest brain. There is a genetically defective family with a normal size brain and intelligence but they have difficulty in language and grammar. Williams Syndrome is a chromosome 7 abnormality. Individual with Williams syndrome requires constant care. They have the most basic stuff, self hygiene, and other jobs. They are adept in reading faces because their fusiform gyrus, place for recognizing face, is twice the normal size. They are also incredibly articulate. They are also really good at music. The other theory is that our brain is specialized, a language acquisition device, we are require to learn language. We have a built in mechanism for language. Children pick up language very easily. The Poverty of the Stimulus argument states that children produce grammar that they never heard of before. They inherently know certain grammar rules. The earlier you learn a language a better and your ease of acquisition the better. If you are learning a second language the earlier the better and age 12 is the optimal point. Children that are rear in bilingual homes uses both hemisphere of the brain for both language not just left. Individuals that are first introduced to language at a later age is not very good at all like children that are isolated from everyone. Every now and then someone will lose the ability to speak, aphasia. It can be transient of permanent. If you do, and they autopsy you theyll see damage to brocas area. Brocas area include basal gangla, motor cortex, and some the thalamus. 1. There is a difficult in language production. They have trouble expressing themselves orally or in writing. Deaf people cant sign. 2. They also exhibit Telegraphic speech. They omit articles and conjunction. It is the meaning of those words that theyre confusing not the pronunciation.

3. They have difficulties with phonetics, and phonetic reading. They cant sound out syllable. 4. They have better letter comprehension then production. Sometimes they have difficulties with understanding improper grammar usage. Wernickes area is the near the auditory part of the cerebral cortex. They can produce language but they cant understand written or verbal communication of others. They speak fluent nonsense. 1. Articulate fine, poor comprehesion. 2. Anomia is a difficulty in recalling the name of objects. Every culture has music, but humans are the only species that produces it. When people compose music, language areas are activated. When musicians sight read Brocas area is activated. Individuals prefer music that have the same tone and rhythm as their language. Professional musicians learn a second language easier than normal. Dyslexia has a slight heritability factor, and is more common in males than female, and does exist worldwide. It is more prevalent in the US because English is quite a complex language. It always contain a problem of converting symbols to sound and four genes thus far has been linked to dyslexia. Problem in either of these genes result in hearing or cognition. It is defined as a difficulty in reading when visual and academic skills are adequate. There are some minor brain differences in some dyslexic. There brain are more equal in size. In some people you see less activity in brain activity that are associated with speaking. When theyre reading you dont see the same vocal area lighting up. Reading is complicated because it involves both vision and hearing. In some dyslexic you see auditory problem. It is less responsive to speech sound. It harder for them to pick up the difference between ta and da. Other people have problems with vision, the cant look at the whole word but just individual letters. 1. Dysphonetic dyslexia gives you trouble sounding out words. 2. Dyseidetic they can sound out parts of words but cant put it together as a full word. Consicousness What is going on when you are consciously aware of something because at anymoment there is a lot of stuff going on that you are not aware of. Its called inattentional blindness. The amount of brain activity is more likely and more consciously aware of it. The synchronicity of neuronal firing increase when you are consciously aware of it. Whether you are conscious of a stimuli, whether you are aware of it or not, your brain activity is the same in the first 250 milisecond. You are just going to give more attention to watch you chose and not take away any attention. We are either aware of something or were not. There is no in between. Even before were aware of it, the stimulus of it matter. Highly important stimulus are going to become conscious. Clinical (DSM4) Depression Its an affective disorder as is mania. Depression is by itself in the absent of mania is unipolar depression. If you have depression and mania, its bipolar depression. To diagnose depression you must conduct a differential diagnosis to see if its not something else, like medication or secondary to a medical condition. Five of 9 symptoms must be present must be consecutive 2 weeks, and number 1 and 2 must be part of the five.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Depressed mood most of the day. Diminished interest in pleasure for most of the day. Significant weight lost or weight gain. Insomnia or hypersomnia. Psychomoter agitation or retardation. Fatigue Feeling of worthlessness or guilt Thoughts of suicide.

At any given time 5% of the population is depressed, and about 10% of all people are depressed at least once in their life. Depression is the common cold of psychopathology. There are more females than males that are depressed. The age of onset of the first bought of depression, but its typically 25 to 15. If it is untreated, a single bout of depression can last from 6 months to a year. Individual may have a single episode or multiple episode of depression, the average is four total. There is a genetic thing to depression with a 50% chance between identical twin and 20% for fraternal twin, 17% for closed relative. A particular serotonin transporter gene deficiency is identified in individual with a severe depression. In some cases viral exposure, the Bornavirus, may be the cause of depression. It causes hypo/hyper mania in horses. When they check people for antibodies to the Bornavirus, all people with the antibodies were depressed. Two percent of the population was antibody positive, but 30% of the people that were majorly depressed had it. Of the people that were antibody positive 13% had some other psychiatry illness. Hormonal relationship has an effect of depression. 41% of women admitted to a psych hospital with a diagnoses of depression were admitted on the day preceding or the day of their menstruation. Postpartum depression appears in 20% of women, and about 1 in 1000 becomes severely depress, a psychotic depression. Typically these women had a history of chronic depression. Maybe a problem with thyroid deficiency. Some individual who are depressed has abnormal hemispheric activity. These individuals have less activity, on average, on the left hemisphere. People with left hemisphere damage can also leads to depression. The most well-known theory of depression is the Amine Theory of Depression. It states low level of Norepinephrine (a catecholamine) and serotonin (Indolamine). Most antidepressants are agonists. 30% of people with depression commit suicide. Antidepressant meds fall into one of four category: 1. MAOIs are the last choice. The block MAO, an enzyme that metabolizes the catecholamine and serotonin, allowing these catecholamine and serotonin to stay longer. These tend to have a really bad effect, the Cheese effect. There are few food, including cheese, that causes a rise in blood pressure, and if MAO arent available then there will be an uncheck rise in blood pressure. 2. Tricyclics prevents the reuptake of the catecholamine and serotonin. While MAOIs prevent breakdown, the tricyclates prevent reuptake. 3. SSRI (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) acts only on serotonin. The fewer transmitter a drug effect, the safer they are. It may cause nervousness and anxiety. St. Johns wart is an herb

SSRI but at higher level it can negate the effect of many medication including birth control pills. Exercise can cause an increase in serotonin level. a. SNRI (Selective norephinephrine reuptake inhibitor) act on NE and serotonin like Cymblata. 4. Atypical antidepressant include drugs that act only on norephinephrine, or NE and dopamine (which is also a catecholamine). It is the case that if you take these medication that the neurotransmitter changes are instantaneous. It is also the case that it takes 2 weeks to present behavioral changes. Any change before that is due to placebo effect. More and more data indicates that in general the effect of antidepressants is placebo effect. Some of these antidepressant meds causes or release a hormone (BDNF) an increase of neuron growth in the hippocampus, hence the two week. Stress causes neurodegeneration in hippocampus. Cytokines, chemicals that produce by immune systems like sickness behavior, Theory of Depression says that its an autoimmune thing. If you compare the sickness behavior with depression theyre very identical. An overabundance of cytokines causes depression. Another theory states that there is no such thing as depression and that depressed people are just more realistic. It is just healthier for the rest of us to see the world through rose colored glasses. Pyschotheraphy works just as well as medication and with less relapse. However there is more time and money involved. ECT (electorconvulsive shock therapy) is used almost exclusively for depression though it was used for schizophrenia. It is much more humane. It works faster than meds with 80% of people responding to it.. Patients must give consent, minimal amount of electricity to cause a seizure, and muscle relaxant, to one hemisphere, and theyre anesthetized. People who dont respond to drugs, depressives who are delusional, and people who are depressed and suicidal are given ECT. The side effect is memory lost and it is more time consuming and expensive. Adjustment in Sleep Pattern is also used. For some individual with depression, they enter REM too fast. Keeping people up all night causes a decrease in depression, but it is a quick fix. Just messing around with sleep pattern, or make them sleep earlier so they can enter REM at the same time they usually do. Dysthymia is a less severe form of depression. It is more chronic but less debilitating. Theyre just sad. Mania symptoms 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Elevated mood Inflated self esteem or grandiosity Decrease need for sleep Increase or pressured speech Flight of idea Destructibilty Psychomotor agitation Excessive involvement in risky activity (blow their life saving in Vegas)

It typically doesnt occur by itself. Its normally part of Bipolar.

Type 1 Bipolar disorder is bought of depression and full blown mania. One is as extreme as the other. Bipolar 2 disorder is more depression but with non-full blown mania (with just agitation). One percent of the population is bipolar with no gender difference. The onset is usually in the late 20s. A cycle can last between a few days to a year. Typically the manic phase will last a few weeks, and the depressive phase 3x longer. The drug of choice for bipolar disorder is Lithium, a mood stabilizer. Lithium has to be monitored incredibly closely because the effective dose (ED 50) is incredibly close to the lethal dose (LD 50). It works best on the manic phase and stops the depression stage, but its hard getting them to take it. Valproate and Carbamazenpine are anticonvulsive medication. All 3 blocks Arachidonic Acid, produced during inflammation. Schizophrenia is not multiple personality disorder, it is a psychosis (warped sense of reality) not a neurosis. There are multiple kinds of schizophrenia. Its severe character disorder highlighted by decrease functioning, hallucination, delusions, and thoughts or disorder. In the US, the symptoms must be present for 1 month, in Europe it must be present for atleast 6 months. It is characterized by both positive and negative symptoms. The positive symptoms manifest as the presence of abnormal behavior. 1. Psychotic Cluster: hallucination and delusions. Hallucinations tend to be auditory. 2. Diorganized Cluster: Incoherent speech, bizarre behavior, inappropriate emotion, and thought disorder (an inability to use or understand abstraction, theyre very literal). The Negative symptoms are manifested in the absence of normal behavior. They tend to be deficit in social interaction, affects, and speech. There are a few memory problem. These negative symptoms tend to be active all the time and tend to be less responsive to medication. There are 3 types of Schizophrenics. 1. Disorganized. Confused behavior, inappropriate emotion, incoherent speech 2. Catatonic. They are characterized by their lack of movement. They tend to remain very still and tend to have waxy behavior, you can raise their arm and theyll remain there, basically you can mold them. 3. Paranoid. They have delusions and hallucination. Delusion of Control: space aliens are coming. Delusion of Grandeur: I am Jesus or Napoleon. Delusion of Persecution: Someone is trying to kill me. Schizophrenia can be chronic or acute. Some people may only have a single bout of Schizophrenia and that is it. Phases: 1. Prodromal Phase you begin to see social withdraw. 2. Active phase in the active phase you see the acute symptoms like hallucination and delusion. 3. Residual Phase You see some recovery of function. Ten percent of people remain in this residual phase. Sixty-five alte6rnate between active and residual. And 25% recover completely.

Seven tenth of a percent to one percent of the population are Schizophrenic. Impoverished, lower SES, are more likely to be diagnosed with it. The first bought are somewhere between the ages of 15 to 30. Males have earlier onset, and tends to be more severe. You have to need to give a differential diagnosis to rule out other things to diagnose Schizophrenic. You have to rule out brain tumors or drugs. People have argued that there is a genetic component to Schizo. Identical twin has 50% concordance rate, and fraternal twins have a 15% concordance study. There hasnt been a Schizophrenic gene. Case: Quadruplets, fourth girls, all have schizophrenia, and a lot of their family have some kind of psychiatric disorder. Neural Developmental Hypothesis: Schizophrenia is due to abnormalities with either pre or neonatal development of the nervous system. Stress may exasperate these conditions and a good environment may protect against it but environmental factors dont cause it. 1. There are several either prenatal or neonatal abnormalities that impair brain development that are linked to later Schizo. 2. You can see several subtle behavioral abnormalities early in life. Children have less affect and abnormal movement. 3. There doesnt seem to be any ongoing pathology, no neurodegeneration. 4. More schizophrenic diagnoses following difficult birth: low birth weight, prolong labor, etc. 5. RH factor in blood (fetus tends to be more attacked in second or later in birth). Schizo tends to be more prevalent in second or later. 6. Season of Birth Phenomenon. In northern climate, more schizophrenic are borned in late winter and early spring. The idea is the mother, in the second trimester (fall or early winter) is infected with a flu virus and that has negative effect in the developing child. The virus itself may not cross the placenta but the cytokines released sure can. A fever of 101 tends to slow down the division of fetal neuron. A fever of 104 will kill them. Also no hot bath. 7. Schizophrena is highly correlated with having cats as a child because of some toxoplasmosus. Schizophrenia and the Brain 1. Prefrontal cortex, temporal cortex, hippocampal, and amygdala decreases in size particularly in the left hemisphere. 2. You also see lateral ventricle enlargement. 3. The left hemisphere is hypoactive, and smaller cell body primarily in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. 4. Glial cell development isnt complete. You get fewere markers to tell where the glial cells go. 5. You dont see full development at birth certain things develop later. Substance induce psychotic disorder can be due to amphetamine. Dopamine antagonist were used to treat schizophrenia because Dopamine agonist creates schizophrenic symptoms. Drugs use to treat schizophrenia are called either antipsychotics or neuroleptics. The first two classes of antipsychotic medication were Phenothiazines (thorzine) and Butyrophones (haldol). These drugs have side-effect. They also have effects in the basal ganglia (important for movement). Tardive dyskinesia causes people to walk in this slow and deliberate manner, and its permanent. The second generation are much better and dont work on the basal ganglia. Even if they get better, theyre encourage to keep on taking the med because there is an 80% relapse.

The dopamine theory of schizo might be due to an overactivity of Dopamine. Glutamate theory of Schizo says there is too little glutamate. PCP inhibits glutamate in high doses and it causes both the negative and positive symptoms in Schizophrenia. PCP has very little effect in preadolescent.