Analog Computer Manual

An a log Com pu t i n g
Techn i qu e
by Robert Paz
Chapt er 1
Pr ogr ammi ng Pr i nci pl es and Techni ques
1. Analog Computers and Si mulati on
An anal og comp ut er can be used t o sol ve var i ous t yp es of p r obl ems. I t sol ves t hem i n an
anal ogous w ay ( p un i nt ended) . Tw o p r obl ems or syst ems ar e consi der ed a n a l ogou s i f
cer t ai n or al l of t hei r r esp ect i ve measur abl e quant i t i es obey t he same mat hemat i cal equat i ons.
Most gener al pur pose anal og comput er s use an act i ve el ect r i cal ci r cui t as t he anal ogous syst em
because i t has no movi ng par t s, a hi gh speed of oper at i on, good accur acy and a hi gh degr ee of
ver sat i l i t y. Act i ve el ect r i cal net w or k s consi st i ng of r esi st or s, cap aci t or s, and op amp s
connect ed t oget her ar e cap abl e of si mul at i ng any l i near syst em si nce t he f or w ar d vol t age

2 Anal og Computer Pr i nci pl es
t r ansf er char act er i st i cs of t hese net w or k s ar e anal ogous t o t he basi c l i near mat hemat i cal
op er at i ons encount er ed i n t h e syst em s mat h emat i cal model . By usi ng di ode f unct i on
gener at or s and sp eci al ci r cui t s w hi ch have non-l i near vol t age t r ansf er char act er i st i cs, i t i s al so
possi bl e t o si mul at e nonl i near syst ems.
The mat hemat i cal model of an anal og comp ut er p r ogr ammed t o si mul at e a sp eci f i c p hysi cal
syst em i s i den t i cal t o t h e mat h emat i cal model of t h e syst em. Th e vol t age t r an sf er
char act er i st i cs of t he el ect r i cal net w or ks ar e anal ogous t o t he desi r ed mat hemat i cal oper at i ons.
The i np ut and out p ut vol t ages ( comp ut er var i abl es) ar e anal ogous t o t he cor r esp ondi ng
mat hemat i cal var i abl es ( p r obl em var i abl es) of t he p r obl em. Because of l i mi t at i ons of t he
comput er or i t s associ at ed i nput / out put equi pment , i t i s usual l y necessar y t o change t he scal e
of t he comp ut er var i abl es, t hus f or ci ng t he val ues of a comp ut er var i abl e t o di f f er f r om t he
cor r espondi ng pr obl em var i abl e val ues. I t i s i mpor t ant t o under st and t hat an anal og comput er
sol ut i on i s si mp l y a vol t age w ave f or m w hose t i me dep endency i s t he same as t hat of t he
desi r ed var i abl e.
The nor mal pr ocedur e f or si mul at i ng a syst em st ar t s w i t h det er mi ni ng t he mat hemat i cal model
descr i bi ng t he p hysi cal quant i t i es of i nt er est . An anal og bl ock di agr am i s made t o r el at e t he
sequence of mat hemat i cal op er at i ons and t o ai d i n scal i ng t he var i abl es. Fr om t he anal og
bl ock di agr am t he el ect r i cal comp onent s ar e connect ed t oget her ( p at ched) . The comp ut er i s
oper at ed and t he comput er var i abl es obser ved on a r ecor der or osci l l oscope. Si nce t he out put
i s a comp ut er var i abl e ( vol t age w ave f or m) i t i s necessar y t o conver t t he out p ut var i abl e back
t o t he or i gi nal pr obl em var i abl e.
2. Solvi ng Di fferenti al Equati ons wi th an Analog Computer.
A t yp i cal si mul at i on of a p hysi cal syst em i nvol ves a mat hemat i cal model consi st i ng of a set of
one or mor e di f f er ent i al equat i ons and i ni t i al condi t i ons on t he var i abl es. I f t he syst em i s
l i near , t he di f f er ent i al equat i ons ar e l i near and t he op er at i ons r equi r ed ar e 1) summat i on, 2)
si gn i nver si on, 3) mul t i p l i cat i on by a const ant , 4) i nt egr at i on and 5) di f f er ent i at i on. For
p r act i cal r easons, t he i nt egr at i on op er at i on i s easi er t o i mp l ement t han t he di f f er ent i at i on
op er at i on. The r eason l i es i n t he f act t hat comp ut er si gnal s ar e r eal vol t ages and, t her ef or e,
ar e cor r up t ed by noi se t o some ex t ent . Si nce i nt egr at i on has a t endency t o aver age out t he
ef f ect s of noi se ( w hi l e di f f er ent i at i on w i l l accent uat e i t ) , a mor e p r eci se sol ut i on can be
obt ai ned usi ng i nt egr at i on t echni ques.
Each of t hese op er at i ons may be r ep r esent ed as show n i n Fi gur e 1.1 Act ual r eal i zat i on of
t hese w i l l be di scussed i n t he nex t sect i on.

Chapter 1. Pr ogr ammi ng Pr i nci pl es and Techni ques 3
x( t )
x( t )
1
Si gn I nver si on
( d)
x( t )
y( t ) =
= y( 0) +
0
x( t) dt
t
y( 0)
I nt egr at i on ( c)
ax( t )
x( t )
a
Mul t i pi cat i on by a Const ant
( b)
+
+
y( t ) =
= x
1
(t ) x
2
( t ) + x
3
( t )
Summat i on
( a)
x
1
(t )
x
2
(t )
x
3
(t )
Fi gure 1.1: Basi c Li near Operati ons
As an ex ampl e, consi der t he comput er sol ut i on of t he di f f er ent i al equat i on

dy
dt
y y , ( ) 0 1 ( 1.1)
Si nce t he anal og comput er sol ves t he equi val ent i nt egr al equat i on, w e i nt egr at e bot h si des.

y t y y d
t
( ) ( ) ( ) . +
0
0
t t ( 1.2)
The def i ni t i on of i nt egr at i on gi ven i n Fi gur e 1.1 w oul d r ep r esent equat i on ( 1.2) i f t he i np ut
w er e t he same as t he out p ut . Thi s condi t i on can be easi l y i mp l ement ed by connect i ng t he
i nput t o t he out put as show n i n Fi gur e 1.2.
t
y( t ) =
= y( 0) +
0
y( t) dt
y( 0)
Fi gure 1.2: Block Di agram Reali zati on of the I ntegral Equati on.
I t i s i mp or t ant t o not e t hat i t i s not necessar y t o know t he i np ut of t he i nt egr at or i n or der t o
sol ve equat i on ( 1) , but onl y t hat t he i nput must be equal t o t he out put at al l t i mes. The i dea of
f eedi ng an unk now n out p ut back t o t he i np ut t o gener at e a sol ut i on i s basi c t o anal og

comp ut er sol ut i on of di f f er ent i al equat i ons. Thi s i s not unr easonabl e si nce t he di f f er ent i al
equat i on det er mi nes t he cl ass of sol ut i ons, w hi l e t he i ni t i al condi t i ons det er mi ne t he sp eci f i c
sol ut i on.
A hi gher or der l i near di f f er ent i al equat i on may be handl ed by r educi ng i t t o a set of f i r st or der
equat i ons and f ol l ow i ng a si mi l ar pr ocedur e. For ex ampl e,

d y
dt
dy
dt
y y y
2
2
0 0 1 0 0 + + , ( ) , ( ) , ( 1.3)
may be t ur ned i nt o t he set of equat i ons

, ( ) x x x
1 2 1
0 1 ( 1.4a)

, ( ) x x x x
2 1 2 2
0 0 ( 1.4b)
w her e

x y
1
, and

x dy dt
2
. The equi val ent i nt egr al f or ms ar e

x t x x d
t
1 1 2
0
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) +
t t , ( 1.5a)

x t x x x d
t
2 2 1 2
0
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +
[ ]
t t t ( 1.5b)
Equat i ons ( 1.5a) and ( 1.5b) may be i mpl ement ed usi ng t he ci r cui t show n i n Fi gur e 1.3.
x
1
( t )
x
1
( 0)
( Equat i on 1.5b) ( Equat i on 1.5a)
x
2
( 0)
x
2
( t )
Fi gure 1.3: Ci rcui t Reali zati on of the Second Order Equati on.
3. Physi cal Reali zati on of Li near Operati ons on an Analog Computer.
I n sect i on 2, t he di f f er ent i al equat i on w as ex p r essed i n t er ms of a set of gener al mat hemat i cal
oper at i on. No at t empt w as made t o di scuss how t hese oper at i ons w er e r eal i zed w i t h physi cal

comp onent s. I n t hi s sect i on, t he basi c l i near op er at i ons of summat i on, mul t i p l i cat i on by a
const ant , and i nt egr at i on w i l l be di scussed. The oper at i on of si gn i nver si on w i l l be i nher ent i n
t h e summat i on and i nt egr at i on op er at i ons as a r esul t of const r uct i on conveni ence and
ver sat i l i t y.
( a) The Operational Amplifier ( Op Amp) .
The op er at i onal amp l i f i er i s a hi gh gai n amp l i f i er w i t h a w i de var i et y of ap p l i cat i ons. The
amp l i f i er i s usual l y descr i bed i n t er ms of i t s gai n, i np ut i mp edance, out p ut i mp edance,
bandw i dt h , and of f set ch ar act er i st i cs. An op er at i onal amp l i f i er usual l y h as t w o i np ut
t er mi nal s. The t w o i np ut t er mi nal s ar e mar ked w i t h a ( +) t o i ndi cat e t he noni nver t i ng i np ut
and a ( ) t o i ndi cat e t he i nver t i ng i np ut . An equi val ent ci r cui t f or an op amp and a st andar d
symbol ar e show n i n Fi gur e 1.4.
V
1
V
1
V
o
V
o
V
2
V
2
R
i n
R
ou t
( a)
( b)
+
V
g
V
g
= A
v
( V
2
V
1
)
+
Fi gure 1.4: (a) The Ci rcui t Symbol for an Op Amp, (b) An Equi valent Op Amp
Ci rcui t.
( b) Summers and I nverters.
Th e el ect r i cal ci r cui t w h ose t r ansf er ch ar act er i st i cs ar e anal ogous t o t h e mat h emat i cal
oper at i on of summat i on i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.5 ( f or an ni nput summer ) . Appl yi ng Ki r chof f s
cur r ent l aw at t he summi ng j unct i on gi ves

i i i i
n f a 1
+ + + ... ( 1.6)
or , i n t er ms of vol t ages

V V
R
V V
R
V V
R
V
R
x n x
n
o x
f
x
i n
1
1

+ + + ... . ( 1.7)
Not e t hat si nce

V A V
o v x
, t hen equat i on ( 1.7) can be r ew r i t t en


V
R
V
R
V
R
V
A R
n
n
o
f
o
v
1
1
+ + + ... , ( 1.8)
w her e

1 1 1 1 1
1
R R R R R
n f i n
+ + + + L . ( 1.9)
V
n
R
1
R
n
V
1
i
1
i
n

V
o
R
i n
R
ou t
+
V
g
R
f i
f
Fi gure 1.5: Summi ng Ampli fi er
By i sol at i ng

V
o
, w e obt ai n,

V
R
R
R
A R
V
R
R
R
A R
V
o
f
f
v
f
n
f
v
n

+
_
,
_
,
1
1
1 1
... . ( 1.10)
Si nce t he op amp has a ver y hi gh vol t age gai n ( usual l y > 10
5
) , w e assume t hat

A
v
. Thus,
equat i on ( 1.12) r educes t o

V
R
R
V
R
R
V
o
f f
n
n

1
1
... . ( 1.10)
Usual l y, anal og di agr ams ar e gi ven i n t er ms of symbol s w hi ch r ep r esent t he el ect r i cal ci r cui t .
For t hi s w ei ght ed summat i on, t he anal og symbol i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.6, and w e have t he
out put equat i on

V K V K V
o n n

1 1
... , ( 1.11)
and


K
R
R
i n
i
f
i
, , , 1 K . ( 1.12)

V
o
V
1
V
n
K
1
K
n
Fi gure 1.6: Wei ghted Summi ng Ampli fi er

Si nce t he ci r cui t i n Fi gur e 1.5 i s t o be i mpl ement ed on t he anal og comput er , i t i s essent i al t hat
t he summi ng oper at i on i ndi cat ed by Fi gur e 1.6 and equat i ons ( 1.11) and ( 1.12) be under st ood
t hor oughl y.
Not e t hat t he i nher ent si gn i nver si on i s a r esul t of t he negat i ve vol t age gai n of t he op amp .
Thus, t he i nver t er w hi ch i nver t s t he si gn of i t s i nput i s a speci al case of t he summer w i t h onl y
one i nput and w i t h

K
1
1 . The t r ansf er char act er i st i c i s gi ven by

V V
o

1
. ( 1.13)
1
10
1
10
1
V
o
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
Fi gure 1.7: Analog Di agram for Example 1.1.
Ex ampl e 1.1: Det er mi ne t he ci r cui t t o pr oduce t he out put vol t age gi ven by

V V V V V
o
+ +
1 2 3 4
10 10 . ( 1.14)
Sol ut i on: An anal og di agr am ( i .e. i n t er ms of symbol s) f or equat i on ( 1.14) i s gi ven i n Fi gur e
1.7. The ci r cui t di agr am w hi ch must be p at ched on t he anal og comp ut er t o r eal i ze equat i on
( 1.14) i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.8.

50k
5k
5k
50k
50k
50k 50k
V
4
V
3
V
2
V
1
V
o
Fi gure 1.8: Electroni c Ci rcui t for Example 1.1.
I n an act ual amp l i f i er , t he out p ut vol t age w i l l not be zer o w hen

V
i
and

V
n
ar e zer o. Thi s
ef f ect i s cal l ed t he of f set and i s usual l y measur ed as i s show n i n t he dr aw i ng bel ow . The val ue
of

V
os
r equi r ed t o r educe

V
o
t o zer o under t he condi t i ons show n i s cal l ed t he of f set vol t age.
Under t he condi t i ons show n (

V
o
0 ) , t he of f set cur r ent ,

I
os
,
i s def i ned as

I I
x y

. Not e
t he t er mi nat i on at t ached t o t he noni nver t i ng i nput i n Fi gur e 1.9.
R
f
V
o
R
n
R
i
V
os
I
x
I
y

R
R R
R R
n
i f
i f
+
Fi gure 1.9: Op Amp Ci rcui t Showi ng the Offset Voltage
I n an act ual ampl i f i er , t he out put vol t age

V
o
i s not nor mal l y zer o w hen

V V
x y
. Thi s ef f ect i s
of t en descr i bed i n t er ms of t he common mode gai n ( CMG) and t he common mode r ej ect i on
r at i o ( CMRR) . Measur ement of t he CMG and CMRR ar e i l l ust r at ed i n Fi gur e 1.10.

CMRR
k V
V
o
CM
( 1.15)

V
o
V
os
Fi gure 1.10: Op Amp Confi gurati on for Determi ni ng CMRR
Oper at i onal ampl i f i er s come i n many f or ms. As an ex ampl e t he char act er i st i cs of t he A 709
( a si mpl e i nt egr at ed ci r cui t ampl i f i er ) ar e gi ven bel ow .

A
v
45,000

V
os
1 mV ( t ypi cal f or

R
i
< 10k )

I
os
0.2A

R
i n
100k

R
ou t
150
CMRR 90dB
( c) Multiplication by a Constant ; Reference Voltages.
The op amps on t he Comdyna GP-6 comput er ar e const r uct ed w i t h 5K and 50k r esi st or s onl y.
Thus, i n or der t o r eal i ze gai ns ( const ant mul t i p l i er s) ot her t han 1/ 10, 1 and 10, anot her
t echni que must be used. The coef f i ci ent pot ent i omet er ( pot ) i s a vol t age di vi der w hi ch al l ow s
t he out p ut vol t age t o be some f r act i on of t he i np ut vol t age. A p ot t hus has a gai n of l ess t han
uni t y. The el ect r i cal ci r cui t di agr am and anal og comp ut er di agr am ar e show n i n Fi gur e 1.11.
The t r ansf er char act er i st i c i s gi ven by

V V
o i n
a a , . 0 1 ( 1.16)
V
o
= aV
i n
V
o
V
i n
V
i n
( a)
( b)
a
a

Fi gure 1.11: (a) Ci rcui t Symbol, (b) Analog Computer Symbol for
Potenti ometer.
The gai n a i s al w ays p l aced out si de t he p ot w i t h t he i nsi de r eser ved f or a p ot i dent i f i cat i on
number . A const ant t er m i n a di f f er ent i al equat i on i s obt ai ned by usi ng a dc r ef er ence vol t age
w hi ch i s sup p l i ed on t he comp ut er . I t s val ue i s usual l y t he r ange of t he op amp s. For t he
GP-6, t hi s i s 10v. Not e t hat t he act ual di al s f or t he pot ent i omet er ar e i l l ust r at ed i n Appendi x
A.
Ex ampl e 1.2: Det er mi ne t he anal og di agr am and ci r cui t t o i mpl ement t he equat i on

V V V
o
+ + 0 35 5 24 2 6
1 2
. . . . ( 1.17)
Sol ut i on: The anal og di agr am i s gi ven i n Fi gur e 1.12 and t he el ect r i cal ci r cui t i n Fi gur e 1.13. A
GP-6 w i r i ng di agr am i s suppl i ed i n Fi gur e 1.14 t o i l l ust r at e t he act ual connect i ons needed.
1
10
10
1
.350
.524
.260
V
o
V
1
V
2
Fi gure 1.12: Analog Di agram for Example 1.2.
.260
50k
5k
50k
5k
.524
.350
5k
5k
V
2
V
1
V
o
10
Fi gure 1.13: Ci rcui t Di agram for Example 1.2.

SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
1
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
2
1 2 3
+
+
COEFFICIENT POT
V1
V2
Fi gure 1.14: GP-6 Wi ri ng Di agram for Example 1.2.
( d) I ntegrators.
I nt egr at i on i s t he most i mp or t ant op er at i on avai l abl e on t he anal og comp ut er . I n f act , anal og
comput er s ow e t hei r ex i st ence t o t hei r abi l i t y t o i nt egr at e r api dl y. I nt egr at i on i s di f f er ent f r om
i nver si on and summat i on because i t i s t i me dep endent . I nt egr at i on can be accomp l i shed by
r epl aci ng t he f eedback r esi st or of t he summer w i t h a capaci t or . The r esul t i ng el ect r i cal ci r cui t
f or an i nt egr at or i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.15.
C
V
o
V
1
V
n
R
1
R
n
i
1
i
n
V
x
i
f
Fi gure 1.15: Electri cal Ci rcui t for an n- I nput I ntegrator.
Usi n g t h e same p r ocedur e an d ap p r ox i mat i on s as used f or t h e summer , t h e t r an sf er
char act er i st i c f or t he ci r cui t of Fi gur e 1.15 becomes


V t V
V
R C
V
R C
d
o o
n
n
t
( ) ( )
( )
...
( )
+ +
1
]
1
0
1
1
0
t t
t ( 1.17)
Agai n, t her e i s a si gn i nver si on i n t he i nt egr at i on op er at i on as a r esul t of t he negat i ve vol t age
gai n of t he op amp . Not e t hat summat i on and i nt egr at i on can be p er f or med w i t h a si ngl e
ampl i f i er . The anal og comput er symbol f or t he i nt egr at or i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.16.
El ect r oni c Swi t ch

V
n
V
1
V
o
V
o
( 0)
K
n
K
1
Fi gure 1.16: Analog Computer Di agram for an I ntegrator.
The el ect r oni c sw i t ch t er mi nal ( ES) i s used t o cont r ol t he op er at i ng modes of t he i nt egr at or .
The nor mal modes of op er at i on ar e t he i ni t i al condi t i on ( I C) mode and t he op er at e ( OP)
mode. The I C mode al l ow s t he i nt egr at or cap aci t or s t o be char ged t o t he i ni t i al val ues, w hi l e
t he OP mode causes t he sol ut i on t o occur . Thi s sequence i s show n f or t he ex ampl e i n Fi gur e
1.17. The sw i t ches f or t he I C, HD, OP, and RO ar e i l l ust r at ed i n Appendi x A.
10v
10v
1 2
t
( a)
( b)
E.S. t = 0
10V
+10V
1
V
o
V
o
Fi gure 1.17: (a) Analog Computer Di agram for Example 1.3, (b) Voltage Output
for Example 1.3.
The el ect r oni c sw i t ch i s not hi ng mor e t han a SPDT sw i t ch w i t h one p ol e gr ounded. Cont r ol
of t he el ect r oni c sw i t ch i s made t hr ough a sw i t ch dr i ver and l ogi c ci r cui t s w hi ch ar e usual l y
cont r ol l ed by t he comput er mode cont r ol sw i t ches on t he f r ont panel . I t i s i mpor t ant t o not e,
concer ni ng t he anal og symbol f or t he i nt egr at or , t hat i )

V
o
( ) 0 must be ap p l i ed t o t he I C

t er mi nal t o get

+V
o
( ) 0 at t he out p ut and i i ) t he el ect r oni c sw i t ch, ES, i s usual l y i mp l i ed and
not show n unl ess i t i s used i n an unconvent i onal manner .
Ci r cui t di agr ams f or t he i nt egr at or ar e show n i n Fi gur e 1.18. I n t he i ni t i al condi t i on st at e,
i l l ust r at ed by Fi gur e 1.18a, t he cap aci t or char ges t o

V
i c
w hi ch can be used t o r ep r esent an
i ni t i al condi t i on. When i n t he OP mode, t he out p ut of t he syst em i s t he negat i ve of t he
i nt egr al of t he i np ut st ar t i ng f r om t he i ni t i al condi t i on. The equi val ent ci r cui t under t hese
condi t i ons i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.18b. Not e t hat t he i ni t i al condi t i on p ar t of t he ci r cui t i s
gr ounded.
R
R
C
+
V
o
V
i c
V
i
R
i
V
i c
R
R
C
V
o
V
i c
V
i
R
i
( a)
( b)
Fi gure 1.18. (a) I ntegrator Ci rcui t i n I C Mode, (b) I ntegrator Ci rcui t i n OP
Mode.
4. A Systemati c Procedure for Programmi ng Di fferenti al Equati ons
Al t hough t he p r ocedur e p r esent ed i n Sect i on 2 may be used t o det er mi ne t he anal og di agr am
of a l i near di f f er ent i al equat i on, a mor e syst emat i c ver si on w i l l be devel op ed. Thi s p r ocedur e
does not r equi r e t hat a f i r st or der i nt egr al equat i on be consi der ed f or each i nt egr at or , but
i nst ead r equi r es an equat i on f or t he hi ghest or der der i vat i ve. Thi s equat i on w i l l cor r espond t o
Equat i on ( 1.4) i n Sect i on 2. Ther e i s no essent i al di f f er ence i n t he t heor y or r esul t s of t he t w o
t echni ques. Onl y t he st eps r equi r ed di f f er .
Consi der , f or p ur p oses of i l l ust r at i on, t he second or der l i near di f f er ent i al equat i on and i ni t i al
condi t i ons,

d x
dt
dx
dt
x x x
2
2
0 5 4 0 0 0 1 + + . , ( ) , ( ) . ( 1.18)
I f any der i vat i ve of a var i abl e i s know n, t hen i t may be i nt egr at ed t o obt ai n t he var i abl e. I n t he
case of Equat i on ( 18) i f t he second or der der i vat i ve ( d
2
x/ dt
2
) w er e know n, t hen i t coul d be

i nt egr at ed once t o obt ai n t he f i r st or der der i vat i ve ( -dx/ dt ) and a second t i me t o obt ai n t he
var i abl e ( x) . Not e t hat si nce t he i nt egr at or has a si gn i nver si on associ at ed w i t h i t , t he out p ut
of ever y odd i nt egr at i on i s negat i ve. But Equat i on ( 1.18) gi ves t he second or der der i vat i ve i n
t er ms of t he l ow er or der ed der i vat i ve. Thus,
( 1) I f

d x dt
2 2

i s know n,

dx dt and x may be obt ai ned;
( 2) I f

dx dt and x ar e know n,

d x dt
2 2
may be obt ai ned.
Thi s ci r cul ar ar gument st at es t hat onl y t he r el at i onshi p bet w een t he i nput s and out put s of t he
i nt egr at or s ar e know n, not t he act ual val ues of t he i np ut s and out p ut s. Thi s shoul d not seem
t oo st r ange si nce a di f f er ent i al equat i on r ep r esent s onl y t he cl ass of sol ut i ons. The boundar y
val ues or i ni t i al condi t i ons ar e necessar y t o det er mi ne a p ar t i cul ar sol ut i on. The i ni t i al
condi t i ons have not yet been consi der ed.
The pr ogr ammi ng pr ocedur e i s t hen as f ol l ow s:
( a) Assume t hat t he hi ghest or der der i vat i ve (

d x dt
2 2
i n t hi s case) i s know n and gener at e al l
l ow er or der der i vat i ves as show n i n Fi gur e 1.19. Not e t hat t he out put shoul d al w ays be x, not
-x, si nce x i s t he desi r ed sol ut i on.

1
x
x
1
x

Fi gure 1.19: Analog Ci rcui t for a Double I ntegrator
( b) Sol ve t he di f f er ent i al equat i on f or t he i nput t o t he i nt egr at or st r i ng and f or m t he i ndi cat ed
sum.

d x
dt
dx
dt
x
2
2
0 5 4 + . ( 1.19)
( Don t f or get t hat t he summer al so i nver t s! ) . See Fi gur e 1.20.
1
1
1
4.0
x

.5
x
x
Fi gure 1.20: Generati ng the Second Deri vati ve.

( c) Combi ne t he r esul t s of ( a) and ( b) usi ng pot s, summer s and i nver t er s w her e r equi r ed. See
Fi gur e 1.21.
( d) Add al l t he i ni t i al condi t i ons. Recal l t hat t he ap p l i ed i ni t i al condi t i on shoul d be t he
negat i ve of t he i nt egr at or ou t pu t at t = 0. See Fi gur e 1.21.
1
x
x
1
x

1
1
1
.4
1
-10v
.5
[ x( 0) ]
[ x( 0) ]

Fi gure 1.21: Analog Di agram for the Second-Order System.
Al t hough Fi gur e 1.21 i s t he f i nal di agr am, i t i s possi bl e t o r emove t he summer by r ecal l i ng t hat
t he i nt egr at or can al so be a summer . I nver t er s must t hen be i nser t ed or r emoved f r om each
f eedback l oop t o t ak e car e of t he si gn i nver si on. Usual l y, t he f or m w hi ch uses t he l east
number of el ement s ( pot s, amps, et c.) i s t he pr ef er r ed f or m si nce t he pr obabi l i t y of a bad l ead
or el ement i n t he p at ched p r obl em i s l essened. Fi gur e 1.22 r ep r esent s t he same p r obl em as
Fi gur e 1.21, but w i t h t he summer r emoved. Fi gur e 1.23 show s how Fi gur e 1.22 w oul d
act ual l y be w i r ed up on t he GP-6.
1
x
x
1
1
1
.4
1
-10v
.5
.1
-10v

Fi gure 1.22: Alternate Di agram, wi th Reduced Number of OpAmps

SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
1 2
1
1
1
.1
SJ
5
1 2 3
7
+
+
COEFFICIENT POT
Fi gure 1.23:. GP-6 Wi ri ng Di agram for Fi gure 1.22
As anot her ex ampl e, consi der a gener al t hi r d or der l i near di f f er ent i al equat i on. The pr ocedur e
may be ex t ended f or a syst em of any or der . We have

d x
dt
a
d x
dt
a
dx
dt
a x f t
o
3
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + ( ) , ( 1.20)
w i t h i ni t i al condi t i ons

x x x x x x
o o o
( ) , ( ) , ( ) 0 0 0 . ( 1.21)
Usi ng t he pr ocedur e out l i ned above:
( a) For m t he i nt egr at or st r i ng
x

x
x
x
1
1 1

Fi gure 1.24: A Thi rd-Order Stri ng of I ntegrators.
( b) Sol ve f or t he i nput t o t he i nt egr at or st r i ng and f or m t he i ndi cat ed sum.


+ +
d x
dt
a
d x
dt
a
dx
dt
a x f t
o
3
3
2
2
2
1
( ) , ( 1.20)
1
1
1
f ( t )
x

1
a
1
x
a
0
x

a
2
x
Fi gure 1.25: Generati ng the Thi rd Deri vati ve.
( c) Combi ne t he r esul t s of ( a) and ( b) .
( d) Add t he i ni t i al condi t i ons and r emove t he summer si nce one l ess amp l i f i er i s
r equi r ed. The r esul t i s show n i n Fi gur e 1.26.
[ x( 0) ]
1
x
1
1
1
1
1
1
f ( t )
1
1
[ x( 0) ]

x

x
x

a
2
a
1
a
0
[ x( 0) ]
Fi gure 1.26: The General Thi rd-Order System.

5. Tri cks wi th Transfer Functi ons
Suppose w e have t he f i r st -or der t r ansf er f unct i on

G s
Y s
U s
a
s b
a b ( )
( )
( )
, ,
+
< < 0 10 0 10
Thi s can be dr aw n i n ei t her of t he al l -i nt egr at or di agr ams show n i n Fi gur e 1.27.
y( t ) u ( t )
a
b
+

y( t )
u ( t )
+

a
b

Fi gure 1.27: Equi valent All-I ntegrator Di agrams
Because t he gai ns ar e of val ues l ess t han 10, t hen not hi ng mor e t han a 10x i np ut i s needed.
Ex ampl e anal og comput er di agr ams ar e show n f or t he t w o bl ock di agr ams as show n i n Fi gur e
1.28. We not e t hat t he anal og comput er does ver y w el l at i mpl ement i ng a f i r st -or der syst em.
10
10
u ( t )
b/ 10
a/ 10

y( t )
10
10
u ( t )
b/ 10
a/ 10

y( t )
( a) ( b)
Fi gure 1.28: Analog Computer Fi rst Order Di agrams
Of t he t w o ci r cui t s, bot h have advant ages and di sadvant ages. The ci r cui t ( a) has t he advant age
t hat t he out put comes di r ect l y f r om an op-amp, and can t hus be used t o dr i ve anot her ci r cui t .
Thi s ci r cui t i s al so good i f an i ni t i al condi t i on,

y ( ) 0 , i s gi ven. I t has t he di sadvant age t hat i t s
i nput has a pot bef or e ent er i ng t he op amp. Thus, t hi s ci r cui t w i l l t end t o l oad w hat ever si gnal
i s dr i vi ng i t . The ci r cui t ( b) has t he advant age t hat i t does not l oad t he ci r cui t t hat i s dr i vi ng i t ,
but has a p ot on t he out p ut , and i s t hus not ver y usef ul i n dr i vi ng anot her ci r cui t . Bot h of
t hese ci r cui t s, how ever may be used i n a hi gher -or der t r ansf er f unct i on r eal i zat i on. For
ex ampl e, i f a t r ansf er f unct i on has si mpl e r eal pol es and t he cascade f act or i zat i on

G s
a
s p
a
s p
a
s p
n
n
( )
+
_
,
_
,
_
,
1
1
2
2
L
w her e al l t he coef f i ci ent s ar e of magni t ude l ess t han 10, t hen t hese ci r cui t s may be si mp l y
cascaded ( p ut i n ser i es) t o f or m t he over al l t r ansf er f unct i on. Some suggest i ons t o t hi s
appr oach i ncl ude
i ) Usi ng ci r cui t ( b) t o i mpl ement t he f i r st ( i nput ) st age, and ( a) as t he out put st age.
i i ) Al t er nat i ng ci r cui t s t o combi ne coef f i ci ent s and t hus r educe t he number of r equi r ed
pot ent i omet er s.
i i i ) Usi ng an addi t i onal i nver t er on t he out put i f t her e ar e an odd number of pol es.
I f our t r ansf er f unct i on has t he par t i al f r act i on ex pansi on


G s d
c
s p
c
s p
c
s p
n
n
( ) +
+
+
+
+ +
+
1
1
1
2
2
L
t hen w e may i mpl ement t hi s t r ansf er f unct i on usi ng t he f i r st -or der ci r cui t s i n par al l el , w i t h t he
out put of each ent er i ng i nt o a summer . I n t hi s case, ci r cui t ( b) w oul d be pr ef er abl e t o pr event
l oadi ng t he i nput .

20 Anal og Computer Techni que
Chapt er 2
Magni t ude and Ti me Scal i ng Techni ques
1. Scali ng
I n t he sol ut i on of t he p r obl ems descr i bed i n Chap t er 1, no consi der at i on w as gi ven t o t he
magni t udes of t he p r obl em var i abl es nor t o t he t i me r equi r ed f or sol vi ng each p r obl em.
Equi p ment const r ai nt s usual l y r est r i ct t he max i mum vol t age out p ut of each amp l i f i er t o 10
vol t s. I f t he p r obl em di ct at es a l ar ge vol t age out p ut , amp l i f i er over l oad occur s and t he
sol ut i on i s i nval i d. For ex amp l e, i f t he p r obl em of cal cul at i ng a r ocket sp eed w er e sol ved on
t he GP-6 comput er , i t w oul d be i mpossi bl e t o r el at e 1 v on t he comput er t o 1 f t / sec i n t he r eal
p r obl em. How ever , t he p r obl em mi ght be sol ved by r el at i ng 1 v on t he comp ut er t o 1
mi l e/ sec i n t he pr obl em. We see t hat t he pr obl em must be magni t ude scal ed so t hat i t w i l l f i t
t he comp ut er . Si mi l ar l y, i n t he same p r obl em an accel er at i on t er m mi ght have a max i mum
val ue of 1 f t ./ sec
2
. Usi ng t he basi c uni t of mi l es f or l engt h as det er mi ned f or scal i ng t he
vel oci t y w oul d gi ve a vol t age of appr ox i mat el y 0.002 v w hi ch cor r esponds t o t he accel er at i on
t er m. Thi s si gnal i s i n t he noi se l evel of t he comp ut er and w oul d yi el d er r oneous r esul t s.
Thus, t he samp l e sol ut i on of one basi c change of uni t s f or t he ent i r e p r obl em w i l l not al w ays
w or k. I t i s necessar y t o scal e up some par t s of a pr obl em and scal e dow n ot her par t s.
Ti me scal i ng i s needed, f or ex amp l e, w hen w e w i sh t o st udy a basi c p hysi cal p henomenon
w hi ch evol ves much f ast er or much sl ow er t han i s conveni ent f or t he comp ut er op er at or . I f
w e w i sh t o st udy pl anet ar y mot i on, w e w i l l not have t he t i me t o w ai t f or a compl et e per i od of
r evol ut i on about t he sun. An act ual t i me of one year may be r ep r esent ed by, say, 10 seconds
of comp ut er t i me. Ther e ar e ot her r easons f or t i me scal i ng, some of w hi ch w e shal l di scover
shor t l y.
2. Magni tude Scali ng Basi c Pri nci ples
Magni t ude scal i ng i s needed w henever a p r obl em var i abl e ex i st i ng as an amp l i f i er out p ut
becomes so l ar ge t hat t he ampl i f i er over l oads or w hen t he pr obl em var i abl e becomes so smal l
t hat t he ampl i f i er out put noi se i s t he pr edomi nant out put si gnal .
Example 2.1. Consi der t he f ol l ow i ng di f f er ent i al equat i on:

Chapter 2. Magni tude and Ti me Scal i ng Techni ques 21

dx
dt
x x + . , ( ) . 1 5 0 0 ( 2.1)

x
1
1
.5
-10v
.1
1
3
6
Fi gure 2.1: Analog Di agram for Example 2.1
To sol ve t hi s p r obl em, an anal og di agr am r ep r esent i ng Equat i on ( 2.1) i s dr aw n f ol l ow i ng t he
pr ocedur es gi ven i n Chapt er 1. Af t er pat chi ng t he anal og di agr am of Fi gur e 2.1, a t r i al r un on
t he comp ut er w oul d yi el d an over l oad on amp l i f i er 3. The r eason i s suggest ed by t he
anal yt i cal sol ut i on of Equat i on ( 2.1) ,

x t e
t
( ) ( )
.
50 1
1
. ( 2.2)
x( t ) vol t s
50
25
10
Ampl i er 3 over l oads her e.
Fi gure 2.2 Theoreti cal Output of the Ci rcui t of Example 2.1.
Cl ear l y, t he ampl i f i er over l oads because i t cannot suppl y t he 50 vol t s r equi r ed by t he pr obl em.
The basi c di f f i cul t y st ems f r om t he f act t hat 1 vol t on t he comp ut er cor r esp onds t o 1 uni t of
t he pr obl em var i abl e ( x) . Thus, t o avoi d t hi s di f f i cul t y, a di f f er ent cor r espondence must be set
up t o r el at e x t o t he comp ut er vol t age ( v ) . Si nce t he max i mum val ue of v i s 10 vol t s, l et 5
uni t s of x cor r esp ond t o 1 vol t of v ( i .e. v = x/ 5) . Then w hen x i s 50, v w i l l be 10 vol t s and
t he amp l i f i er w i l l not over l oad. The basi c i dea t o gr asp i s t hat t he anal og comp ut er does not
sol ve Equat i on ( 2.1) , but an anal ogous equat i on i n vol t s. The anal ogous equat i on i s


dv
dt
v v + . , ( ) . 1 1 0 0 ( 2.3)
w her e v = x/ 5. The sol ut i on of equat i on ( 2.3) i s

v t e
t
( ) ( )
.
10 1
1
. ( 2.4)
3. Analog Voltages Normali zed to Uni ts
I t i s common pr act i ce i n t he l i t er at ur e t o r edef i ne t he magni t udes of r ef er ence vol t ages and al l
associ at ed i np ut and out p ut vol t ages on an anal og comp ut er i n t er ms of a quant i t y cal l ed t he
anal og uni t or j ust t he uni t By def i ni t i on, t he max i mum vol t age obt ai nabl e on t he
comp ut er i s one uni t . Thus, f or a +10 vol t comp ut er , 1 uni t = 10 vol t s. Scal i ng p r obl ems i n
t er ms of uni t s mak es t he scal ed anal og di agr am machi ne-i ndep endent ( i .e. good f or 100 v
machi nes as w el l as 10 v machi nes) and somet i mes si mp l i f i es t he scal i ng of non-l i near
p r obl ems. I n t hese not es most ex amp l es ar e done i n t er ms of vol t s r at her t han uni t s because
w e f eel t hi s i s somew hat si mpl er , and mor e i nt ui t i ve i n t er ms of t he act ual ci r cui t .
4. A Systemati c Approach to Magni tude Scali ng
I n l i ght of t he di scussi on gi ven i n Sect i on 2, w e can devel op a syst emat i c ap p r oach t o
magni t ude scal i ng. Fi r st , consi der t he ex amp l e di scussed i n t hat sect i on. A st at ement of t he
p r obl em w oul d be: Const r uct a scal ed anal og di agr am f or Equat i on ( 2.1) w hi ch i f p at ched,
w i l l use t he max i mum r ange of t he ampl i f i er , but w i l l not cause any ampl i f i er over l oad.
STEP 1. Dr aw t he unscal ed anal og di agr am. Remember t hat + 10 vol t s i s t he max i mum
r ef er ence avai l abl e on t he comput er . See Fi gur e 2.1 f or t hi s.
STEP 2. Est i mat e t he max i mum val ue of each var i abl e ap p ear i ng as an amp l i f i er out p ut .
Onl y t he ampl i f i er out put s need t o be consi der ed si nce al l ot her el ement s have a gai n w hi ch i s
l ess t han uni t y. I n t hi s case x( t ) i s t he onl y ampl i f i er out put and i t s max i mum val ue i s know n
t o be 50. A di scussi on of met hods f or est i mat i ng max i mum val ues of ampl i f i er out put s w i l l be
pr esent ed l at er .
STEP 3. Def i ne a scal i ng r el at i onshi p bet w een each pr obl em var i abl e and t he cor r espondi ng
comput er var i abl e and pr epar e a scal i ng t abl e.
For ex ampl e, i f w e know | x|
max
= 100 f t . w e can r epr esent x on t he anal og comput er as some
vol t age, v
x
. The vol t age, v
x
can var y f r om -10v t o +10v t o +10v w her eas x can var y f r om -100

f t . t o +100 f t . Ther ef or e, l et 10v r ep r esent 100 f eet . Then 5 vol t s cor r esp onds t o 50 f eet , -10
vol t s t o -100 f eet and zer o vol t s t o zer o f eet . Ther ef or e, w e may w r i t e

v
x
x

10
. ( 2.5)
We cal l t he coef f i ci ent (
1
10
) , t he "l evel of x," and denot e i t by L
x
, so t hat ( 2.5) may be w r i t t en
as

v L x
x x
. I n gener al , w e may choose

L x
x
10
max
. To achi eve best accur acy on t he
anal og comp ut er , w e ut i l i ze t he f ul l vol t age r ange of t he comp ut er . Ther ef or e, 10 i s al w ays
used i n t he numer at or of t he l evel equat i on.
The val ue of a var i abl e can be comp ut ed by r eadi ng t he vol t age of t he scal ed var i abl e i n a
si mul at i on, and t hen di vi di ng i t by t he l evel of t hat var i abl e:

x v L
x x
.
The scal i ng t abl e f or t hi s pr obl em i s show n bel ow .
Pr obl em
Var i abl e
Est i mat ed
Max i mum Level
Comput er
Var i abl e I .C.
Scal ed
I .C.
x 50 1/ 5 [ x / 5] 0 [ 0]
STEP 4. Wr i t e t he scal ed anal og equat i ons f or each amp l i f i er i n t er ms of t he comp ut er
var i abl es ( amp l i f i er out p ut s) def i ned i n St ep 3. No ot her var i abl e shou l d a ppea r i n t hese
equ at i ons.
Sup p ose w e w i sh t o f i nd an anal og si mul at i on t o conver t f eet t o i nches. Al so sup p ose a
max i mum of 5 f t . w i l l be conver t ed. Let

y
x
number of i nches
number of f eet
Then

y ax
w her e
a = 12
Cl ear l y w e must scal e t he p r obl em so t hat w e can r ep r esent 60 i nches, ( y
max
) , as an anal og
vol t age. We al so know :


V L x V L y
x x y y
, , ( 2.6)
An anal og si mul at i on di agr am i s show n i n Fi gur e 2.3.
G
K
1
V
x
= L
x
x
V
y
= L
y
y
Fi gure 2.3: Scali ng Di agram
Pot #1 i s set t o some val ue w hi ch w e denot e by K. El ect r oni cal l y,
( Vol t age Out ) = ( Over al l Gai n) ( Vol t age I n) ,
or

L y K G V
y x
.
Subst i t ut i ng f or t he var i ous vol t ages,

L y K G L x
y x
.
Ther ef or e,

y
KGL
L
x
x
y
.
Si nce w e must have

a
KGL
L
x
y
,
t hen Pot #1 must have t he set t i ng

K
aL
GL
y
x
. ( 2.7)
I n our ex ampl e, si nce

L L
y x

10
60
10
5
2
1
6
, and ,
t hen


K G
1 6
2
12
1
1 1
/
, . and
We coul d al so have chosen K = .1, and G = 10. Equat i on ( 2.7) l eads t o t he gener al
equat i on f or set t i ng pot s:

K
Level Ou t
Level I n
COEF
gai n
| |
( 2.8)
w her e
Level Ou t i s t he l evel of t he var i abl e i mmedi at el y f ol l ow i ng t he pot t o be set .
Level I n i s t he l evel of t he var i abl e pr ecedi ng t he pot .
COEF r el at es t o t he equat i on t o be si mul at ed.
gai n i s t he gai n of a summer , i nver t er or i nt egr at or f ol l ow i ng t he pot .
Example 2.2. Si mul at e y = a x , w her e a = -3, | x|
max
= 20, and | y|
max
= 40.
Sol ut i on: L
x
= 1/ 2, L
y
= 1/ 4. A si mul at i on di agr am i s show n i n Fi gur e 2.4.
G
K
1
4
y
x
2
Fi gure 2.4: Scali ng Di agram for Example 2.2.
Thus,

K
G G
_
,
_
,

1 4
1 2
3 1 5 /
/
.
.
I f G w er e a gai n of uni t y p ot 1 w oul d have t o be set t o 1.5 w hi ch i s i mp ossi bl e. Ther ef or e,
l et G = 10 and K = 0.15. Fi nal l y, w e have Fi gur e 2.5.
4
y
x
2
10
.15
1
Fi gure 2.5: Scali ng Di agram for Example 2.2 wi th Gai n Values

Once t he max i mum val ues and t he l evel const ant s have been det er mi ned w e can def i ne t he
comp ut er var i abl es. Let v
x
denot e t he comp ut er var i abl e cor r esp ondi ng t o t he p r obl em
var i abl e x. We def i ne,
v
x
= [ L
x
x ] . ( 2.9)
Anal og Comput er var i abl es w i l l al w ays be br acket ed i n t hese not es.
Example 2.3. Agai n consi der Equat i on ( 2.1) . Sol vi ng f or t he der i vat i ve w e obt ai n,

dx
dt
x x 5 1 0 0 . , ( ) . ( 2.10)
To get t hi s equat i on i n t er ms of t he comput er var i abl e, mul t i pl y and di vi de each t er m by

1 L
x
,
w hi ch i n t hi s case i s 5.

d
dt
x x
x
5
5
5 1
5
5
0 0
_
,
_
,
. , ( ) . ( 2.11)
Regr oup t he const ant s so t hat al l var i abl es ar e comput er var i abl es:

5
5
5 5
5 5
0 0
d
dt
x x x
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1
. , ( ) , ( 2.12)
or

d
dt
x x x
5
1 1
5 5
0 0
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1
. , ( ) . ( 2.13)
I f ot her ampl i f i er s w er e pr esent , a si mi l ar pr ocedur e w oul d be f ol l ow ed f or each.
STEP 5. Dr aw t he scal ed anal og di agr am usi ng t he equat i ons obt ai ned i n st ep 4. Label al l
comp ut er var i abl es on t he di agr am. The f i nal di agr am shoul d have t he same f or m as t he
unscal ed di agr am ex cep t f or di f f er ent p ot val ues and amp l i f i er gai ns. Thus, Equat i on ( 2.12)
r esul t s i n Fi gur e 2.6.


[ x/ 5]
1
1
.1
-10v
.1
1
3
6
Fi gure 2.6: Scaled Di agram
The out put of t he anal og di agr am of Fi gur e 2.6 i s show n i n Fi gur e 2.7. I t must be r emember ed
t hat [ x/ 5] r ep r esent s t he anal og var i abl e i n vol t s. To f i nd t he act ual val ue of x, Equat i on ( 2.9)
must be used. At t
1
t he val ue of t he comp ut er var i abl e [ x/ 5] i s measur ed as 5 vol t s or 0.5 of a
uni t , i .e.,

[ / ] , . x x 5 5 25 or
Const ant s ar e r eal i zed i n anal og si mul at i ons by pat chi ng a
10v r ef er ence t o a p ot set t o some

val ue. To be consi st ent w i t h t he met hod of magni t ude scal i ng, t he p ot set t i ng must be f ound
by t he same f or mul a as bef or e. For t hi s p ur p ose w e sup p ose t hat t he l evel of t he 10v
r ef er ence i s 10, w hi ch becomes t he l evel i n i n t he f or mul a.
[ x( t ) / 5] vol t s
10
5
t
1
Fi gure 2.7: Ti me Response for Example 2.3
When pat chi ng an i ni t i al condi t i on, t he gai n i s 1, t he l evel i s 10, and t he l evel out i s t he l evel of
t he var i abl e f or t he i ni t i al condi t i on. The coef f i ci ent i s t he val ue of t he var i abl e at t = 0. The
f ol l ow i ng ex ampl es w i l l hel p t o i l l ust r at e t hese concept s and show how Equat i on ( 2.8) can be
used t o f i nd t he pot set t i ngs.

5. Magni tude Scali ng a Second Order System
We begi n t hi s sect i on w i t h an ex ampl e.
Example 2.4. Si mul at e t he f ol l ow i ng syst em and magni t ude scal e so t hat no over l oad occur s
and max i mum ampl i f i er r ange i s used.

d x
dt
dx
dt
x x x
2
2
8 25 500 0 40 0 150 + + , ( ) , ( ) ( 2.14)
and w i t h

x x
max max
, 50 250 .
STEP 1. Dr aw an unscal ed anal og di agr am.

10

1
-1
+10V
+10V 10V
x
x
x
1
2
5
1
2
3
5
4
6
.8
.25
G
1
G
2
G
3
Fi gure 2.8: Unscaled Analog Di agram for Example 2.4.
STEP 2. Thi s st ep i s not necessar y si nce t he max i mum val ues ar e al r eady sp eci f i ed i n t he
pr obl em st at ement .
STEP 3. Pr epar e a scal i ng t abl e.
Pr obl em
Var i abl e
Est i mat ed
Max i mum Level
Comput er
Var i abl e I C
Scal ed
I C
x
250 1/ 25

[ ]
x 25
-150 [ -6]
x 50 1/ 5 [ x / 5] 40 [ 8]
-2.5 x 125 1/ 12.5 [ -x/ 5] --- ---

STEP 4. Wr i t e t he scal ed equat i ons f or each ampl i f i er . Her e i s w her e w e i l l ust r at e t he use of
Equat i on ( 2.8) . St ar t w i t h Fi gur e 2.9.

G

x
5
x
25
1
2
1
Fi gure 2.9: Establi shi ng I ntegrator Outputs

K
G G
G
1
1 5
1 25
1 5
5 10

_
,
_
,

/
/
. , . w hen
Pr oceedi ng on, w e compl et e t he r est of t he di agr am,
x
5
x
5
x
25

1

10
-1
+10V
+10V 10V
x
1
2
5
1
2
3
5
4
6
G
1
G
2
G
3
Fi gure 2.10: The Fi nal Scali ng Process
and comput e

K
G
G
K
G
G
K K
2
1
1
3
2
2
4 5
1 25
1 25
8
8 10
1 25
1 5
25
5 10
1 5
10
40
1
8
1 25
10
150
1
6
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,

/
/
. ,
/
/
. ,
/
. ,
/
.
w hen
w hen
KK
G
G
6
3
3
1 25
10
500
2 10

_
,
_
,

/
. , , w hen

Not e t hat on t he Comdyna GP-6 comp ut er r esi st or val ues of 5K and 50K and cap aci t or s 2
f d and 20 f d ar e sup p l i ed w i t h each i nt egr at or . Thus, any gai n val ue bet w een 0 and 100
may be obt ai ned by pr oper choi ce of t he i nput r esi st or -f eedback capaci t or combi nat i on and by
usi ng a pot .
STEP 5. Dr aw t he scal ed anal og comp ut er di agr am. A p at ch p anel di agr am i s i ncl uded i n
Fi g. 2.12.
10
10
10
.6
.8
.5
.8
.5
.2
x
5
x
5
x
25

1

10
-1
+10V
+10V 10V
x
1
2
5
1
2
3
5
4
6
Fi gure 2.11: A Fully Scaled Di agram
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
1 2
3 4
1
1
1
.1
SJ
5
1
1
1
.1
SJ
6
7 8
X Y
1 2 3
4 5 6
7
8
X Y
MULTIPLIERS
+ + +
COEFFICIENT POTENTIOMETERS
The GP-6 Anal og Computer Patch Panel
Fi gure 2.12: GP-6 Wi ri ng Di agram for the System of Example 2.4

Exampl e 2.5. As anot her ex amp l e, magni t ude-scal e t he f ol l ow i ng p r obl em so t hat no
over l oad occur s and max i mum ampl i f i er r ange i s used.

d x
dt
dx
dt
x x x
2
2
2 25 0 0 20 0 0 + + , ( ) , ( ) . ( 2.15)
Thi s ex ampl e w i l l be w or ked by a shor t cut met hod. Est i mat ed max i mum val ues ar e,

x x 20 100 , . and ( 2.16)
Met hods t o obt ai n t hese est i mat es w i l l be der i ved i n Sect i on 7 of t hi s chapt er . Sol vi ng f or t he
hi ghest or der der i vat i ve,

. x x x 25 2 ( 2.17)
The l evel const ant s ar e:

L L
x x

10
20
1 2
10
100
1 10 / , /
. ( 2.18)
Mul t i pl yi ng and di vi di ng Equat i on ( 2.17) by t he l evel const ant s, w e obt ai n

( ) ( )
x
x x

1
]
1

1
]
1
25 2
2
2 10
10
, ( 2.19)
w her e

x x 2 10
[ ] [ ]
and ar e t he comput er var i abl es. Fr om t he i ni t i al condi t i ons w e obt ai n,

x x
2
0 10
10
0 0
1
]
1

1
]
1
( ) ,
( ) . ( 2.20)
I n or der f or

[ ]
x 10 t o be t he out p ut of an amp l i f i er ,

x 10
[ ]
must be i t s i np ut . Real i zi ng
t hi s, w e di vi de Equat i on ( 2.17) by 10 t o obt ai n,

x x x
10
5
2
2
10

1
]
1

1
]
1
. ( 2.21)
The magni t ude-scal ed anal og comput er si mul at i on di agr am appear s i n Fi gur e 2.5.

10
10
.5
.2
.5
x
2
x
2
x
10

1

10
-1
0V 10V
x
1
2
5
3
1
2
Fi gure 2.13: Scaled Di agram for Example 2.5
NOTE: Whi l e set t i ng p ot s i n any ci r cui t cont ai ni ng amp l i f i er s, over l oads may occur . The
r eason f or t hi s i s t hat i n t he POT SET mode of t he comput er 10 vol t s i s i nt er nal l y appl i ed t o t he
up p er t er mi nal of each p ot ent i omet er . I f any amp l i f i er has a gai n 10 i np ut i t i s l i kel y t o cause
an over l oad. These over l eads can be avoi ded dur i ng t he p ot set t i ng op er at i on as f ol l ow s.
Connect a w i r e bet w een an out p ut j unct i on and t he summi ng j unct i on of each amp l i f i er
out p ut t o vani sh and sol ve t he over l oad p r obl em. DO NOT FORGET TO REMOVE THESE
SHORT CI RCUI TS bef or e at t empt i ng t he pr obl em sol ut i on. See Fi gur e 2.14 f or l ocat i on of t he
shor t .
SJ
SJ
IC
2
Fi gure 2.14: Short Ci rcui t for Setti ng Potenti ometers
6. Esti mati ng Maxi mum Values i n Fi rst Order Systems
Consi der t he f i r st -or der syst em

dx
dt
ax aK x x
o
+ , ( ) . 0 ( 2.22)

The sol ut i on of t hi s di f f er ent i al equat i on i s gi ven by

x t e x K e
at at
( ) ( ) ( ) +

0 1 ( 2.23)
The sol ut i on, ( 2.23) , i s show n i n Fi gur e 2.15a, f or 0 < K < x( 0) , and i n Fi gur e 2.15b, f or 0
< x ( 0) < K. Gr ap hi ng equat i on ( 2.23) f or ot her p ossi bl e combi ni at i ons of x ( 0) and K ,
shoul d convi nce t he r eader t hat

| | max {| ( ) | ,| | }
max
x x K 0 ( 2.24)
x( t )
t
K
x( 0)
x( t )
t
K
x( 0)
( a)
( b)
Fi gure 2.15: Fi rst-Order Ti me Responses, (a) 0 < K < x(0), (b) 0 < x(0) < K
7. Esti mati ng Maxi mum Values i n the Second Order Homogeneous
Underdamped System.
We now consi der t he syst em

x x x
n n
+ + 2 0
2
zw w ( 2.25)
w her e t he i ni t i al condi t i ons x( 0) , and

( ) x 0 ar e gi ven. We shal l suppose t hat and
n
ar e
posi t i ve ( f or st abi l i t y) , and al so t hat 0 < 1 ( so t hat t he syst em i s under damped) . I f =
0, ( undamped) , t he sol ut i on of ( 2.25) i s gi ven by

x t x t
x
n
n
( ) ( ) si n
( )
+ +
( )
2
0
0
2
2
w
w q , ( 2.26)
w her e

q
w
_
,
t an
( )
( )
1
0
0
x
x
n
. ( 2.27)
Di f f er ent i at i ng ( 2.26) , w e get


( ) ( ) cos
( )
x t x t
n
x
n
n
+ +
( )
w w q
w
2
0
0
2
2
. ( 2.28)
To obt ai n est i mat es of t he max i mum val ues, w e not e t hat w hen = 0, t hat

x
x
x x x
n
max
( )
max max
( ) , +
2
0
0
2
2
w
w ( 2.29)
I f t he syst em i s under damped, and << 1 Equat i ons ( 31) and ( 32) gi ve pr et t y good est i mat es
f or t he max i mum val ues of | x| and | x
| . I f 1, t hese est i mat es ar e conser vat i ve.

8. Esti mati ng Maxi mum Values i n the Forced Second Order Underdamped
System
We consi der t he syst em

( ) , ( ) ( ) x x x u t x x
n n
+ + 2 0 0 0
2
zw w ( 2.30)
We shal l make a r ough est i mat e of t he max i mum val ues by assumi ng

u t Au t
s
( ) ( ) and = 0.
The equat i on becomes

( ) , ( ) ( ) x x Au t x x
n s
+ w
2
0 0 0 ( 2.30)
w i t h t he sol ut i on

x t t
A
n
n
( ) ( cos )
w
w
2
1 ( 2.31)
or , by a t r i g. i dent i t y,

x t t
A
n
n
( ) si n
( )
2
2
2
w
w ( 2.32)
Thus, f r om ( 2.32) and by di f f er ent i at i ng ( 2.31) , w e obt ai n

x
A
x
A
n
n
max max
, ,
2
2
w w
( 2.33)
and t hus t hat

max
x A . These est i mat ed max i mum val ues w i l l agai n be qui t e good i f t he
damp i ng i s l ow (

z 0 ) , but w i l l be conser vat i ve i f t h e syst em i s cr i t i cal l y damp ed or
over damped. How w oul d you est i mat e max val ues i f t he i ni t i al condi t i ons ar e not zer o?

9. Ti me Scali ng
Anal og si mul at i ons can be adj ust ed t o r un f ast er or sl ow er t han r eal t i me. The t i me r el at i on i s:

t b t , ( 2.34)
w her e

t b comput er t i me, r eal t i me, scal e f act or t
A p er son can p hysi cal l y under st and t hi s equat i on and avoi d conf usi on by r emember i ng t he
f ol l ow i ng sent ence:
The computer runs

1 b times as fast as real time.
Ti me scal i ng can be achi eved by mul t i pl yi ng t he gai ns of each i nput of ever y i nt egr at or by 1/ .
Ther ef or e, w e can adj ust t he pr evi ous pot set t i ng f or mul a t o t ake car e of magni t ude and t i me
scal i ng. We si mpl y use a si ngl e pot f or each i nput t o t he i nt egr at or s such t hat :

Pot Set t i ng

_
,
_
,
_
,
L
L
COEF
gai n
ou t
i n
1
b
. ( 2.35)
w her e t he 1/ f act or i s added t o t he f or mul a on l y w hen t he p ot t o be set i s p at ched t o t he
i nput of an i nt egr at or .
NOTES:
1. Ther e i s no t i me var i at i on on an i ni t i al condi t i on, so t he 1/ f act or shoul d be l ef t
out of t he f or mul a t o set I .C. pot s.
2. Ther e i s l i kew i se no t i me var i at i on f or a non-i nt egr at i ng ampl i f i er . Ther ef or e 1/
f act or shoul d al so be omi t t ed f r om t he f or mul a t o set pot s at i nput s t o such an
ampl i f i er .
Example 2.6. Gi ven:

, ( ) ( ) , . . x x x x x + + 10 25 20 0 0 0 2 5 b ( 2.36)
Usi ng t he r esul t s of sect i on 8, w e est i mat e

x
A
x
A
n
n
max max
, ,
2 40
25
20
5
4
2
w w
( 2.33)


L L
x x
( ) . , . .
10
25
40
6 25
10
4
2 5
Fi r st , w e dr aw t he i nt egr at or s.
1
2
1
G
[ 6.25 x ] [ 2.5 x ]
Fi gure 2.16: I ntegrator Di agram for Example 2.6

G
1
6 25
2 5
1
2 5
1

_
,
_
,
Pot Set t i ng f or # 1
.
. .
.
Ther ef or e, w e may choose

G K
1 1
1 1 and . Not e t hat p ot #1 may act ual l y be el i mi nat ed.
Now t he f eedback, I .C. s, and const ant s may be ent er ed ont o t he di agr am ( Fi gur e 2.17) . Her e,

G K G K
2 2 2 2
2 5
2 5
10
1
2 5
4 10 4

_
,
_
,

.
.
( )
.
, , . ,

G K G K
3 3 3 2
2 5
6 25
25
1
2 5
4 10 4

_
,
_
,

.
.
( )
.
, , . ,

G K G K
4 4 4 2
2 5
10
20
1
2 5
2 10 2

_
,
_
,

.
( )
.
, , . .

1
-1
+10V
1
2
5
2
3
4
1
G
1
G
2
G
3
K
4
K
2
K
3
[ 2.5x
]
[ 6.25x ]
[ 6.25x ]
Fi gure 2.17: Setti ng the Scali ng Values
Thus w e have t he f i nal di agr am

.2
.4
.4
10
10
10

1
-1
+10V
1
2
5
2
3
4
1 [ 2.5x
]
[ 6.25x ]
[ 6.25x ]
Fi gure 2.18: A Fully Ti me/ Ampli tude Scaled Di agram
10. Summary of Procedures for Developi ng a Scaled Analog Di agram
1. Wr i t e t he di f f er ent i al equat i on t o be sol ved i n nor mal f or m.
2. Est i mat e max i mum val ues f or var i abl es.
3. Det er mi ne al l l evel s.
4. Dr aw al l i nt egr at or s needed. Put a pot bet w een each pai r of i nt egr at or s and set t hem:

K
L
L gai n
ou t
i n
_
,
_
,
_
,
1 1
b
.
5. Fi l l i n t he f eedback pat hs set t i ng t he pot s by:

K
L
L
COEF
gai n
ou t
i n
_
,
_
,
_
,
1
b
.
6. Add I .C.' s, set t i ng t he pot s by:

K
L COEF
ou t
_
,
_
,
10 1
.
7. Add const ant s, set t i ng t he pot s by:

K
L COEF
gai n
ou t
_
,
_
,
_
,
10
1
b
.

11. Repeti ti ve Operati on
At t i mes i t i s desi r abl e t o r ep eat a sol ut i on many t i mes i n r ap i d successi on, such as on an
osci l l oscope. Wi t hout any st or age capabi l i t y, i t w oul d be di f f i cul t t o see det ai l s of t he sol ut i on
unl ess i t i s r ep eat edl y sw ep t acr oss t he scr een at a r at e t hat t he eye w oul d not be abl e t o
di st i ngui sh each i ndi vi dual sw eep . The r ep et i t i ve op er at i on ( RO) mode i s avai l abl e on most
anal og comput er s f or t hi s pur pose. I n or der t o r epeat t he sol ut i on i t i s necessar y t o backup i n
t i me and t h en r ep eat t h e desi r ed t i me i nt er val . Th us, t h e t i me dep endent el ement s
( i nt egr at or s) must be cont r ol l ed. Basi cal l y, w hen t he comput er i s pl aced i n t he RO mode, t he
i nt egr at or s ar e i nt er nal l y p l aced i n t he IC st at e f or a t i me p er i od suf f i ci ent t o char ge t he
cap aci t or s t o t he i ni t i al condi t i on val ue and t hen i nt er nal l y changed t o t he OP st at e f or t he
desi r ed t i me i nt er val . Then t he pr ocedur e i s r epeat ed.
Rep et i t i ve op er at i on r equi r es t hat a comp ut er s i nt egr at or t i me const ant s be smal l
enough t o p er mi t a hi gh r at e of r ep et i t i ve sol ut i ons. Al so, a t i mi ng uni t i s r equi r ed t o
al t er nat el y pl ace i nt egr at or s i n t he IC and OP modes.
When t he Mode sel ect or i s posi t i oned t o RO:
1. The r epet i t i ve oper at i on t i mi ng uni t pr ovi des a l ogi c cont r ol t hat al t er nat el y changes
i nt egr at or modes f r om i ni t i al condi t i on t o op er at e, t h e l engt h of op er at e t i me p er i od
det er mi ned by t he comput er t i me set t i ng.
2. The r ep et i t i ve op er at i on t i me uni t p r ovi des a r amp out p ut t hat may be used as t he
r eadout di spl ay s t i me base.
3. Hi gh sp eed r ep et i t i ve op er at i on cap aci t or s ar e t he summer / i nt egr at or amp l i f i er s
i nt egr at i on capaci t or s.
4. The met er i nput bus i s connect ed t o t he r ear t er mi nal , met er i nput .
5. Th e h i gh en ds of al l coef f i ci en t p ot s ar e con n ect ed t o t h ei r p at ch p an el
t er mi nat i ons.
Th e Comdyn a GP-6 p r ovi des some sp eci al out p ut s t o f aci l i t at e t h e use of an
osci l l oscope or x y pl ot t er as an out put devi ce bot h i n sl ow t i me and r epet i t i ve oper at i on.
I n sl ow t i me mode, comput er t i me and pr ogr am t i me ar e t he same. I n t he r epet i t i ve oper at i on
mode, 1 second of comp ut er t i me cor r esp onds t o 2.5 msec r eal t i me, a r at i o of 400:1. The

comp ut er t i me sel ect or i s cal i br at ed i n p r ogr am seconds, and hence, a set t i ng of 20 w oul d
i ndi cat e 20 pr ogr am seconds. To accur at el y set t hi s var i abl e out put cal l ed CTP ( comput e t i me
p er i od) has been p r ovi ded on t he x-addr ess sw i t ch. Thi s i s di sp l ayed i n t he p ot set mode by
set t i ng t h e y/ p ot addr ess t o GND/ x and x t o CTP. Th e DVM w i l l di sp l ay p r ogr am
seconds/ 100 [ i .e. .25 means 25 p r ogr am seconds] . I n bot h cases: dur i ng p r ogr am op er at i on,
set t i ng t he x addr ess t o TI ME w i l l p r oduce a -10 t o +10 r amp at t he x out p ut on t he back of
t he comp ut er . Thi s r amp can be used t o dr i ve t he hor i zont al ( or t i me) l i ne of any desi r ed
out p ut devi ce. Thus, a di sp l ay cont r ol l ed by t he comp ut er t i me base w i l l show ex act l y t he
same out p ut di sp l ay r egar dl ess of t he mode of op er at i on. Thi s f aci l i t y p r ovi des a means of
di spl ayi ng a sol ut i on on an osci l l oscope dur i ng t he pr el i mi nar y desi gn phase.

Chapt er 3
Si mul at i on of Tr ansf er Funct i ons
1. Di fferenti al Equati ons and Transfer Functi ons.
The p r i mar y usef ul ness of t he anal og comp ut er i s f or si mul at i ng syst ems w hi ch can be
model ed by a set of di f f er ent i al equat i ons. A speci al case t o be consi der ed i s t he si mul at i on of
a syst em descr i bed by a t r ansf er f unct i on. A t r ansf er f unct i on i s t he r at i o of t he Lap l ace
t r ansf or m of t he out p ut var i abl e t o t he Lap l ace t r ansf or m of t he i np ut var i abl e w i t h al l i ni t i al
condi t i ons equal t o zer o. Consi der a syst em w hi ch i s model ed by t he di f f er ent i al equat i on,

d x
dt
a
dx
dt
a x b u b
du
dt
o o
2
2
1 1
+ + + . ( 3.1)
Her e,

x t ( ) i s t he syst em out put and

u t ( ) i s t he i nput . ( Not e t hat f or a t r ansf er f unct i on, t he
i ni t i al condi t i ons ar e consi der ed t o be zer o) . Not onl y does t he i np ut ap p ear , but a der i vat i ve
of t he i np ut i s al so p r esent . The t r ansf er f unct i on descr i bi ng t hi s equat i on may be f ound by
t aki ng t he Lapl ace t r ansf or m of equat i on ( 3.1) and r ear r angi ng

s X s a sX s a X s b U s b sU s
o o
2
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + + ( 3.2)
and f act or i ng

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s a s a X s b b s U s
o o
2
1 1
+ + + ( 3.3)
yi el ds

X s
U s
b s b
s a s a
o
o
( )
( )

+
+ +
1
2
1
. ( 3.4)
Thus, i f t he di f f er ent i al equat i on descr i bi ng a syst em i s gi ven, t he t r ansf er f unct i on f or t hat
syst em may be obt ai ned. Al so, gi ven t he t r ansf er f unct i on ( e.g. equat i on ( 3.4) ) , t he di f f er ent i al
equat i on ( 3.1) may be obt ai ned by cr oss mul t i pl yi ng, t aki ng t he i nver se Lapl ace t r ansf or m, and
r ear r angi ng.

Chapter 3. Si mul ati on of Tr ansf er Functi ons 41
Si nce a t r ansf er f unct i on may be conver t ed t o a di f f er ent i al equat i on, t hen i t seems possi bl e t o
si mul at e t r ansf er f unct i ons. Ther e ar e, how ever , t w o di f f i cul t i es t hat ar i se. The f i r st di f f i cul t y
i s t hat t he st r ai ght -f or w ar d i mpl ement at i on of some di f f er ent i al equat i ons ( such as i n equat i on
( 3.1) ) r equi r e t he i np ut t o be di f f er ent i at ed. Thi s i s a p r obl em because t he anal og comp ut er
does not have a di f f er ent i at or , and because anal og di f f er ent i at or s ar e i nher i nt l y noi sy, hi gh
bandw i dt h devi ces ( unl i ke i nt egr at i on w hi ch i s noi se r esi st ant ) .
The second di f f i cul t y ar i ses because w i t h a t r ansf er f unct i on, usual l y onl y t he i np ut and t he
out put ar e avai l abl e and of i nt er est . Pr ogr ammi ng t he t r ansf er f unct i on does not usual l y r esul t
i n t he i nt er medi at e der i vat i ves, w hi l e p r ogr ammi ng t he di f f er ent i al equat i on yi el ds al l t he
i nt er medi at e der i vat i ves. Si nce t he i nt er medi at e der i vat i ves ar e not of i mmedi at e i nt er est and
p r ogr ammi n g t h e di f f er en t i al equat i on usual l y r equi r es t h e use of mor e amp l i f i er s,
pr ogr ammi ng t he t r ansf er f unct i on i s pr ef er r ed.
Tr ansf er f unct i on si mul at i on i s p ar t i cul ar l y usef ul w hen a p r obl em can be descr i bed i n t er ms
of a bl ock di agr am. The t r ansf er f unct i on r ep r esent i ng each bl ock can t hen be p r ogr ammed
on t he comp ut er and each bl ock connect ed w i t h t he ot her bl ock s as di ct at ed by t he bl ock
di agr am. I n t hi s w ay, t he i np ut and out p ut of each bl ock ( t r ansf er f unct i on) on t he comp ut er
can be r el at ed t o a meani ngf ul physi cal var i abl e of t he syst em.
2. Programmi ng Transfer Functi ons
The f undament al i dea behi nd any ki nd of syst em pr ogr ammi ng on t he anal og comput er i s t hat
w h en i n i t i al con di t i on s ar e zer o at
t 0 , t h e Lap l ace var i abl e, s, cor r esp on ds t o
di f f er ent i at i on i n t he t i me domai n, and

1 s cor r esp onds t o an i ndef i ni t e i nt egr at i on havi ng
t 0 as i t s l ow er l i mi t . Thus, i f

l f t F s ( ) ( )
{ }
, t hen

l
df t
dt
sF s
( )
( )
{ }
, w hi l e

l f d
t
F s
s
( )
( )
t t
0
'
. ( 3.5)
Ther e ar e many canoni cal ( st andar d) w ays of br eaki ng up a t r ansf er f unct i on t o obt ai n an al l
i n t egr at or r eal i zat i on . An al l i nt egr at or r eal i zat i on of a t r ansf er f unct i on i s a ci r cui t t hat has
t h e gi ven t r an sf er f un ct i on , but t h at uses on l y i n t egr at or s as dyn ami c el emen t s ( n o
di f f er ent i at or s) . We w i l l not concent r at e on al l t he p ossi bl e r eal i zat i on, but w i l l f ocus on one
par t i cul ar f or m.
3. The Di rect Programmi ng Techni que

Thi s ap p r oach, al so cal l ed t he Sol vi ng f or t he Hi ghest Der i vat i ve ap p r oach, i s one of t he
si mp l est , because i t does not r equi r e know l edge of any of t he syst em p ol es or zer os
*
. Al l t he
ex amp l es of Chap t er 2 used t hi s ap p r oach. The di f f er ence bet w een w hat i s consi der ed her e,
and w hat w as done i n Chap t er 2 i s t hat i t i s p ossi bl e f or t he t r ansf er f unct i ons t o have zer os.
( The ex ampl es i n Chapt er 2 had no zer os) . We w i l l ex pl ai n t hi s met hod by ex ampl e. Suppose
w e have t he t r ansf er f unct i on:

G s
Y s
U s
a s a s a
s b s b
N s
D s
o
o
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,
+ +
+ +
2
2
1
2
2
( 3.6)
w her e

N s a s a s a D s s b s b
o o
( ) , ( ) . + + + +
2
2
1
2
2
( 3.7)
Thi s i s i l l ust r at ed i n Fi gur e 3.1.
U( s) Y( s)
G( s)
Fi gure 3.1: System Block Di agram
We decompose t hi s syst em i nt o t w o syst ems cascaded as i n Fi gur e 3.2.
U( s) Y( s)
X( s)
D( s)
N( s)
1
Fi gure 3.2: Cascaded Equi valent System
Not i ce t hat i n cascadi ng t he t w o p ar t s of t he syst em, w e have cr eat ed t he i nt er medi at e
var i abl e,

X s ( ) . The t r ansf er f unct i on f r om

U s ( ) t o

X s ( ) has no zer os, and t hus may be
r eal i zed by usi ng t he appr oach of Chapt er 2. Thus, w e have

X s
U s
s b s b
s X s b X s b sX s U s
o
o
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
+ +
+
1
2
1
2
1
. ( 3.8)
Not e t hat i n t he Lap l ace domai n,

s X s
2
( ) cor r esp onds t o t he hi ghest der i vat i ve of X . Thus,
t hi s hi ghest der i vat i ve i s gi ven i n t er ms of l ow er p ow er s of s t i mes

X s ( ) p l us t he i np ut .
Fi gur e 3.3. show s t he al l -i nt egr at or di agr am f or t hi s. Not e t hat t he t i me domai n and t he
Lapl ace domai n var i abl es ar e show n.
*
Thi s appr oach gi ves r i se t o t he cont r ol l abl e canoni cal f or m.


1
x
x

1 x

1
1
1
f ( t )
b
1
b
0
1
X( s) s X( s)
s
2
X( s)
Fi gure 3.3: AllI ntegrator Di agram for the Fi rst Stage
The r emai ni ng t r anf er f unct i on i s gi ven by

Y s
X s
N s a s a s a
o
( )
( )
( ) . + +
2
2
1
Mul t i pl yi ng t hr ough by

X s ( ) , w e obt ai n

Y s a s X s a sX s a X s
o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + +
2
2
1
. ( 3.9)
I t w oul d ap p ear t hat because of t he s

X s ( ) t er m and t he

s X s
2
( ) t er m, di f f er ent i at or s w oul d
be needed t o obt ai n t he necessar y si gnal s. How ever , t hese si gnal s ap p ear nat ur al l y i n t he
r eal i zat i on of t he t r ansf er f unct i on f r om

U s ( ) t o

X s ( ) . Fi gur e 3.4 i l l ust r at es t he f ul l i nt egr at or
di agr am.
b
1
a
1
a
0
a
2
b
0
s
2
X( s)

1

1
1
1
1
F( s)
1
X( s)
s X( s)
1
1
1
s X( s)
Y( s)
Fi gure 3.4: Complete All-I ntegrator Di agram
Fr om Fi gur e 3.4, t hr ee obser vat i ons may be made. The f i r st i s t hat t he out p ut i s act ual l y

Y s ( ) . To obt ai n

+Y s ( ) , i t w oul d be necessar y t o i nser t an i nver t er . Th e second
obser vat i on i s t he use of t he use of t he i nver t er t hat yi el ds

sX s ( ) . Si nce t hat si gnal w as
al r eady gener at ed, i t i s cer t ai nl y advant ageous t o use i t t han t o i nser t anot her i nver t er t o

gener at e t he same si gnal . The t hi r d obser vat i on i s t hat t he summi ng i nver t er on t he i np ut
cannot be i ncor por at ed i nt o t he f i r st i nt egr at or .
4. I ni ti al Condi ti ons
Sup p ose t hat w e w i sh t o si mul at e a t r ansf er f unct i on, but w i t h i ni t i al condi t i ons i ncl uded.
Thi s i s not a w el l -posed pr obl em, as such, but w e can w or k ar ound t hat . Suppose t hat w e ar e
gi ven t he t r ansf er f unct i on ( 3.6) , but w i t h t he i ni t i al condi t i ons:

y y y y
o
( ) , ( ) . 0 0
1

( 3.10)
I n or der t o i ncor p or at e t hese i ni t i al condi t i ons, w e need t o t r ansl at e t hem i nt o t he i ni t i al
condi t i ons of t he act ual i nt egr at or s, and possi bl y t he i nput .. We see, accor di ng t o Fi gur e 3.4,

y a x a x a x
a x a x a f b x b x
a a b x a a b x a f
o
o o
o o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
1 2 1
2 1 2 1 2

'

+ +
+ +
+
( 3.11)
and al so t hat

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(
y a x a x a x
a x a f b x b x
a f b x b x
b a a
o
o o
o
o
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
1 1
2 1
1

'

'
+ +
+
+

22 1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
0 0
0 0
b x a a b b a a b x
a a b f a f
o o
) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )

+
[ ]

( 3.12)
We not e t hat t he i ni t i al st at es of t he i nt egr at or s can be r ew r i t t en i n t er ms i n t he i ni t i al st at es of
y and

y , and upon t he i nput and i t s der i vat i ve. Not e t hat w hen w e t ake t he Lapl ace t r ansf or m
of a si gnal , ( l i k e

f t ( ) ) , w e assume t he si gnal t o be zer o, and al l i t s der i vat i ves t o be zer o.
Thus, ( 3.11) and ( 3.12) si mpl i f y dow n t o

y a a b x a a b x
y b a a b x a a b b a a b x
o o
o o o
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1

+

( )
+
[ ]
( 3.13)
or


y a x a x
y a x a x
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
11 12
21 22

+
+
( 3.14)
gi vi ng us t w o equat i ons and t w o unk now ns. Thus, w e may sol ve f or

x x ( ) ( ) 0 0

an d i n
t er ms of

y y ( ) ( ) 0 0

an d . We w r i t e equat i ons ( 3.14) as a si ngl e mat r i x equat i on:

y
y
a a
a a
x
x
x
x
a a
a a
y
y
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11 12
21 22
11 12
21 22
1
1
]
1
1

1
]
1
1
]
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
( 3.15)
and t hus w e obt ai n

x
y y
( )
( ) ( )
0
0 0
22 12
11 22 12 21
a a
a a a a
( 3.17a)

( )
( ) ( )
x
y y
0
0 0
12 22
11 22 12 21
a a
a a a a
( 3.17b)
5. Scali ng
The mai n di f f er ence bet w een anal og di agr ams w hi ch si mul at e t r ansf er f unct i ons and anal og
di agr ams w hi ch si mul at e di f f er ent i al equat i ons i s t hat t he ampl i f i er i nput s of t he f or mer ar e not
si mp l e der i vat i ves, but ar e act ual l y sums of p r obl em var i abl es. Thi s makes scal i ng somew hat
mor e di f f i cul t , but r ecal l i ng our scal i ng pr i nci pl es w i l l al w ays enabl e us t o muddl e t hr ough!

46 Appendi x A
APPENDIX A
1. The GP6 Di splay Panel
C
O
M
D
Y
N
A

G
P
6
Y
3
Y
4
X
1
X
2
O
V
L
D
1
2
3
4
5
6
R
O
O
P
H
D
I
C
8
7
6 5 4 3 2 1
Y
2
Y
1
X

A
D
D
R
E
S
S
Y
/
P
O
T

A
D
D
R
E
S
S
7 8 +

R
E
F

R
E
F
G
N
D
/
X
T
I
M
E
C
T
P
+

R
E
F

R
E
F
G
N
D
4
0
3
0
2
0
1
0
O
F
F
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
P
O
T

S
E
T
O
P
R
C
O
M
P
U
T
E

T
I
M
E
M
O
D
E

S
E
L
E
C
T
O
R
C
O
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
T

P
O
T
E
N
T
I
O
M
E
T
E
R
S
1
0
0
6 5 4 3 2 1
D
/
A
C
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
r
A
/
D
C
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
r
A
m
p
l
i
f
i
e
r
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
I
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
o
-
m
e
t
e
r
D
i
a
l
A
/
D

C
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
r
S
e
l
e
c
t
o
r
M
o
d
e
S
e
l
e
c
t
o
r

S
w
i
t
c
h
e
s
O
n
I
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r

Appendi x A 47
2. The GP6 Patch Panel
S
J
S
J
1 1
1
.
1
.
1
I
C
B
.
1
B
S
W
O
P
S
J
S
J
1 1
1
.
1
.
1
I
C
B
.
1
B
S
W
O
P
S
J
S
J
1 1
1
.
1
.
1
I
C
B
.
1
B
S
W
O
P
S
J
S
J
1 1
1
.
1
.
1
I
C
B
.
1
B
S
W
O
P
1
2
3
4
1 1
1
.
1
S
J
5
.
1 1
1
.
1
S
J
6
7
8
X
Y
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
X
Y
M
U
L
T
I
P
L
I
E
R
S
+
C
O
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
T

P
O
T
E
N
T
I
O
M
E
T
E
R
S

48 Appendi x A
3. Patch Panel Components.
Pat ch p anel gr ap hi cs r ep r esent net w or k s as t hey ar e ap p l i ed i n nor mal anal og comp ut er
p r ogr ammi ng. Amp l i f i er s 1 t h r u 6 may be used as summer s or h i gh gai n op er at i onal
amp l i f i er s; amp l i f i er s 1 t hr u 4 have el ect r oni c sw i t ch net w or ks and may al so be p r ogr ammed
as i nt egr at or s. Amp l i f i er s 7 and 8 ar e ex cl usi vel y i nver t er s. Pot ent i omet er s 1 t hr u 6 ar e
at t enuat or s. Pot ent i omet er s 7 and 8 have t hei r bot t om ends open and may be used as vol t age
di vi der s or at t enuat or s. Mul t i pl i er net w or ks have cur r ent out put ; w i t h one ampl i f i er each may
be used as a mul t i pl i er , di vi der , squar er or squar er oot ex t r act or .
The f ol l ow i ng i s a descr i pt i on of pat ch panel symbol s:
SYMBOL DESCRI PTI ON
Po si t i v e r ef er en c e, c o n si d er ed u n i t y f o r n o r mal i zed
pr ogr ammi ng. ( Act ual ampl i t ude i s 10 vol t s) .
Negat i ve r ef er ence,
( Act ual ampl i t ude i s 10 vol t s) .
5
Hi gh gai n oper at i onal ampl i f i er
1
Hi gh gai n oper at i onal ampl i f i er
w i t h el ect r oni c sw i t ch
7
I nver t er
SJ
The summi ng j unct i on f or amp l i f i er s 1 t hr u 6. ( Act i ve f or
amp l i f i er s 1 t hr u 4 w hen a l ogi c 1 i s ap p l i ed t o t he SW
sw i t ch cont r ol j ack or w h en t h er e i s no sw i t ch cont r ol
pat chi ng.)
SJ
Al t er nat e summi ng j unct i on f or amp l i f i er s 1 t hr u 4. ( Act i ve
w hen a l ogi c 0 i s appl i ed t o t he SW sw i t ch cont r ol j ack) .
1
St andar d i np ut summi ng r esi st or , nor mal i zed t o a uni t y val ue
t o si mpl i f y pr ogr ammi ng. ( Act ual val ue i s 50 k)
.1
Summi n g i n p ut r esi st or t h at h as a val ue on e t en t h t h e
st andar d ( Act ual val ue i s 50 k)
B
St andar d i nt egr at i ng capaci t or i nput , nor mal i zed so t hat t he 1
r esi st or and t he B cap aci t or combi nat i on p r oduces a one
second t i me const ant as r ef er r ed t o pr ogr ammi ng t i me scal es.
( Act ual val ue i s 20 f d i n t he sl ow t i me mode and .05 f d i n
t he r epet i t i ve oper at i on mode.)
.1B
I nt egr at i ng cap aci t or i np ut t hat has a val ue one t ent h t he
st andar d ( Act ual val ue i s 2 f d i n t he sl ow t i me mode and
.005 f d i n t he r epet i t i ve oper at i on mode.)

Appendi x A 49
SJ
IC
Resi st or i n p ut t o t h e SJ summi ng j unct i on. Amp l i f i er
becomes an i nver t er w hen SJ i s act i ve. Nor mal l y used f or
i nt egr at or i ni t i al condi t i ons. I np ut and f eedback r esi st or s
may be used f or summer op er at i ons. I np ut and f eedback
r esi st or s may be used f or summer op er at i on by p at chi ng SJ
t o SJ. ( Act ual val ue of i nput and f eedback r esi st or i s 50 k)
At t enuat or , w i t h i np ut and w i p er i ndi cat ed by st andar d
el ect r i cal symbol .
Vol t age di vi der ; t op, bot t om and w i per i ndi cat ed by st andar d
el ect r i cal symbol . Bot t om must be p at ched t o gr ound f or
at t enuat or oper at i on. ( Pot ent i omet er val ue i s 5 k)
Syst em Gr ound.
X Y Mul t i p l i er net w or k . Pr oduces a cur r ent p r op or t i onal t o t he
p r oduct of t he i np ut s X and Y ; nor mal i zed so t hat w hen
con n ect ed t o t h e summi n g j un ct i on of an op er at i on al
amp l i f i er w i t h a 1 r esi st or f eedback , and w i t h r ef er ence
ap p l i ed t o X and Y, t h e amp l i f i er out p ut equal s t h e
r ef er ence.
SW
El ect r oni c sw i t ch cont r ol i nput . Wi t h a l ogi c 0 ( gr ound, or
p osi t i ve vol t age) t he SJ summi ng j unct i on of t he above
ampl i f i er i s act i ve and SJ shut s of f . Wi t h a l ogi c 1 ( 5 t hr u
15 vol t s) SJ i s act i ve and SJ shut s of f , t he SJ summi ng
j un ct i on i s act i ve but t h e summi n g r esi st or n et w or k i s
di sconnect ed. HD l ogi c i s used f or nor mal i nt egr at or hol d
mode oper at i on.
OP
The comp ut er s op er at e bus; p r ovi des i nt egr at or mode l ogi c
( sl ow t i me, r ep et i t i ve op er at i on or sl ave) as sel ect ed by t he
oper at or . Nor mal i nt egr at or oper at i on r equi r es t hat t he OP
bus be pat ched t o t he SW sw i t ch cont r ol i nput .

50 Appendi x B
APPENDIX B: WI RI NG BASI C LI NEAR COMPONENTS
FUNCTI ON OPERATI ON PATCHI NG
Summer
Ampl i f i er s 1 4
1
1
10
10
A
B
C
D
V
o

V A B C D
o
= + + + ( ) 10 10
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
1
B
C
D
A
V
o
Summer
Ampl i f i er s 5 &
6
.1
A
B
C
.1
.1
V
o

V A B C
o
= + + . ( ) 1
1
1
1
.1
SJ
5
A
C
B V
o
At t enuat or
Pot s 1 6
A
K
V
o

V KA K
o
= , . 0 1
A
V
o
At t enuat or
Pot s 7 & 8
A
K
V
o

V KA K
o
= , . 0 1
7
A
V
o

Appendi x B 51
FUNCTI ON OPERATI ON PATCHI NG
Vol t age Di vi der
Pot s 7 & 8
A
B
K
V
o

V KA K B
o
= +
( )
1
7
A
B
V
o
I nver t er
Ampl i f i er s 7 &
8
A
1 V
o

V A
o
=
7 A
V
o
I nt egr at or
Ampl i f i er s 1 4

1
1
B
A
F
C
D
E
10
10
1
V
o

V A B C D E F d
o
t
= + + + +
( )
10 10
0
t
SJ
SJ
1
1
1
.1
.1
IC
B
.1B
SW OP
1
B
C
D
E
F
A
V
o

Analog Computer Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Analog Computer Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

An a log Com pu t i n g

Fi gure 1.6: Wei ghted Summi ng Ampli fi er

El ect r oni c Swi t ch

Fi gure 1.26: The General Thi rd-Order System.

10v r ef er ence t o a p ot set t o some

| . I f 1, t hese est i mat es ar e conser vat i ve.

Fi gure 2.16: I ntegrator Di agram for Example 2.6

You might also like