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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CURRENT RESEARCH

International Journal of Current Research
Vol. 3, Issue, 11, pp.129-136, November, 2011

ISSN: 0975-833X

RESEARCH ARTICLE

EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION IN KENYA: A LITERATURE REVIEW ON CURRENT ISSUES

*,1Felicity
1Faculty of 2Faculty of

W. Githinji and 2Anne Kanga

Education, Department of Educational Foundations, Moi University, Kenya Education, Department of Undergraduate Studies in Education, Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Kenya
ABSTRACT
Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) globally and Kenya in particular has been recognized as a crucial programme that lays a foundation for a childs holistic and integrated education that meets the cognitive, social, moral, spiritual, emotional, physical and developmental needs. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the current issues facing ECDE in Kenya. Currently, ECDE is under the care of parents, community, non-governmental organizations (NGO), religious organizations and other private providers (MOEST, 2005). This paper is based on the premise as stipulated in the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declaration on Education for All (EFA) by 2015. Early Childhood Development Education being the first formal agent of socialization (Kibera & Kimokoti, 2007) calls the attention of all stakeholders to critically address the challenges related to issues of access, equity, quality and relevance of ECDE programmes. However, the private sector seems to have monopolized most of the ECDE centers compared to the government. Thus, the public education sector opportunities for ECDE are lacking, yet available data shows that at later formal education i.e primary schools, public education cater for well over 90% of Kenyas school going age. This paper therefore puts into question why the public education sector is missing out in this very important domain of education in its children at this tender age. To address the aforementioned issues, this paper is guided by the following research questions: What are the current challenges facing ECDE? What are the short and long term implications to the educational formation of the learners? How can this situation be improved? Literature informing this paper has been sourced from a content analysis approach of various documents from library search, online sources and Ministry of EducationKenya documents i.e. Sessional Papers. Initial findings show that ECDE is currently facing challenges related to the following: funding, policy formulation, low participation rates of target age groups including special learners, lack of curriculum content informed by research based data, inadequate qualified educators, lack of schemes of service for educators, rising number of orphans, conflict in medium of instruction among others. Further, of importance to note is that authors of this paper also feel that lack of practical approaches to inform the parents and lack of the Ministry of Educations funding and implementation initiatives further complicates the provision of ECDE. Following an analysis of the current scenario in ECDE, the authors recommend MOE reform programmes should be informed by systematic policy research and analyses informed by research, inclusion in terms gender, social economic status (SES) among others. Further, educational policy makers and managers should be educationists with reputable professional and experience records.
Copy Right, IJCR, 2011, Academic Journals. All rights reserved.

ARTICLE INFO
Article History:
Received 15th July, 2011 Received in revised form 29th September, 2011 Accepted 14th October, 2011 Published online 20th November, 2011

Key words:
Early Childhood Development Education, Early Childhood Education, Pre-school, Day care.

*Corresponding author:
fgithinji2005@yahoo.com, ankanga@cuea.edu,

INTRODUCTION
Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) programmes play a crucial role in laying the foundation for further education and character formation. They provide children witha fairer and better start in life. According to the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) 2009 Early Childhood Care, Development and Education (ECCDE) seek to develop the whole child. Pre-school plays a central role in establishing quality development of an individual (Mwaura, 2009). Education as a process that starts with the care and education of young children and continuing through lifelong learning is

central to individual empowerment, the elimination of poverty at household and community level, and broader social and economic development. All young children must be nurtured in safe and caring environments that allow them to become healthy, alert, and secure and be able to learn (Republic of Kenya, 2005a). Early Childhood Development Education interventions are significant in the social and economic development of a country. As argued in Kenyas Sessional Paper no. 5, given the biological, intellectual and psychosocial significance of early childhood on children and the potential economic and social benefits at family, community and national levels, quality early childhood interventions are a

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mark of hope to health development of the countrys citizens (Republic of Kenya, 2006b). Arguably, in the wake of Education for All (EFA) (UNESCO, 1990) and later declarations i.e. Millennium Development Goals (MDGS 2000), Kenyas Vision 2030 notwithstanding (GOK, 2003) children from low-income households who access ECDE services will be more likely to enroll in primary school at the right age and they will be less likely to drop out of school or repeat grades. There is also a high probability that these children will have improved school performance and cognitive abilities than those who do not attend ECDE. Twenty percent of Kenyas population belongs to this age (0-5) of childhood development (Republic of Kenya (2006a). In a continuing longitudinal study on the benefits of pre-school programmes, Schweinhert, Barnes and Weikart, 1993 as quoted by Mwaura, (2009), concluded that ECCD development can significantly reduce educational and social wastage. The study further foregrounded that with quality early childhood programmes, dropout, repetition, and failure rates in primary schooling will reduce and participation, completion and success rates improved. However, available statistics in Kenya show that enrolment in the ECDE has remained low (3.5%) in the past decade. This means that in the Kenyan context, a large % of children who enroll in primary school do not pass through ECDE programmes. In recent years, ECDE a great deal has been achieved in this sector through Government, development partners, community and parental investments in ECDE. However, despite these achievements, access to ECDE services remains low in Kenya with 65 percent of the children aged 3-6 years currently not accessing ECDE services. More critical is the fact that a majority of the ECDE centers are privately owned. This means the levies are determined by the proprietors and therefore services offered are in the first place discriminatory. Further, in arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) areas, this situation is much worse with only 9 percent of children aged 3-6 accessing ECDE services (MOEST, 2005). Early childhood refers to 0-6 years. Children begin to grow and develop from conception. Growth refers to the increase in height, size and weight. Development refers to the changes in which the child is able to handle more complex levels of moving, thinking, feeling and interacting with people and the environment. The more industrialized nations consider early childhood to be the period from birth through age 8 (Essa, 1999; Wortham, 2000), while developing nations focus on birth through age 6 (Eville-Lo & Mbugua, 2001; UNICEF, 2002). The most efficient timing for fostering human growth and development towards its highest possible potential is therefore during the first six years of life. This explains the concern for this paper because studies conducted by different scholars show that a poor ECDE programme can leave a lasting mark of deficiencies and impairment whose cost is manifested in poor health, disability, educational wastage, incompetence and delinquency (Schweinhert, Barnes and Weikart, 1997). Early Childhood Education (ECDE) is both the formal and informal education that the child receives as she/he grows. Informal setting of ECDE takes place at home, school, and playground in the community. Children investigate and experiment what they see through observation and imitation. The formal setting is in form of early school arrangement such as nursery school, kindergarten and institutional homes (Wawire, 2006). The environmental experiences provided during this period are extremely significant because they either enhance or deter the realization

of the childs full potential in life (Young, 2002; GOK/UNICEF, 1994; Myers, 1998, Khasiani, 1997, Dobbin, 1981). This paper therefore, questions current state of classes and playing grounds for ECDE children. A study by (Young, 2002) reveals that the benchmarks of a quality ECDE programme is based on the ECDE input and process and adequate physical facilities, outdoor play equipment, learning materials, stable staff, including trained teachers, support staff and head of institutions; a programme that encompass provision of adequate nutrition, health services and holistic curriculum and classroom dynamics including positive teacher and child behavior and effective teacher-child interactions. Myers (1992) supports this in his finding from a study done in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Brazil and Peru which revealed the emerging trend that although pre-schools were termed formal, based on the hours kept and the curriculum and materials used, they are non-formal in character and remain firmly rooted in and controlled by the communities which are responsible for building schools and employing Paraprofessionals (often referred to as an aide -- is a special-education worker who is not licensed to teach, but performs many duties both individually with students and organizationally in the classroom. Your child may be assigned a one-on-one paraprofessional as part of his or her IEP, or interact with a paraprofessional assigned to the classroom. The No Child Left Behind Act expanded the qualifications required to become a paraprofessional, as well as the duties paraprofessionals are permitted to carry out. In general, though, paraprofessionals should be working in support of the teacher, and not teaching themselves. Under ideal circumstances, having a certified, enthusiastic, well-prepared paraprofessional can make an enormous difference in the efficiency of your child's classroom and the implementation of your child's IEP. When there are problems, it is often because paraprofessionals are being asked to do things they are not trained to do, or have been pressed into service to do administrative tasks for the school outside of their support role in the classroom). Early Childhood Education generally involves developmental experiences of young children before the start of the compulsory schooling. It encompasses all the dimensions of growth and development, which include the mental, affective and psychomotor aspects (Myers, 1998). Educationists such as John Jacques Rousseau, Frobel and Pestalozzi first advanced the importance of providing education at an early age. Later psychologists and sociologists such as Piaget, Brunner, Montessori and Bloom in their theories of human development emphasized the fact that the first six years are critical. In their contributions, they emphasized that it is during the first six years when the fastest physical and mental developments occur. In addition, basic social values and skills are also developed within this time frame. In Kenya ECDE is offered by institutions bearing various names. The most commonly used terms include: Early childhood development, Childrens homes, ECDE Pre-primary, Pre-school education, Pre-unit, Nursery, Baby Care, Day care centers, Baby class/infant class, Kindergarten, Home care. However, the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MOEST) in collaboration with National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) has harmonized these names. Currently the following terms are used to refer to pre-schools: Preprimary 1, Pre-primary 11 and Day care in place of all the above names. Pre-primary 1 refers to learning for children 4

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years of age; Pre-primary 11 refers to learning for children 5 years of age. Day Care refers to care for children 3 years and below; (Kenya Institute of Education, 2009). The main objective of pre-primary school is to ensure the total development of a child physical, spiritual, social and mental is brought about through an informal mode of interaction with the parents and community taking a leading role Issues including health, nutrition, care and education are the major focus in pre-primary education (Government. of Kenya, 1987; & 2001, and United Nations, 2005). The general objectives of Early Childhood Development and Education in Kenya should: Provide education geared towards development of the childs mental capabilities and physical growth; Enable the child enjoy living and learning through play; Develop the childs self-awareness, self-esteem and self-confidence Enable the child to develop understanding and appreciation of his/her culture and environment; Foster the childs exploration skills, creativity, selfexpression and discovery; Identify children with special needs and align them with existing services; Enable the child build good habits and acquire acceptable values and behaviors for effective living as an individual and a member of a group; Foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child; Improve the status of the childs health, care and nutritional needs, and link him/her with health services such as immunization, health check-ups and growth and monitoring; Enrich the childs experiences to enable him/her to cope better with primary school life; Develop the childs aesthetic and artistic skills. The rest of the paper will be discussed under the following sub-headings: Historical Development of Early Childhood Development Education: A global perspective, ECDE in Kenya, current challenges facing ECDE, long and short term implications of ECDE and suggestions to address current challenges facing ECDE. Historical Development of Early Childhood Development Education: A Global Perspective Plato 428 and Aristotle 384 322 BC were great Greek philosophers who wrote about childrens development. Both of them recognized the importance of beginning education with young children. Plato specifically found that, if we educated children as early as possible we would have Good Citizens. They considered human beings as good and they emphasized the development of the childrens mind and body so that they could create a society in which good people followed good laws (Sifuna and Otiende, 2007). In Europe before the turn of the century, nursery education for the under five in most countries remained poor, as it continued to be incorporated in the general elementary schools, except for a number of schools started by individuals mainly inspired by foreign educationists like Frobel and Pestalozzi (Sifuna and Otiende, 2007). The development of pre-school in Europe, and America was greatly influenced by the need to provide health, welfare and care of poor children from war and slum

conditions (Austin, 1976). In United States of America (USA) ECDE covers 0 8 years. Previously, in USA, they had to cover from 0 5 years but changed later because of various reasons: According to research findings, significant developmental changes in childrens intellectual, social and physical powers occur around 7 8 years more than when they are 5 years old. This brought about increase in actual number of children who were enrolled in Early Childhood Education (ECDE) after finding out that ECDE had long term benefits specially children from poor environment. So in USA, they started a programme known as Head Start. This was a programme which sought to ensure that children were familiar with concepts they were supposed to have when they began schooling. For example, children from good environment knew something about computers than those from poor environment. So they could be helped to know these fundamental actions and computers. When they did this, they found that the children from poor environment did the same as children from good environment (Krueger, 1999). Early Childhood Education in Kenya Although in Kenya and Africa, institutionalized pre-school education is relatively a new phenomenon in general Early Childhood Education (ECDE) itself was not a new phenomenon in our society. In the Kenyan traditional societies, children in ECD receive adequate care, stimulation and socialization from parents and other community members. Intellectual needs were also met through stories, riddles and games just to mention but a few. Institutionalization of preschool education is a byproduct of colonization (Kenya Institute of Education, 1992). As a colony many changes happened in the social, cultural and economic set up of communities that affected the way children were socialized giving birth to institutionalized pre-school education. The forces that influenced the commencement and development of ECDE in Kenya to its current status trace its roots in the colonial period. Pre-Independence Period The first organized pre-school education movement was in the early 1940s in urban areas of Kenya to cater for Europeans and Asians living in the urban areas. The colonial administration established pre-school institutions in the urban centres where there were heavy concentration of European and Asian population to specifically serve these communities. The first pre-schools for African children can be traced back in the urban areas in African settlements (Republic of Kenya, 2009). This was mainly as a result of the effects of the 2nd world war. The Africans who were involved in the war in other parts of the world came in touch with European brand of education. When the war was over and they came back to Kenya they had high educational aspirations for their children and hence copied their educational models including pre-school education. The mental attitudes of the Europeans and Africans towards each other were greatly changed by the war. This psychological effect also encouraged Africans to have a greater demand for education. The First World War made Kenya prosperous hence more could pay fees for their childrens education. The economic boom created by the World War II meant that many people flocked in the towns from the countryside to take up new jobs. This created bigger

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urban areas and hence the Africans copied pre-school models from the Europeans and Asians in their respective urban settlements and plantations. In the rural areas, the first preschools catered mainly for under fives and emerged in the mid 1950s. These centres initially started as feeding centres in restriction camps and emergency villages between 1952 and 1957 in areas affected by the emergency especially in central and eastern Kenya during the freedom fighters movement war known as the Mau Mau. These centres were never meant to be schools. They were to provide custodial care for children while their parents were engaged in forced communal labour. In most of the villages, missionaries provided milk and medical checkup and treatment of the children. To pass time the children spent most of the day on play and other socialization activities. The centres became an important vehicle for ensuring improved health and nutritional status of many children. From this humble beginning the pre-school movement gradually spread to other parts of the country. Role of Missionaries in the Development of ECDE Missionaries played a big role in development of ECDE prior to and after independence. In the 1950s Churches Welfare Associations in conjunction with the local communities started feeding centres in arid and semi arid areas. Children were provided with food and milk for lunch. As children waited for the food to be ready there was need to involve them in play and other activities. This eventually led to development of permanent pre-school centres (Sifuna et al. 2007). Role of the Government in the Development of ECDE Since independence the government has over the years been involved in the development of ECDE. This has been through various ministries, projects, seminars, policy papers, Commissions as well as workshops that have shaped the ECDE programme to what it is today. Examples of these seminars and workshops include Malindi Seminar 1982 which was organized in Malindi sponsored and organized jointly by the Ministry of Education and the Bernard van Leer Foundation. The major recommendations and achievements of the seminar included: Establishment of the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) to advice the government on the modalities and logistics of disseminating the ECDE programme on a national scale and coordinate ECDE curriculum development. Consequently, NACECE was established in 1984 at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE, 2002). The other seminar was the Jadini Seminar 1987 which was organized by the Ministry of Education and the Bernard van Leer Foundation. The major recommendations and Achievements of the seminar included: Need for ECDE partners and other agencies to focus their efforts on the empowerment and capacitating of parents and local communities for provision of holistic services for children. In 1997, the Kenya Government procured a credit from the World Bank to Support ECDE Programmes in the centres. The project was implemented between 1997 and 2002. Its main objectives were to: Increase access of ECDE services; improve child health and nutrition status; improve quality of personnel and reduce dropout and repetition rates at lower primary school (KIE, 1987). The Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP) 2005-2010 in collaboration with

development partners and other stakeholders prepared the KESSP investment with a view to consolidating the gains accruing from the implementation of FPE, address the main sector issues and to support the government in strengthening management and delivery of educational services in order to improve access, quality, equity and relevance of education and training (Republic of Kenya, 2009). It is aimed at helping the government achieve and deliver policies set and outlined in the sessional paper No. 1 of 2005. In realization that an effective ECDE programme enhances a countrys social economic growth and political stability, the government through the sessional paper No. I of 2005 recommended the development of comprehensive ECDE policy framework and service standard guideline. The policy and the service standard guidelines were launched in 2007. Current Challenges facing Early Childhood Development Education Programmes in Kenya Governments, across relevant ministries, have the primary responsibility of formulating ECDE on policies within the context of national EFA plans, mobilizing political and popular support, and promoting flexible, adaptable programmes for young children that are appropriate to their age. The education of parents and other caregivers in better child care, building on traditional practices, and the systematic use of early childhood indicators are important elements in achieving this goal. The world declaration on Education for all (Jomtien, 1990) to which Kenya is a signatory reaffirmed the governments commitment to the realization of Universal Primary Education (UPE). The world summit for children (1990) committed nations to the achievement of Education for All (EFA) by year 2015. After Jomtien the government set up mechanisms and a framework for realizing EFA goals. The UPE goal was provided with a further impetus when in 2001 parliament enacted the childrens Act which recognizes education as a basic right to all children. The Act reaffirms that it is the responsibility of the parents and the government to provide education to the child. To push the agenda for the attainment of UPE forward, the government declared primary education free in January 2003. Following the declaration, the country experienced unprecedented influx of children to schools. Consequently, increased demands were placed on the education sector for the provision of learning/teaching equipment, as well as its teachers. This magnanimous gesture however did not include ECDE Services. Early Childhood Development Education services continue to be provided on a partnership basis between the parents and the local communities and this has brought up major challenges of which this paper has identified such as: Mushrooming of ECDE centres. Many ECDE centres continue to be opened by communities and individuals sometimes without proper supervision and regulations. Low funding of ECDE programmes by the exchequer in comparison with other levels of education. The government plays a very minor role in providing ECDE services; currently the government contributes only 0.1% to the recurrent expenditure in the ECDE. This goes to curriculum development, implementation of the guidelines and training of teachers of which 43% are already trained.

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Problems in Access: Household, communities, NGOs and other private providers primarily provide ECDE, which makes the programme inaccessible to the majority of households due to the high cost of providing the services. Policy formulation: Inadequate clear policy to guide ECDE has led to un-coordinated service provision between government organs, the NGOs, international agencies and the local communities. ECDE centers all over the country offer different services and this is made worse by competition for admission to good primary school and also the fact that many private centers are commercially based and are competing for children. Education policy: Kenya has no clear national philosophy of education or a solid national education policy. The two should be clearly defined and put in place to guide the development of education. Widespread poverty and poor economic growth hampering the quality of sustainable ECDE programmes. The governmentshould increase learning facilities and also introduce feeding programmes. In the African traditional family set up, the care of young children was provided by extended family. Currently religion, modernization, land scarcity and declining economy have all had a tremendous effect on families. Its effects are seen on the low quality of life led by some families in terms of provision of clothing, food, health and education. Issues such as child abuse, child labour, poverty, HIV and AIDs among others are extorting their influence on Early Childhood Development. The extended family support is no longer in existence therefore families have to deal with these issues on their own. Low participation rates of target age groups. Many 45 years old children have not participated in ECDE services while in some areas those below 3 years are not catered for by ECDE programmes. Enrolment was 33% in the year 2003, which is quite low considering the importance of ECDE. Lack of awareness: Many communities and parents lack awareness on the importance of ECDE for both girls and boys. The government should sensitize parents and communities on the importance of ECDE, reduce the cost of learning in ECDE by employing teachers and supplying learning facilities and also introduce feeding programmes. Lack of identification of children with special needs: One of the challenges teachers are facing in primary schools is that of children with special needs. The government lacks an institutionalized system for early identification of children with special needs, specially gifted and talented children who cannot fit in the mainstream schools in ECDE centres (KISE, 2007). This is a critical issue that needs to be addressed as the gifted and talented might end up dropping out of school. Inadequate Physical Facilities: Most ECDE programmes have inadequate physical facilities, equipments and materials inadequate ECDE materials owing to the fact that many publishers decline to undertake publishing of ECDE materials as they lack quick and ready markets (Aila, P. (2005).

Lack of schemes of service for ECDE teachers: Low and irregular remuneration of pre-school teachers thus adversely affecting the morale of pre-school teachers. Toaddress this issue the government should develop and implement a scheme of service for ECDE teachers. The government should also employ all ECDE teachers in pre-unit classes attached to public primary schools. At the moment ECDE teachers are employed by community committees and their salaries depend on the local income of parents. Studies by (Makoti, 2005, Gumo, 2003, Waithaka, 2003, Branyon, 2002) show that teachers motivation is hampered by low pay and benefits as well as lack of professional development avenues. Poor transition to primary school: Absence of a smooth transition from pre-school to primary schools result in high wastage in the form of elevated repetition and dropout rates at the primary education level, especially standard 1,2 and 3. A World Bank sponsored study by Nyamwanya and mwaura (1995) in its focus on transition between pre-school and primary school examined the teaching methods and learning of the two systems of education. The study observed that both teachers and parents of lower primary perceived child readiness from an academic perspective and this influenced the teaching methods and content used in pre-schools to prepare children for primary school. Inadequate qualified ECDE teachers: The number of untrained teachers in ECDE centres is still high at 56% in the public ECDE centres. Due to high rates of attrition as a result of the poor pay packages many pre-school teachers are untrained and so lack skills to enhance the holistic development and learning of children. A study by Kivuva (1997), on professional quality of teachers in ECDE portrayed variations in the teacher training in the training models (DICECE, Montessori and Kindergarten Headmistresss Association (KHA). Such a critical observation calls for a harmonization of the ECDE teacher training programmes. In another study of DICECE trained teachers by Mwana Mwende Trust in 1999 drew attention to the teacher training in enhancing skills in quality teaching, community mobilization and management of ECDE centers (Njenga and Kabiru 1999). Lack of supervision: This has also affected the quality of services. Quality Assurance Standard Officers (QUASO) is not adequately equipped to handle inspection and assessment of ECDE services, including issues relating to transition. Relevance to curricula: Relevance of ECDE refers to how appropriate a particular ECDE programme address the development needs of pre-school children (Wawire, 2006). Consequently, the area of curriculum in terms of teaching methods and content has raised attention from researchers in ECDE. Many pre-schools overemphasize the teaching 3 Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). This is attributed to parental pressure and interviews for entry to standard one although the Ministry of Educations birth record show the child is 6 years of age. Many ECDE teachers spend a lot of time preparing children

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for entry into primary school and cover the academic content of standard one. Rising number of orphans: HIV/AIDS pandemic is one of the greatest challenges to mankind. Kenya has not been spared from the devastating effects, rising attrition rate for teachers and education officers 1.8% of the countrys teachers are dying annually. Education sector is also experiencing lower productivity to absenteeism of ailing teachers and students, also number of orphans has been in the increase resulting in low enrolment and increase in the dropout rates in ECDE centres. Using mother tongue as a medium of instruction: ECDE centres should use Kiswahili, or local language as the media of instruction, the government should institutionalize and put in place, mechanisms and strategies of making Kiswahili a medium of instruction. Books written in English should be translated to Kiswahili and other local languages. Teachers handling lower ECDE should be inserviced on the use of mother tongue as a medium for instruction. However children in the urban and slum areas learn different languages and hence young children do not learn their first languages adequately. Free Primary Education: One of the major goals of education in Kenya is to promote national development. It was with this in mind that the Kenya government introduced Universal Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 (Ministry of Education, 2003). This worthy gesture however did not include ECDE services. Early Childhood Development services continue to be provided on a partnership basis between the parents, the local communities and the government (Alwar, 1995). Free Primary Education affected the co-operation of ECDE parents in the following ways: Some parents refused to pay fees to ECDE centres Parents refused to contribute toward the building of ECDE Some parents refused to take their children to ECDE centres hence wait for FPE In some cases, the ECDE classes in public schools were taken by the FPE pupils leaving ECDE children out of class. Some of the ECDE teachers lost their jobs while others were underpaid due to the non-payment of fees in the ECDE centres. Many untrained teachers were employed to replace the trained teachers who were demanding more money/higher salaries. The under age children were admitted in lower primary classes affecting enrolment in ECDE centres Child Abuse: Forms of child abuse include: Socialcultural abuse includes all harmful activities which are performed under the cover of culture of a community. For example; female genital mutilation, early child marriage, gender bias, customary religious practice. Physical Abuse: This includes; corporal punishment, inflicted disability, inconsistent explanation for injuries. These may be portrayed through; over

submissiveness, running away from home, and general fear of adults among others. Sexual Abuse- Include the following: Incest sexual relations between people who are closely related. These abuses have been happening to ECDE children in our societies and families hence need for child protection by making the children Act 2001 more practical. Emotional abuse include; verbal, visual intimidation or physical harassment. This happens to children both at school and the family units and therefore ECDE teachers and other care givers should be trained to protect a child from these types of abuse. Child labour. In the ECDE age group child domestic work is what mostly comprises child labour whereby the child is made to perform duties too advanced for the age of the child. Poor living conditions due to urbanization: As the country develops many families migrate to towns and cities. Urbanization comes with some challenges, some of which include: Drugs - traffickers and abusers at time may use children to deliver drugs. Overcrowding leads to moral decay and health hazards. Slums- no-space for children to play and poor sanitization. Pollution, Industrial air and water pollution. The emissions affect the health of young children and adults alike leading to poor health and retarded growth. Soil pollution in the rural agricultural set up due to use of fertilizers ECDE children mostly come into contact with the soil frequently and risk getting these chemicals into their bodies Burts,, D.C., Hart, C.H., Charlesworth, Fleedge, P.O., Mosley, J. and Thomasson, R.H.(1992) Contaminated food due to use of chemical sprays. Sound pollutions loud music played in various places affect the young childrens ear drums. Some people even play them near the ECDE centres. Industrial noise, construction noise and agricultural machineries all affect young childrens ear drums. A study by Burts et al (1992) found that Kindergarten children in developmentally inappropriate classes exhibited significantly more stress behaviours (such as complaints of feeling sick, stuttering, fights, tremors, nervous, laughter, and nail biting ) than those in appropriate classes particularly males and Africa- American children. Drugs: Parents get involved in trafficking and taking them which affect the family structures leading to children being the victims of poor care hence poor development. Children are used to traffic drugs by the drug users. Gender is socially constructed lifestyles or roles for males and females in a given community. In ECDE, gender does not affect children very much but research has shown that families seem to prefer boys to girls. In some African societies more boys were taken to school as opposed to girls. In the Africa society boys were valued more than girls, in the ECDE classes girls

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and boys are treated equally where all are looked at as children. However, some teachers tend to ask more questions to boys than girls. The story books tend to talk more of males (He) as opposed to females. Songs, poems, seem to portray men doing better jobs than women. Children in Kenya have been left mostly to mothers alone. In our ECDE centres many of the teachers are women hence boys lack role models (Chege, F. N., and Sifuna, D 2006). Hunger affects ECDE enrolment because only those old enough to with stand hunger can be allowed to go to school or even benefit totally from schooling. It makes ECDE expensive because feeding programme must be part of the fees. Mothers will not allow their young babies to stay where there is no food to be eaten frequently as their body demands food for proper growth. It makes children hate school or like school where feeding programmes are started. In some cases, schools become centres to distribute food not for learning by various donors. Pastoralism affects ECDE in that Families might be far apart making the centre to be very far for some children to access. Overage children are found in ECDE because very young children might not withstand the harsh conditions to the centre. Children are also part of the society and are trained to look after animals at an early age so they also follow animals at the expense of schooling and as a result centres can only be established if there is a teacher who will be able to shift with the families. HIV and AIDS: More than 23 million people, have been infected while millions have not yet been tested all over the world. Kenya has not been left out and ECDE sub sector is also affected with many children affected while other are infected. This affects the enrolment, health of children, psychosocial, development, emotional development and academic standard.

right age and they will be less likely to drop out of school or repeat grades. There is also a high probability that these children will have improved school performance and cognitive abilities than those who do not attend ECDE. ECDE development can significantly reduce educational and social wastage, quality early Childhood programmes, dropout, repetition, and failure rates in primary schooling will reduce and participation, completion and success rates improved. Suggestions on Ways of Improving the Current Issues in Early Childhood Development Education The government should: Reduce the cost of learning in ECDE by employing teachers. Improve on increasing the budgetary allocation to ECDE programmes. Harmonize and coordinate service provision between government organs, the NGOs, international agencies and the local communities, Enforce regulation on establishment of ECDE centres, Integrate ECDE as an integral part of primary education. Provide targeted support to enhance access to and quality of ECDE services among poor and disadvantaged communities across Kenya. Should change the perception of gender and give all children equal learning opportunities. More men should be employed in ECDE centers to be role models to the boy child. Should motivate teachers working in the pastoralist communities so that they can be shifting with them to assist in establishing centres to enhance continuity to the ECDE children.

Conclusion Although a lot of emphasis has been laid on the importance of ECDE the programme is still facing many challenges that need urgent attention from the government, teachers, parents and the entire education sector. Education reform programmes should be informed by systematic policy research and analyses, and not political decrees in the past. Education policy makers and managers must be educationist with reputable professional and experience records. Such individuals understand education service well and will be able to provide appropriate leadership to make education more effective and more efficient.

Long and Short Term Implications of Early Childhood Development Education Numerous studies discussed suggests that attending quality pre-school produces short and long term benefits for children (Lamb and Ahnert, 2006; Reynold, 2000, Schweihart, Barnes, and Weikart, 1993). The past decade has provided more evidence that good quality early childhood care and education, both in families and in more structured programmes, have a positive impact on the survival, growth, development and learning potential of children. Such programmes should be comprehensive, focusing on all of the child's needs and encompassing health, nutrition and hygiene as well as cognitive and psychosocial development (Ngome, 2002). At a broader perspective child academic success implies: relatively lower costs of education; increased projected earnings; increased parental earnings as a result of the freed time and increased parental satisfaction; aspirations and commitment to both child rearing and income in generating activities (Berrueta-Clement et al.,1981). Dropout, repetition, and failure rates in primary schooling will reduce and participation, completion and success rates improved. Children from low-income households who access ECDE services will be more likely to enroll in primary school at the

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