Essay: Sensory marketing can offer better sense appeal in destination marketing

Erose Sthapit

2 1 Introduction

Traveling offers tourists or travelers an opportunity to learn about others and other places (Urry 2002). The human senses play a significant role in shaping the tourist experience of places (Pan & Ryan 2006). The tourist experience is defined as the locus of value creation within the tourism industry. There has been a radical shift in the research focus from service to experience economy over the last decade. Businesses no longer only provide the consumer with products or services which are consumed; they often try to facilitate meaningful experiences (Hansen et al). Even though evidence on power of the visuals in shaping experiences can be found in numerous literatures; tourism researchers believe that the touristic experience is multisensory. Scholars argue that successful tourism destinations should attract tourists by more than visual stimuli (Pan & Ryan 2006), the use of pictures and sounds as promotional methods are not enough in attracting attention and sales (Isacsson, Alakoski & Bck 2009) and must provide for all the senses, (Dann & Jacobsen 2003) meaning a sense appeal in marketing. Since the publication of Urrys the Tourist Gaze (1990), visual has become increasingly popular as a central theoretical concept and the dominance of visualism, over other sensory methods of engagement. However, the increasing growth of complex tourism practices and experiences indicate that a visual approach is inadequate to address the information needs of tourists or travelers with different learning styles. Smell, sound, touch, taste and sight must be touched, in order for communication to be perceived valuable and interesting in marketing. The effect, position and impact that the use of multiple senses may have on marketing cannot be ignored by the tourism industry, the marketers and/or the researchers (Isacsson, Alakoski & Bck 2009).

According to Schmitt (1999) and Lindstrom and Kotler (2005), a customer is often attracted towards a brand based upon its sensory experience and our entire understanding of the world is experienced through our senses. Our senses are our link to memory and can tap right into emotion. Smell appears to be the most persuasive sense after sight, indicating a better scope for sensory marketing. The usage of multiple senses in brand marketing has an enormous effect on brand-loyalty and attachment, habit and consumer behavior (Lindstrom 2009).

One characteristic of the late twentieth century is the fact that the sheer volume of information has led to consumers becoming more passive. The various methods companies used in their

3 advertising to attract consumers attention dulled their senses (Kamei 2000). It is being increasingly acknowledged that there is a need to embrace wider and more active involvement (physical, intellectual, cognitive and the gaze). On contrary to the significance of visuals in marketing communication, a decade later, Urry stated that there is a multiplicity, and the way to approach the analysis of these multiplicities of tourist gaze is, among other things, to think about the taste-scapes, smell-scapes, sound-scapes, touch-scapes (Franklin 2001).

This essay, aims to introduce and contextualize readers with the need for sensory appeal in marketing. In fact, it seeks to provide insights on the shift in the notion of travel experience from past centuries to nowadays and beyond the work dominated by Urrys tourist gaze metaphor. It employs sensory marketing as a conceptual vehicle to explore issues of multisensory touristic experience and embodied engagement by problematizing the dominance of the visuals in tourism marketing. It is shown through the paradigm shift from mass, relationship to use of multiple senses in tourism marketing. The essay concludes by suggesting that sensory marketing and the focus on the five human senses can provide destination marketers with new insights on identifying emotional/psychological connections in differentiating, distinguishing and positioning a brand and in creating a better sense appeal in their advertising.

4 2 Discussion

The chapter provides insights on the shift in the notion of travel experience from past centuries to nowadays. The discussion focuses on the dominance of visualism over other senses within tourism and touristic experience. It shows how the academic community was slow to acknowledge the potential in examining the phenomenon of sensory activation, despite an increasing role of other senses, apart from visuals, as a catalyst in enhancing the touristic experience. The discussion is followed by the paradigm shift from mass, relationship to use of multiple senses in tourism marketing. It shift shows that the touristic experience is multisensory and is beyond Urrys (1990) tourist gaze metaphor.

Shift in the notion of travel experience

Looking at the history and the forms of tourism, pilgrimages were a wide spread phenomenon in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Such pilgrimages were served by mass produced indulgence handbooks and involved a mixture of religious devotion, culture and pleasure. Homage was paid by religious pilgrims to a sacred centre and was gazed upon (Feifer 1985). However, pilgrimages were on decline in the fifteenth century with the emergence of organized holy tours.

By the sixteenth century, travel had been a means to gain educational experience and to learn foreign tongues. The senses of sound and touch were the foci of traveling due to the educative domain of the Grand Tour (Adler 1989). In my opinion, the Grand Tour embraced a wider touristic experience through physical, intellectual and cognitive involvement besides the gaze.

However, in the seventeenth and eighteenth century the emphasis on travel shifted from touring as an opportunity for dialogue, to travel as a neutral eye witness observation (Urry 1990). The travel experience during this period privileges the eye as a mediator between the humans and the tourist destination. In fact, I would state the touristic experience to be passive because travel was viewed as a visualization experience, or the gaze, aided and assisted by guidebooks (Adler 1989). I would link the passive touristic experience to Urrys (1990) tourist gaze, as the emphasis is on the greater sensitivity to visual element of landscape, townscape, an ethnic group, a lifestyle, historical artifacts, bases of recreation, or sand, sun and sea. On contrary, I believe

5 that the tourist gaze is an absence of the body (Veijola & Jokinen 1994) because the concentration is on the gaze and lacks embodied engagement. In other words, the process of experiencing, making sense, knowing through practice as a sensual human subject is completely ignored by the dominance of visualism over other senses.

Moreover, I believe that the shift in the character of the Grand Tour, known as Romanticism, brought about no changes in the concept of travel and touristic experience dominated by visuals. The focus still remained on the visual or scenery. The concept of looking at the visual elements shifted from a neutral observation to something that one could gaze and gain individual pleasures. Furthermore, Romanticism led to the development of scenic tourismthe appreciation for magnificent stretches of the coastline and followed by the early emergence of mass tourism (Towner 1985).

On the other hand, the new sociological aspect of life appeared with the arrival of the camera in the nineteenth century (Urry 2002). The legitimacy of science came to be based in large part on its claim to describe the world in visual terms (Harper 2000). However, Lowe (1982) argues that at different times there have been different hierarchies of the senses in perceiving the world. In my opinion, the wider body of research on relationships between the senses and the touristic experience was still restricted to visuals and lacked wider perspective.

Mass tourism marketing

The emphasis on the visual sense reached its peak in the mid-nineteenth century. Picture postcards were used as a link between visual culture and tourism, one of the easiest forms of visual mass media. Circulating widely and avidly collected (Moors & Wachlin 1995), they were a major means of communicating the visual imagery of packaged tours offered by mass tour operators. Mass tourism operators easily satisfied their customers by bringing them to sites that were preselected, prepackaged, and pre-projected to visitors. In my opinion, mass tour operators considered visual images to be easier to promote to tourists than those derived from the other senses as tourists were particularly attracted to sightseeing within the surroundings of comfortable transport and accommodation.

The touristic experience in this context can be defined as pleasurable experiences which are, by comparison with the everyday, out of the ordinary. Mass commercial tourism involved group travelling provided by tour and transport companies (Urry 1990). Seaside holidays

6 became the predominant form of holiday and had expanded faster than other type of holiday (Walvin 1978). Resorts were believed to be extraordinary because there were the sea, the sand and the sun and it was one of the potential objects of the tourist gaze.

The key to economic success in mass marketing was expressed by Thomas Cook in the midnineteenth century: The largest profits come from intensive use by the greatest number of people at the lowest cost. His first pleasure excursion was organized in 1844. The package included a guide to recommended shops and places of historic interest upon which to gaze. By 1864, more than a million passengers had passed through his hands (Younger 1973). Companies found it more profitable to sell relatively low-value products to masses of customers (Urry 1990). In my opinion, it can be stated that visualism and pricing dominated the marketing message throughout the nineteenth century.

By late twentieth century, mass tourism had internationalized in Europe and there were almost 300 million tourist arrivals worldwide and international tourism was the second largest item in world trade (IMF 1986). The mass character of the tourist gaze was constructed and sustained through a variety of non-tourist practices, such as TV, film, literature, magazine, records and videos, which constructed and reinforced that gaze (Urry 1990).

However, the potential object of the tourist gaze had to compete internationally, and led to what is extraordinary and what is internationally ordinary. The packaged tours had a devastating effect on numerous seaside resorts. Towns and cities de-industrialized and

themselves become objects for the tourist gaze. Increased leisure time allowed people to move away from standardized package holiday and seek wider variety of forms of leisure activity, including independent travel (McRae 1989). Mass markets were replaced by fragmented markets and numerous segments (Hultn et al 2009). Therefore, it can be stated that

packaged holidays were no longer viewed as fashionable or smart and forced tour operators to develop more flexible kinds of travel arrangements.

Relationship Marketing

Over a decade, almost every place in the world could act as an object of the tourist gaze. The focus now was on the quality of the social interaction between the provider of the service and the consumer. Relationship marketing in mass markets took place where the market segments were served by differentiated products. In the tourism sector, it was most evident in resort

7 marketing, where repeat customers are relatively common and there are more opportunities to communicate with the client (Cosic & Djuric 2009).

Mass customization began in service industries due to simultaneity of production and consumption and to build loyalty as mass-market quality was no longer a sufficient differentiator. Relationship marketing facilitated customer intimacy by invoking emotions in a variety of contexts. Broadcast media created a sense of affiliation with the organization, organizational procedures influenced customers perceptions of the fairness of the exchange relationship (Lind & Tyler 1988) and substantively personalized service influenced customers perceptions of the helpfulness and friendliness of the organization (Surprenant & Solomon 1987). In favorable situations, these circumstances invoked emotions such as happiness, pride, and achievement. On contrary, unfavorable situations led to anger and frustration.

The focus of relationship marketing was on the large numbers of alternatives created through branding and image advertising (Newman 1977). Therefore, I believe that it lacked in creating personalized individual sensory experience and was not perceived to be effective (Hultn et al 2009). In addition, it was not successful in influencing the behavior and attitudes of the customers towards a particular brand.

Even Urry (Franklin 2001) stated the need to think about the use of multiple sensorial strategies (multiple senses) in approaching the multiplicities of tourist gaze. Urry (2002) further emphasized the need for destination marketers to understand that there are three learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (Luecke 2003). Kinesthetic learners described as more engaged by physical activities and it has been suggested that 30 to 50% of people fall into this category, visual (who respond best to visual stimuli) and auditory learners (who are more responsive to aural stimuli) constitute, respectively, 30 to 40% and 20 to 30% of the population (Luecke 2003). Therefore, the touristic experience can be stated as multisensory (Dann & Jacobsen 2002; Franklin & Crang 2001).

Senses

Sense refers to sight, hearing, smell, taste, or touch, by which humans and animals perceive stimuli originating from outside or inside the body. Among the five senses (sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch) sight is generally held to be the most powerful and seductive of the

8 human senses (Orth & Malkewitz 2008; Smith & Burns 1996; Balaji et al 2011). According to Mowat (2002) visual attracts attention, provokes curiosity and helps bring material to life. The prevalent senses used in marketing are visuals and sound (Goldkuhl & Styfven 2007). According to Lindstrom (2009) visual pictures are more effective and meaningful if they are combined with other senses such as scent. He forecasts that e.g. the use of scents and sounds have a lot of future potential and suggest that sound and scent in combination affect our behavior more than sight (Lindstrom 2009).

Smell is related to pleasure and well-being and is closely connected to emotions (Goldkuhl & Styfven 2007; Fiore et al 2000) and said to easily invoke ones memory (Wilkie 1994) of a visited destination (Son & Pearce 2005). According to Goldkuhl and Styfven (2007) smell can have a powerful impact on consumers behavior. It can contribute to favorable perception of the services (Chebat & Michon 2003) and change in attitude (Ellen & Bone 1998). In service industries, use of smell can trigger memories of pleasant emotions; meaning a powerful tool to create brand loyalty (David et al 2003).

Sound is linked to emotions and feelings and impacts experiences and interpretations (Garlin & Owen 2006; Sweeney & Wyber 2002). The signature melody from Hemglass ice-cream cars is the most famous registered sound brand in Sweden and also commonly played in the households of Finland, Denmark and Norway (Hultn et al 2009).

The sense of taste has been described as the most distinct emotional sense and often interacts with other senses (Biedekarken & Henneberg 2006; Klosse et al 2004). The concept of taste is often more related to the whole sensory experience than to just what is put in the mouth (Hultn et al 2009). The sense of touch is related to information and feelings through physical and psychological interactions (Peck & Wiggins 2006; Citrin et al 2003). In my opinion, the five senses play an important role in the tangibilisation of service (Goldkuhl & Styfven 2007). In my opinion, companies in the beginning of the 21st century have again focused on multiple human senses compared to visuals in their promotional materials. For example, the German car producer Audi uses scents to stimulate customers smell sense. Citroen C4 customers can choose from among nine different scents for the cars interior, including vanilla, lavender, citrus, and lotus flower, as scents create a good atmosphere. The exclusive Italian brand Giorgio Armani has long used scent strips in its newspaper and magazine advertising (Hultn

9 et al 2009). The article - A sound strategy for Intercontinental Hotels (Jones 2009) provides an example of sound as part of the hotels servicescape and about the role of background music, and other sounds, in the hotel experience.

Multisensory Marketing

Multisensory marketing distinguishes itself from mass and relationship marketing by having its origin in the five human senses. Giordmaina (2008) defines multisensory marketing as a way of creating emotional bond by directly impacting on the five senses of current and prospective customers. The concept taps into the emotional side of customers and influences the memories that visitors take away with them when they leave a particular destination. Relevant and targeted sensorial experiences can even tap into tourists emotions, creating positive and long-lasting memories which visitors can share with others. For example, Singapore Airlines matches the aroma in the cabin (smell) with the interior color scheme and the uniforms worn by flight attendants (sight).

Sensory Marketing

I believe that the concept of multisensory marketing is synonymous to sensory marketing. Both the marketing techniques aim at seducing the consumer by using his/her senses to influence his/her feelings and behaviors (Hultn et al 2009). It ensembles all the variables of action controlled by the producer or retailer to create, around the product or service, a specific multisensory environment, either through the product itself or the communication or the environment in the point of sale (Amorntatkul & Pahome 2011).

It is in the brain of an individual that a brand registers and images are created as mental conceptions and imaginations. The image is the result of the experience an individual has of a firm or a brand. Each individual has a subjective experience called experience logic. This logic is individual and personal (Hultn et al 2009). The experience is slanted to its character surprise, delight, excitement i.e. how people react depend on their personal features, the situation and the circumstances (Palmer 2010), previous experiences and experienced with the customers own physical and mental attributes and through their own senses (Moritz 2005).

The process involves sensory stimulation, interpretation, understanding and responding to the stimuli. In my opinion, such an approach can be used to create the marketing plan in order to

10 design products and in branding the communication with the customers. These create awareness and influence the customer behavior, meaning if the use of sensory stimuli is appropriate, it is able to influence decision making and the propensity to spend. Sensory stimulation can influence environments, improve experience and change the nature of behavior in ways beyond our consciousness. Sensory marketing if used appropriately, can influence decision making and also have positive attitude from customers (Soars 2009).

Nowadays, sensory marketing is found in every industry especially in service industry, it offers customers a total sensory experience (Goldkuhl & Styfven 2007). For example, Starbucks has used the sensory marketing framework to create a deeper and more personal relationship with its customers by involving all five human senses. The environment makes it comfortable to read a book or talk with friends. The green and yellow of the interior, together with pleasant lighting, offer a soothing and restful visual experience. The relaxing music is selected with precision to create the sound of Starbucks. The smell and taste of the freshly ground coffee, the comfortable texture, solidarity, and the shape of the armchairs all contribute to the sensory experience of the brand (Hultn et al 2009). Such an approach further contributes in building a successful multisensory brand-experience, where the different sensory impressions impact consumer behavior and perceptions of goods and services (Hultn 2011).

11 3 Conclusion

By acknowledging the existence of multi-sensual encounters in tourism, there is an opportunity to employ sensory marketing in contributing to the work dominated by visuals. To date, tourism destination marketers have been more or less limited to advertising and the sense of sight, but in multisensory marketing other senses are equally significant. Smell, sound, vision, taste or touch can reinforce a positive feeling, following the experiential logic, which generates a certain value to the individual and, in particular, creates a brand image.

On contrary to mass and relationship marketing, firms can use sensory expressions to engage one or more of the five senses and in leaving imprints of a product or service that take the form of experience which is based on individual and personalized perceptions. However, when creating an atmosphere it is important to remember, that all senses cannot be used in all situations. It is important to find those senses that are appropriate to the company brand or relates well to a specific product.

The multisensory experience offers behavioral, emotional, cognitive, sensorial, or symbolic value. The value is generated individually by customers as a sole-creator in the human mind. The sensory expressions may provide sensual and bodily immersion, where tourists are submerged in waves of smells, sounds, taste and touch. Multisensory marketing and the focus on the five human senses can provide destination marketers with new insights on identifying emotional/psychological connections in differentiating, distinguishing and positioning a brand and in creating a better sense appeal in their advertising.

12 4 References

Adler, J. (1989). Origins of sightseeing. Annals of Tourism Research 16, pp. 7-29. Amorntatkul, N & Pahome, T. (2011): How sensory marketing applies to the hotel and restaurant industry in order to influence customers behavior in Thailand. Internet source. www. mdh.diva-portal.org/smash/get/.../FULLTEXT01 Consulted 5.11.2011 Baranowski, S. & Furlough, E. (2001). Being elsewhere: tourism, consumer culture, and identity in modern Europe and North America. University of Ann Arbor. Berry, Leonard L. (1983). Relationship Marketing. In Berry, Leonard L., Shostack, G. Lynn and Upah, Gregory (eds.), Emerging Perspectives on Services Marketing. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, pp. 25-8. Biedekarken, O. & Henneberg, S. (2006). Influence of brands on taste acceptance: ice cream brand versus discount brand; brand recognition influences sensory acceptance positively or negatively, an effect that can sometimes be quite dramatic. Food Engineering and Ingredients 9 (1). Bitner, M.J. (1992). Servicescapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees. Journal of Marketing 56, pp.57-71. Citrin, A.V., Stern, D.E., Spangenberg, E.R. & Clark, M.J. (2003). Consumer need for tactile input: an internet retailing challenge. Journal of Business Research 56(11), pp. 915-22. Colson, F. (1926). The Week. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cosic, M. & Djuric, M.D. (2009). Relationship Marketing In the Tourist Services Sector. Journal of Economics 1(1), pp. 53-60, 2010. Dann, G. (1996). The language of tourism: A sociolinguistic perspective. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Dann, G. & Jacobsen, S. (2003). Tourism smellscape. Tourism Geographies, 5(1), pp.3-25. Franklin, A. (2001). The Tourist Gaze and Beyond. An Interview with John Urry. Tourist Studies 1(2), pp. 11531. Feifer, W. (1985). Going Places. London: Macmillan. Fill, C. (2005). Marketing Communications: Engagement, Strategic and Practice. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall Giordimaina, J. G. (2008): Multisensory Marketing and its application in tourism. Journal of the Institute of Tourism Studies 2. Internet source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/9296907/Multisensory-Marketing-and-Its-Application-in-Tourism Goldkuhl, L. & Styven, M., (2007). Sensing the scent of service success. Sweden European Journal of Marketing 41(11/12), pp. 1297-1305.

13 Hansen, A. H., Lindberg, F. & Eide, D. A Multi-Relational Approach to the Study of Tourist Experiences. Consumer Behaviour in Tourism and Hospitality. Bod Graduate School of Business, University of Nordland.Bod, Norway Harper, D. (2000). Reimagining visual methods: Galileo to Neuromancer. In N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Hirsch, A.R. (1995). Effects of Ambient Odors on Slot Machine Usage in a Las Vegas Casino. Psychology and Marketing 12(7), pp.585-594. Hultn, B. (2011). Sensory marketing: the multisensory brand-experience concept. European Business Review 23(3), pp.256 273. Hultn, B., Broweus, N. & Dijak Mv. (2009). Sensory Marketing. Palgrave Macmillan: NY, pp 2-142 Hunt, Shelby D. & Robert M. Morgan (1994), Relationship Marketing in the Era of Network Competition. Marketing Management 3(1), pp.19-28. IMF (1986) Balance of Payment Statistics 37(2).Washington: IMF. Isacsson, A., Alakoski, L. & Bck, A. (2009). Using Multiple Senses in Tourism Marketing: The Helsinki Expert, Eckero Line and Linnanmaki Amusement Park Cases. TOURISMOS: International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism 4(3), pp. 167-184. Jones, P. (2009). A sound strategy for Intercontinental Hotels. Tourism & Hospitality Research 9(3), pp.271-276. Kamet, T. (2000). A 21st-Century Approach to Marketing. Nomura Research Institute Klosse, P.R., Riga, J., Cramwinckel, A.B. & Saris, W.H.M. (2004). The formulation and evaluation of culinary success factors that determine the palatability of food. Food Service Technology 4, pp. 107-15. Kotler, P., Bowen, J.T. & Makens, J. (2006). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism. Prentice Hall Kozak, M., Gnoth, J. & Andreu, L.L.A. (2010). Advances in tourism destination marketing: managing networks. New York: Routledge. Kuutti, H. (2006). Uusi mediasanasto. Jyvskyl: Atena kustannus Oy. Lind, E. A. & Tom R. T. (1988). The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice, New York: Plenum Press. Lindstrom, M. (2009). Buyology: Truth and Lies about Why We Buy. Arrow Books Ltd. Lindstrom, M. & Kotler, P. (2005). Brand sense build powerful brands through touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound. New York: Free press. Lowe, D.M. (1982). History of Bourgeois Perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

14 McCabe, S. & Lashley, C. (2009). Marketing Communications in Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts, Strategies and Cases. Elsevier McDonnell, J. (2002). Sensorial Marketing for Those Who Can Wait no Longer. In Proceedings of the first International Conference of Sensorial Marketing. Nice, the Academy of French Marketing and Columbia University. McDougall, G.H.G. & Snetsinger, D.W. (1990). The intangibility of services: measurement and competitive perspectives. Journal of Services Marketing, 4(4), 27-40. McRae, H. (1989). The clouds gather over the sea and sun package. The Guardian Moors, A & Walchin, S. (1995). Dealing With the Past, Creating A Presence: Picture Postcards of Palestine. In Moors, A., Teeffelen, T.van, Ghazaleh, I.A. & S. Kanaana (eds). Discourse and Palestine: Power, Text and Context, Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. Newman, Joseph W. (1977). Consumer External Search: Amount and Determinants. In Woodside, A. G., Sheth, H. N. & Bennet, P.D. (Eds.). Consumer and Industrial Buying Behavior, New York: Elsevier-Horth Holland, Inc. 79-94. Pan, S. & Ryan, C. (2009). Tourism sense-making: the role of the senses and travel journalism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 26(7), 625-639. Peck, J. & Wiggins, J. (2006). It just feels good: customers affective response to touch and its influence on persuasion, Journal of Marketing 70, pp. 56-69. Robinson, H. (1976). A Geography of Tourism. Plymouth: Macdonlad & Evans. Ryan, C. (2003). Recreational tourismImpacts and demand. Clevedon: Channel View Press. Schmitt, B.H. (1999). Experiential marketing: how to get customers to sense, feel, think, act, and relate to your company and brands. New York: The Free Press. Soars, B. (2009). Driving sales through shoppers sense of sound, sight, smell and touch. Journal of Retail and Distribution Management 37(3), pp.286 -289. Son, A. & Pearce, P. (2005). Multi-faceted image assessment: International students views of Australia as a tourist destination. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 18(4), pp.21-35 Surprenant, C. F. & Michael R. S. (1987). Predictability and Personalization in the Service Encounter. Journal of Marketing 51 (2), pp.86-96. Sweeney, C.J. & Wyber, F. (2002). The role of cognitions and emotions in the music approach-avoidance behavior relationship, Journal of Services Marketing, 16(1), pp. 51-70. Towner, J. (1985). The Grand Tour. a key phase in the history of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 10, pp. 173-89 Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze. London: Sage.

15 Urry, J. (2000). City life and the senses. In Bridge, G. & Watson, S. (Eds.). A companion to the city. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, pp. 388-397. Veijola, S., & Jokinen, E. (1994). The body in tourism. Theory, Culture & Society 11(3), pp. 125-151. Walvin, J. (1978). Beside the Seaside. London. Allen Lane Williams, A & Shaw, G (1988). Tourism and development: introduction. In Williams, A & Shaw, G (Eds.). Tourism and Economic Development. London: Belhaven Press, pp. 1-11. Zeithaml, V.A., Bitner, M.J. & Gremler, D.D. (2006). Services Marketing: Integrating Customer Focus Across the Firm. McGraw-Hill. Zemke, D.M.V. & Shoemaker, S. (2006). Scent across a crowded room: Exploring the effect of ambient scent on social interactions. International Journal of Hospitality Management 12, pp.1-14.