Cell- The Unit of Life :

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. All organisms are made of smaller parts called organs. Organs are made of still smaller parts. The smallest living part of an organism is a cell. The word cell is derived from the Latin word cellula which means a little room. Cells were first observed in cork by Robert Hooke in 1665. Leeuwenhoek (1674), with the improved microscope, discovered the free living cells in pond water for the first time. Cells exhibit variety of shapes and sizes. Number of cells also varies from organism to organism. Man is estimated to have about 100 trillion (1014) cells in number. Some cells are big enough to be seen with the unaided eye. Hens egg is an example. Some organisms are single-celled, while others contain large number of cells. The single cell of unicellular organisms performs all the basic functions performed by a variety of cells in multicellular organisms. Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins. The cell has three main parts, (i) the cell membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains smaller components called organelles, and (iii) the nucleus. XIV. Cell Membrane: The cell membrane also called the plasma membrane is an active part of the cell. It regulates the movement of materials between the ordered interior of the cell and the outer environment. The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both inward and outward. Cell Wall: Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to plants. Nucleus: Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane. With a microscope of higher magnification, we can see a smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is called the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells. Functional segments of DNA are called genes. In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes. Gene: Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.

Cytoplasm : It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Various

XV.

other components, or organelles, of cells are present in the cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc. Vacuoles: Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. Most plant cells have large membranous organelles called plastids, which are of two types chromoplasts and leucoplasts. The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-bound vesicles that function in the storage, modification and packaging of substances manufactured in the cell. Chromoplasts that contain chlorophyll are called chloroplasts and they perform photosynthesis.The primary function of leucoplasts is storage. The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm. It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell. The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well organised like the cells of multicellular organisms. There is no nuclear membrane. The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples are bacteria and blue green algae. Prokaryotic cells have no membrane-bound organelles, their chromosomes are composed of only nucleic acid, and they have only very small ribosomes as organelles. The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic cells. All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called eukaryotes. (eu : true; karyon: nucleus). Cell Division: Every living organism reproducing sexually is derived from a single cell, the zygote, which divides again and again to produce a large number of body cells. This division is accomplished in phases, the division of nucleus called mitisis and the cytoplasmic division called meiosis. Mitosis A parent cell will copy of all its internal components, divide them equally, and then split in half to form 2 daughter cells, The daughter cells formed are identical to each other. In single-celled, eukaryotic organisms this is the way that they form new individuals. In multi-cellular organisms, mitosis is used for growth and repair of damaged tissue. Mitosis is tightly controlled by the cell cycle to ensure that mitosis happens only when it is needed. A normal cell completes the cycle with-in 24 hours. Main steps during mitosis: 1. Interphase :DNA is replicated along with organelles and other cellular components and the cell prepares for division. During the replication process, the DNA changes from one double helix (unreplicated) to two double helices (replicated).The two helices in the replicated chromosomes are joined to one another in the special region of the chromosome called the centromere at this point, the two double helices are called are sister chromatids 2. Prophase : (preparation phase) The DNA recoils and the chromosomes condense; the nuclear membrane disappears, and the mitotic spindles begin to form. 3. Metaphase : (organizational phase). The chromosomes line up the middle of the cell with the help of spindle fibers attached to the centromere of each replicated chromosome.

Telophase :The chromosomes, along with the cytoplasm and its organelles and membranes are divided into 2 portions 5. Cytokinesis: The actual splitting of the daughter cells into two separate cells is called cytokinesis and occurs differently in both plant and animal cells as is illustrated below. Animal cells: The cell pinches in on both sides to form a cleavage furrow. This will gradually move toward the center to split the parent cell into 2 daughter cells. Plant cells: The cell forms a cell plate, which starts in the center and moves towards the outer edges to split the parent cell into two daughter cells. Meiosis: Meiosis is used in sexual reproduction for the formation of gametes (egg and sperm cells). It creates genetic diversity. The gametes that are produced as an end result of meiosis are haploid cells, they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell. This will ensure that when gametes combine during fertilization that the new zygote will contain the normal amount of chromosomes instead of double the genetic material. Just like in mitosis, during INTERPHASE, the DNA is replicated before the cell undergoes the division process. 1. Prophase I : The chromosomes coil up and condense and the nuclear membrane disappears. The cell prepares for separation. During this process, the chromosomes of each homologous pair lie so close to one another that the arms can get tangled up. The lining up of homologous chromosomes in pairs is known as synapsis. This can lead to exchange of genetic material between the homologous pairs known as crossing-over. This will serve to create genetic diversity. 2. Metaphase I : The homologous pairs line up in the center of the cell. During this time, the chromosomes obey the law of independent assortment this says that each homologous pair arranges itself independently of the others. 3. Anaphase I :The homologous pairs are separated and pulled opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. 4. Telophase I : The parent cell separates into 2 daughter cells with the division of the cytoplasm, organelles, and membranes. The new daughter cells now have the number of chromosomes of the parent cell but the chromosomes are still replicated. The two daughter cells are no longer identical to the parent cell or each other. Meiosis II: This is essentially the same as mitosis we have to split the replicated chromosomes so they are no longer in a replicated state. Remember that this is taking place now in both of the two new daughter cells we have just created. 1. Prophase II: This stage resembles that of mitotic prophase the chromosomes recoil and condense and any nuclear membrane that has formed will now disappear. 2. Metaphase II: The chromosomes line up in the middles attached to the spindle fibers and prepare for separation again, remember this is happening in two different cells simultaneously. 3. Anaphase II: The sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cells by the spindle fibers. 4. Telophase II: The cells split into 2 daughter cells, and cytokinesis occurs. The end result is 4 haploid daughter cells that are not identical to one another. 4.

Tissues:
I. II. III. A group of cells of the same type or of a mixed type having a common origin and performing similar functions are called tissues. Plant tissues are of two main types Meristematic Tissues (Meristems) and Permanent. Meristematic tissues are composed of cells that divide continuously. As the cells of this tissue are very active, they have dense cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls and prominent nuclei. They lack vacuoles. Found in growing tips of root and shoot. The main function of meristematic tissue is to continuously form a number of new cells and help in growth. Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissues. They have lost the power of dividing, having attained their definite form and size. In their earlier stages the cells are more or less similar in structure but slowly they become specialized and form permanent tissues. They can be classified into simple and complex tissues. Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are three types of simple tissues. Xylem and phloem are types of complex tissues. Parenchyma, a type of permanent tissue, consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls. They are live cells. They are usually loosely packed,so that large spaces between cells (intercellular spaces) are found in this tissue. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations, it contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis,and then it is called chlorenchyma.In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give buoyancy to the plants to help them float. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma. The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue, collenchyma. It allows easy bending in various parts of a plant (leaf, stem) without breaking. It also provides mechanical support to plants. Yet another type of permanent tissue is sclerenchyma. It is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff. The cells of this tissue are dead. Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform a common function. Xylem and phloem are examples of such complex tissues. They are both conducting tissues and constitute a vascular bundle. Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres. The cells have thick walls, and many of them are dead cells. Tracheids and vessels are tubular structures. This allows them to transport water and minerals vertically. The parenchyma stores food and helps in the sideways conduction of water. Fibres are mainly supportive in function. Phloem is made up of four types of elements: sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and the phloem parenchyma. Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls. Phloem is unlike xylem in that materials can move in both directions in it. Phloem transports food from leaves to other parts of the plant. Except for phloem fibres, phloem cells are living cells. Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue. The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues. Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body. Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and glandular. The different types of connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage and blood.

IV. V. VI.

VII. VIII. IX. X.

XI.

XII. XIII. XIV.

XV. XVI.

Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres. This tissue is responsible for movement in our body. Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause movement. Striated, unstriated and cardiac are three types of muscle tissues. The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of nervous tissue. Each nerve cell is called a neuron. These are highly specialized cells. They have the ability to receive stimulus from within or outside and send impulses to different parts of the body. Each cell consists of three parts, the cyton or the cell body, the dendrons which are short processes arising from the cyton and further branch into thin dendrites and the axon which is a single long cylindrical process forming fine branches terminally. Dendrites receive impulses and the axon takes impulses away from the cell body.

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Microorganism:
I. Microorganisms or microbes are too small and are not visible to the unaided eye. They may be unicellular or multicellular. Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae. Viruses, though different from the above mentioned living organisms, are considered microbes. Viruses are quite different from other microorganisms. They reproduce only inside the host organism; bacterium, plant or animal cell. They can live in all kinds of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands. Microorganisms are found in air, water and in the bodies of plants and animals. Some microorganisms are useful for commercial production of medicines and alcohol. In agriculture they are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.

II.

Virus:

A complete virus particle, known as a virion , is little more than a gene transporter, consisting of nucleic acid either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. A capsid is composed of proteins encoded by the viral genome and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction. Virally coded protein units called protomers will self-assemble to form the capsid, requiring no input from the virus genome - however, a few viruses code for proteins which assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as nucleoproteins, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. Viruses are dead outside the cells multiply only inside living cells and moves along blood or Phloem sap in animals and plants respectively. The nucleic acid of the virus enters the cell and control the host cell to produce identical virus nucleic acid and protein coat and thus it multiplies. Continuous multiplication of virus, exhaust the protoplasmic contents and it finally the cell ruptures and realises virus. This process is known as lysis of the host cell. The new viruses repeat the entire multiplication process. Bacteria are microorganisms that lack a nucleus and have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a proteinsugar molecule. Bacteria are the most common organisms on earth and are intimately connected to the lives of all organisms. The common structural forms are: 1. Spherical or ovoid (coccus ) 2. rod shaped or cylindrical (bacillus ) 3. spiral or screw (spirillum) Many forms of bacteria are not capable of independent movement,. Some Bacteria which live in liquid often have thread like projections called flagella (e.g Salmonella bacterium) Reproduction in bacteria is largely by binary fission i.e. it splits into two. In some case due to some extreme environmental conditions, they form tiny structures is called Spores. It is formed by condensation of

III.

Bacteria:

IV.

V.

protoplasm into a spherical or egg shaped body and they germinate under favourable conditions. Some bacteria exhibit a type of sexual reproduction. Vaccination or Immunization or inoculation is a method of stimulating resistance in the human body to specific diseases using microorganisms -bacteria or viruses-that have been modified or killed. These vaccines do not cause diseases but stimulates the production of antibodies in its blood. It build a defense mechanism that continuously guards against the disease. Serum is a preparation from blood of an animal that has been inoculated with bacteria. This contains antibodies that formed as a consequence of the disease. The important antibodies produced with the help of bacteria are streptomycin, Aureomycin, Terramycin. Fungi: The fungi (singular fungus) are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms. Fungi lack chlorophyll; consequently they cannot synthesize their own food. In order to feed fungi release digestive enzymes that break down food outside their bodies. The fungus then absorbs the dissolved food through their cell walls. It is a simple plant body that has no roots, stems, flowers and seeds. It includes mushrooms, molds, yeasts, truffles etc. The branch of biology involving the study of fungi is known as mycology. Algae: These are chiefly plant like organisms found usually in water bodies and moist environments that are not subjected to direct sunlight. They make their own food by photosynthesis but they lack roots, leaves and other structures typical of true plants. They capture more of suns energy than all plants combined and form the foundation of most aquatic food webs.

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Plant Kingdom:
The land plant belongs to two major divisions Bryophytes & Tracheophytes 1. Bryophytes: Bryophytes are non vascular embryo bearing plants consisting of three plant divisions: Bryophyta (Mosses), the Hepatophyta(liverwort) and the Anthocerophyta(Hornworts). 2. Tracheophytes (Vascular Plants): The characteristic organs of vascular plants are roots, stems and leaves and have vascular tissue xylem, which conducts water and minerals from ground to stems and leaves and phloem which conducts food produced in the leaves to stems, roots and storage and reproductive organs. Vascular plants are divided into Ferns (vascular plants without seed), gymnosperm ( seeds without fruit) and angiosperms(fruit & seed). Photosynthesis: It is a process by which green plants and certain other organisms use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to simple sugar glucose. In doing so, it provides the basic energy sources for all organisms and releases oxygen on which most organisms depend. Photosynthesis takes place within cellular organelles known as chloroplasts. Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: The chloroplast traps light energy and covert it into a chemical energy contained in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phospate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate(ATP) In the second stage, called the light independent reaction, NADPH provides the energy for this and other reactions used to synthesize glucose. The overall equation can be represented as shown below:6CO2+12H2 OCHLOROPHYLL & LIGHT---> C6H12 O6+6H2 O+6O2 C. A plant has two organ systems: 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system. The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers. The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers, and rhizomes. 1. Root: The major functions of roots are hold a plant in the ground, to absorb water and minerals from the soil, in some cases store food and in rare cases produce a new plant. There are two main types of root. In one type, the taproot system, a single large root grows straight down. In the other type, the fibrous root system, there are several main roots with many smaller branching roots of almost equal diameter. 2. Stem: It is the portion of vascular plants that commonly bears leaves and buds. It is usually is aerial, upright and elongate, but may be highly modified in structure. Stems that grow above ground are called aerial stems and below the ground are called Subterranean stems. There are two classes of aerial stems herbaceous and woody. Herbaceous stems are slender, greenish and comparatively soft. The plants with herbaceous stems are called herbs. Woody stems are thicker, taller and harder than herbaceous stems. These may be either trees or shrubs. A tree has a thick main stems called the trunk, which branch abundantly. In shrub there are a number of comparatively slender main stems which branch abundantly. 3. Leaf: It is part of plant that serves primarily as the plants food making organ and takes part in transpiration and respiration. It may store food and water and provide structural support. A leaf is an extension of a plants stem. Some plants whose leaves change colour and lose their leaves in the autumn called deciduous. Those plants such as laurels and pines, the leaves do not change colour and do not fall off in autumn and are called evergreens. The outer surface of the leaf has a thin waxy covering called the cuticle, this layer's primary function is to prevent water loss within the leaf. (Plants that leave entirely within water do not have

a cuticle). Directly underneath the cuticle is a layer of cells called the epidermis . The vascular tissue, xylem and phloem are found within the veins of the leaf. Veins are actually extensions that run from to tips of the roots all the way up to the edges of the leaves. The outer layer of the vein is made of cells called bundle sheath cells , and they create a circle around the xylem and the phloem. One the picture, xylem is the upper layer of cells and is shaded a little lighter than the lower layer of cells - phloem . Recall that xylem transports water and phloem transports sugar (food). Within the leaf, there is a layer of cells called the mesophyll. Epidermis also lines the lower area of the leaf (as does the cuticle). The leaf also has tiny holes within the epidermis called stomata . 4. Plant tissues: Xylem-- These cells conduct water and minerals from roots to leaves. Phloem-- It transports food from the leaves to rest of the plant.

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Animal Kingdom:
There are 10 major phyla in the animal kingdom from Protozoa to Chordata.
A. Protozoa : This most primitive unicellular organisms which reproduce by fission, budding,spores or sexually. e.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba, paramecium, vorticella, plasmodium, Euglena & trypanosoma. They move a variety of ways. The ameba has a false foot that extends as it moves. The paramecium is covered with hairs and the euglena has a whiplike tail(flagella) to move. A protozoa takes in oxygen through the cell membrane and gives off carbon dioxide through the cell membrane. Some protozoans are harmful to man as they can cause serious diseases. B. Porifera (Sponges): These are most primitive of multi cellular animals. They live in water bodies. Body with a large number of incurrent pores called ostia leading into a spongocoel through a system of canals, Spongocoel opening out by one or two large excurrent pores called oscula. Respiration and excretion by simple diffusion. C. Cnidaria (Coelenterata): These are mostly marine species except hydra which is fresh water form. Body has a mouth at the oral end which leads into a spacious cavity called gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron. Respiration and excretion by simple diffusion. Important coelentrates are coral, hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, Portuguese man of war. D. Platyhelminths(Flat worms): Flat worm is a common name for soft bodied, usually parasitic animals, the simplest of animals possessing heads. Respiration by simple diffusion. They are bilaterally symmetrical and somewhat flattened and are elongated. E.g. Tape worm, flukes. E. Nemathelminthes(round worms): These are roundworms which are usually found in soil, water, plants and in animals as a parasite. Body is long, cylindrical, fusiform (pointed at both the ends). Respiration by simple diffusion. A roundworm has a definite digestive system that runs the length of their bodies. It has a mouth, pharynx, intestine and anus. e.g. Ascaris(round worm),oxyuris(pinworm), ancylostoma(hook worm),wucheria(Filaria worm). F. Annelida: Free-living, terrestrial or aquatic form (freshwater or marine). Body is long, cylindrical and metamerically segmented. Body wall consists of cuticle, epidermis and musculature. Respiration is either through skin or through gills. Body has a true coelom. E.g. earth worms, leech and clamworm. G. Arthropods: This phylum is the largest in the animal kingdom comprising of more than 75% of the animal species that have been identified. Body is elongated and segmented, usually distinguished into regions like head, thorax and abdomen. The arthropods are the first animal group to have jointed legs. Circulatory system is of open type. Blood flows freely in the body cavity (hemocoel). Respiration through gills, or trachea or book lungs. The major groups are: Insects : The largest class of arthropods. They have six legs and three body parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen. All insects grow from eggs. A insect has a circulatory system that carries food, but not oxygen throughout its body. Since it does not carry oxygen, insect blood is green, not red like mammal blood. Example- butterfly, bee, ant, beetle, dragonfly, termite, grasshopper and true bug etc. Arachnids: The annelids are similar to insects. However, they have eight legs, wings are different and they have no antenna. The arachnids are spiders, scorpions, etc Crustaceans: These are predominantly aquatic arthropods with protective carapace and compound eyes. E.g. Prawns, Lobsters and Crabs. Myriapods: include millipedes and centipedes. The centipedes have two pairs of legs per segment while millipedes have one pair.

H. Mollusca : It is the common name for members of a phylum soft-bodied animals with a hard external shell (so called shell fishes). It is the second largest kingdom after arthropods. The three major groups are gastropods, bivalves and cephalopods. Respiratory organs are in the form of gills called ctenidia. Example-snails, slugs, clam, cockle, mussel, oyster, scallop, shipworm, squid, octopus, and nautilus. I. Echinoderm: It consists of phylum of marine animals such as starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars and sea cucumbers. Body is represented by a central disc covered by ossicles with spines called pedicellaria. Disc may bear extensions called arms. Tube feet are present for locomotion and respiration. Tube feet are extended and retracted by variation in hydraulic pressure of the fluid in them and contraction of their muscles. A Echinoderm is a male or female. The males and females discharge their eggs and sperm into the water where they are fertilized. A female can release one hundred million eggs at once. J. Chordate: Presence of a solid supporting structure on the dorsal side of the body called notochord lying above the gut and beneath a single hollow dorsal nerve cord. The Phylum chordate has been divided into Proto chordate and Vertebrate. Proto Chordate: They are primitive lower chordates possess notochord but lacks vertebral column or back bone. Vertebrate: It represents the largest group of chordates. Agnatha: They are fish like forms with the absence of Jaws and scales. The best examples of this type are lamprey and the hagfish. Gnathostomata: These are vertebrates with jawed mouth. These are subdivided into fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. 1. Fishes: These are diverse group of cold blooded animals that live and breathe in water. Most fish have gills for breathing, two chambered heart, fins for swimming, scales for protection, and a streamlined body for moving easily through the water. 2. Amphibians: Amphibian means both sides of life. it begins its life in the water and then finishes it mainly on land. It uses gills in larval stage (tadpole) and lungs and skins in the adult stage. Their heart is three chambered. Skin is often kept moist for gas exchange. These are cold blooded animals and have to be near water to complete their life cycle.Example-Frogs, toad, Salamander, caecilians, sirens etc. 3. Reptiles: Reptiles are cold blooded animal with tough, dry skin covered with horny scales adapted for life in dry places. Some forms are aquatic. Reptiles breathe air with lungs alone. They have teeth except in tortoises and turtles. They have three chambered heart (crocodile has a four chambered heart). The females eggs are fertilized in her body by the male. The eggs are laid in a shell that has a leathery covering to protect it in the wilds. E.g. turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, gavial (Gharial),alligators and dinosaurs. 4. Birds: They are unique in the fact that they are covered with feathers and fly. They are descended from reptiles, feathers are modified limbs and their eggs resemble reptilian eggs. But like mammals they are warm blooded and have four chambered heart. The bones of many adult birds are hollow rather than filled with marrow, making them lighter and enabling them to disperse heat in flight. 5. Mammals: Mammals are warm blooded animals having distinctive characteristics such as milk producing mammary glands, hair on their body, external ears, sweat glands, give birth to young rather laying eggs and nurse their young.

Nutrition:
All organisms take food and utilise it to get energy for the growth and maintenance of their bodies.
I. II. Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for themselves by using water, carbon dioxide and minerals. The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs. Animals and most other organisms take in ready made food prepared by the plants. They are called heterotrophs (heteros = other). PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are necessary to carry out the process of photosynthesis. The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food from carbon dioxide and water. Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light; synthesis : to combine). Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the plant in green stems and green branches. Complex chemical substances such as carbohydrates are the products of photosynthesis. During the process oxygen is released. The carbohydrates ultimately get converted into starch. The carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients in solution form from dead and decaying matter is called saprotrophic nutrition. Plants which use saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs. Some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients. This is called symbiotic relationship. For example, certain fungi live in the roots of trees. The tree provides nutrients to the fungus and, in return, receives help from it to take up water and nutrients from the soil. There are some plants which do not have chlorophyll. They cannot synthesise their food. They use the heterotrophic mode of nutrition. It takes readymade food from the plant on which it is climbing. The plant on which it climbs is called a host. Since it deprives the host of valuable nutrients, it is called a parasite. Animals get their food from plants, either directly by eating plants or indirectly by eating animals that eat plants. The components of food such as carbohydrates are complex substances. These complex substances cannot be utilised as such. So they are broken down into simpler substances. The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances is called digestion. The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and secretory glands. It consists of the (i) buccal cavity, (ii) oesophagus, (iii) stomach, (iv) small intestine, (v) large intestine ending in rectum and (vi) anus. The main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices are (i) the salivary glands, (ii) the liver and (iii) the pancreas. The stomach wall and the wall of the small intestine also secrete digestive juices. Digestion is a complex process involving: (i) ingestion, (ii) digestion, (iii) absorption, (iv) assimilation and (v) egestion. Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity. The digestion of protein starts in the stomach. The bile secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of food in the small intestine. The digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels in the small intestine. Food is taken into the body through the mouth. The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion. We chew the food with the teeth and break it down mechanically into small pieces. Our mouth has the salivary glands which secrete saliva. The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.

III.

IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.

XII. XIII.

XIV.

XV. XVI. XVII.

XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity. It mixes saliva with the food during chewing and helps in swallowing food. The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe or oesophagus. Food is pushed down by movement of the wall of the foodpipe. Actually this movement takes place throughout the alimentary canal and pushes the food downwards. The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape is like a flattened U and it is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It receives food from the food pipe at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other. The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices. The mucous protects the lining of the stomach. The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the stomach acidic. The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances. The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long. It receives secretions from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices. The liver is a reddish brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side. It is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder . The bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats. The pancreas is a large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach. The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates and proteins and changes them into simpler forms. Partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice completes the digestion of all components of the food. The carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids. The digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine. This process is called absorption. The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are called villi (singular villus). Each villus has a network of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface. The surface of the villi absorbs the digested food materials. The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. This is called assimilation. In the cells, glucose breaks down with the help of oxygen into carbon dioxide and water, and energy is released. The food that remains undigested and unabsorbed then enters into the large intestine. The large intestine is wider and shorter than small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length. Its function is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material. The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-time. This is called egestion. The grazing animals like cows, buffaloes and deer are known as ruminants.They quickly swallow the grass and store it in a separate part of the stomach called rumen. Here the food gets partially digested and is called cud. But later the cud returns to the mouth in small lumps and the animal chews it. This process is called rumination and these animals are called ruminants. Ruminants have a large sac-like structure between the small intestine and large intestine. The cellulose of the food is digested here by the action of certain bacteria which are not present in humans.

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Respiration:
I. Respiration is essential for survival of living organisms. It releases energy from the food. Respiration is defined as the catabolic biochemical process during which organic compounds break down in order to release energy. The organic compounds that are broken down are called the substrates. Glucose is the most common substrate. The general equation for respiration is: C6H12+ 6O2--->6CO2+6H2 O+38ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). Breathing provides the mechanism necessary to take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide that is a waste gas. It is a physical process and part of respiration. Respiration is a biochemical and physical process. Respiration takes place in the following three stages: 1. External Respiration: The exchange of gases between the environment and the body is called external respiration or gaseous exchange. 2. Internal Respiration: The exchange of gases between the body spaces or fluids and the cells is called internal respiration or tissue respiration. The area over which this exchange takes place is called the respiratory surface. 3. Cellular Respiration: The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy is called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of all organisms. In lower plants (and also protozoans) exchange of gases takes place through the general body surface as they are not highly modified or specialised. Also, the body surface allows the diffusion of gases. Gaseous exchange in higher plants takes place through the stomata in the leaves, lenticels in the stem and general surface of the roots. o Stomata are openings generally present on the lower surface of the leaves through which the gases and water vapour diffuse in and out easily. The oxygen diffuses in through the stomata and then enters the leaf cells. Similarly, the carbon dioxide produced by the leaf cells diffuses out through the stomata. In woody stems, the entire surface is covered by bark which is impervious to gases or water. However, there are certain openings or pores in the layer of bark. These are called the lenticels. They are visible slightly more raised than the general surface of the stem. At the base of the lenticels are loosely arranged cells which allow the diffused gases to pass through them. Gases diffuse in and out of the general surface of the roots. The gases are found in the soil surrounding the roots. Plants which grow in salty water show specialised roots called the pneumatophores. These are roots growing out of the surface of water with numerous pores on their surface. In lower animals, gas diffusion takes place through a moist surface membrane, as in flatworms; through the thin body wall, as in earthworms; through air ducts, or tracheae, as in insects; or through specialized tracheal gills, as in aquatic insect larvae. In the gills of fish the blood vessels are exposed directly to the external (aquatic) environment. Oxygencarbon dioxide exchange occurs between the surrounding water and the blood within the vessels; the blood carries gases to and from tissues. In higher vertebrates, oxygenpoor, carbon dioxiderich blood from the right side of the heart is pumped into the lungs and flows through the net of capillaries surrounding the alveoli, the cup-shaped air sacs of the lungs. Human Body - Respiratory system: The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is

II. III.

IV.

the respiratory systems means of getting oxygen to the blood. Respiration is achieved through the mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm. Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose. The oxygen then passes through the larynx (where speech sounds are produced) and the trachea which is a tube that enters the chest cavity. In the chest cavity, the trachea splits into two smaller tubes called the bronchi. Each bronchus then divides again forming the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where they divide into many smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli. The average adults lungs contain about 600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The inhaled oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the waste rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the lungs when you exhale. The total lung capacity of an adult human is 5.0 litres Tidal air : Volume of air entering and leaving the lungs during normal breathing (.5 litres) Vital capacity : Volume of air exhaled after a forceful breathing (3.5 litres) Residual air : Volume of air which remains after forceful expiration (1.5 litres) Lung volume and other respiratory volumes can be measured by spirometer. The oxygen is transported to the different parts of the body through the circulatory system. The red blood cells in the blood have pigments called haemoglobin which transport oxygen to the tissues. From the tissues, most of the carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma (outside red blood cells) of the blood. We know Cellular respiration is the process of oxidizing food molecules, like glucose, to carbon dioxide and water. The energy released is trapped in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for use by all the energyconsuming activities of the cell. The process occurs in two phases: 1. glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid 2. the complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water. This process called aerobic respiration. When the respiration takes place with out oxygen it is known as anaerobic respiration. The end product of anaerobic respiration is carbon dioxide and chemical such as lactic acid and ethanol. When the micro organisms respire anaerobically we call it as fermentation. e.g. fermentation of yeast in the preparation of ethanol. 3. Breathing Mechanism: The physical movements associated with the gaseous exchange are called breathing. They are controlled by the respiratory centre of the medulla oblongata in the human brain. Thus, the breathing movements are involuntary to a large extent. However, we can control the rate of breathing and the extent of breathing but not for a long time. The respiratory centre is stimulated by the carbon dioxide concentration of the blood. There are two types of physical movements associated with the gaseous exchange. They are: Inspiration or inhalation: During inspiration, the outer intercostal muscles contract, which raises the chest cavity or the ribs. This is accompanied by the lowering of the diaphragm. Together these movements serve to increase the area of the thoracic cavity, which reduces the pressure. The air from outside rushes into the lungs.

 Expiration or exhalation: The inner intercostal muscles contract bringing the ribs back to the original position and the diaphragm is also raised back by the action of the abdominal muscles. This reduces the space in the chest cavity and increases the pressure. This expels the air out of the lungs.

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Circulatory System:

Plants take water and mineral nutrients from the soil through the roots and transport it to the leaves. The leaves
prepare food for the plant, using water and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair. The root hair increase the surface area of the root for the obsorption of water and mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hair is in contact with the water present between the soil particles. Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made of special cells, forming the vascular tissue. The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem. The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the leaves through the stem and branches and thus transports water to the entire. Two types of xylem cells are involved in transport of water tracheids and vessels. They are dead cells with lignified walls. They are joined end to end forming a capillary system to draw water up the plant. Leaves synthesise food. The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem. Phloem is a living tissue. Sieve tubes and companion cells are the phloem cells involved in the transport of food. Other than sucrose, phloem also transports hormones (from the site of synthesis to the site of action) and some of the mineral ions (from the leaves about to fall to the other regions). The transport of soluble substances like the sugars, amino acids and hormones by the phloem is called translocation. Transpiration is the loss of water from the aerial parts of the plant, mainly through the stomata of the leaves. In tall trees transpiration pulls water up the xylem. The rate of transpiration is affected by many factors such as light, temperature, availability of soil water and atmospheric humidity. Animals in general have a higher metabolic rate than the plants and thus require a more efficient transport system. There are two types of blood circulatory systems: o Open circulatory system: In open circulatory system the blood vessels are open-ended as they open into the common cavities called the haemocoel. It is seen in insects. o Closed circulatory system: In closed circulatory system the blood always remains inside the blood vessels and never comes in direct contact with the cells. It is seen in mammals including man. Blood is an alkaline fluid that consists of the liquid portion called plasma and three types of corpuscles. Plasma is yellow coloured fluid consisting of water (92%), proteins(6-9%) and 1% minerals. Plasma transports red and white blood cells and platelets throughout the body. It also delivers nutrients to cells and picks up cell waste products. RBC: One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin bind with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells. It will be difficult to provide oxygen efficiently to all the cells of the body without haemoglobin. The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red. The red blood cells are synthesised in the bone marrows of ribs, sternum and vertebrae at the rate of 1.2 million cells per second. The life span of the cells is only about 120 days. They are destroyed in the liver. The iron part is retained and the pigment is excreted in the bile juice as bilirubin. WBC: The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our body. They are also called leucocytes. They lack haemoglobin and are therefore colourless. They are nucleated and amoeboid. The WBCs are involved in the production of antibodies that either neutralise, kill or poison the germs. The WBCs can be induced to produce antibodies with the help of vaccinations thus preparing the body for an attack.

Platelets: The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the blood, called platelets. They are also called the thrombocytes. They number 250,000 to 400,000 per cubic mm of blood. Their life span is 8 to 14 days. Blood clotting: It is internal mechanisms of animals to prevent blood loss at the time of injury. During the blood clotting, the blood platelets produce an enzyme called thromokinase which forms prothrombin protein in the plasma. It combines with calcium ion to form thrombin. It convert the soluble plasma protein(fibrinogen) to form fibrin threads. corpuscles get entangled in these threads and forms clot. Blood Groups: There are four types of blood among the humans. The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. based on this, four blood groups are identified. They are denoted by the letter A,B, AB, O (null). The blood that has antigen A belongs to group A, the blood that has antigen B belongs to group B, the blood that has both A and B belongs to group AB and the blood which has neither belongs to group O. The presence of these antigens is determined genetically. Thus, there are four types of blood groups A, B, AB and O. The blood also contains antibodies which act against these antigens. The antibodies react to the presence of proteins in the foreign bodies. There are two types of antibodies, corresponding to the types of antigens. The two antibodies are : (a) antibody a and (b) antibody b. Anti-body a reacts to the antigen A and antibody b reacts to the antigen b. Thus, the blood of A group that contains antigen A will contain antibody b and not antibody a. The blood of B group that contains antigen B will contain antibody a and not antibody b. The blood of AB group that contains antigens A and B will not contain either antibody a or antibody b. The blood of O group that does not contain either antigen A or antigen B will contain both antibody a and antibody b. Blood transfusion: Transfusion is the replacement of lost blood of a person with the blood of another person. During transfusion, the person receiving blood is called recipient and the person donating blood is called donor. The general rule for blood transfusion is the donors red cells must be compatible with recipients plasma. Anti A plasma agglutinates A red cells, and anti B plasma agglutinates B red cells. People with O blood group can give blood to any group because they do not contain A and B anti bodies. So they are called universal donors. People with AB blood group are called universal recipients because they can accept blood from any group. So they are known as universal receipients. Rhesus Factor: About 85% of people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cells surface. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who have not are called Rh-. Rh-ve blood can be safely given to Rh+ve person. However, the transfusion of Rh+ve blood to Rh-ve blood needs to be monitored. During the first transfusion, the Rh factor in the Rh+ve blood will induce the production of anti-Rh antibodies in the Rh-ve blood. Lymph: It is a yellowish fluid carried in the lymphatic system. Lymph is like blood but it contains white blood cells and red blood cells are absent. It fights against germs. In human circulatory system the blood is flows in closed blood vessels called the arteries, veins and their capillaries. Arteries and veins have elastic and muscular walls. Capillaries lack muscles. o Arteries: carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Since the blood flow is rapid and at a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls. The two main arteries leaving the heart are: AortaThe branches of which supply blood to different parts of the body and Pulmonary Artery- The artery that takes blood to the lungs. o Veins: are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back to the heart. The veins have thin walls. There are valves present in veins which allow blood to flow only towards the heart.

Every beat of the heart involves a sequence of events called the cardiac cycle. This consists of three major stages: the atrial systole, the ventricular systole, and the complete cardiac diastole. The atrial systole consists of the contraction of the atria and the corresponding influx of blood in to the ventricles. Once the blood has fully left the atria, the atrioventricular valves, which are situated between the atria and ventricular chambers, close. This prevents any backflow into the atria. It is the sound of the valves closing which produces the familiar beating sounds of the heart. The ventricular systole consists of the contraction of the ventricles and flow of blood into the circulatory system. Again, once all the blood has left, the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves close. Finally complete cardiac diastole involves the relaxation of the atria and ventricles in preparation for new blood to enter the heart. Heart: The heart is an organ which beats continuously to act as a pump for the transport of blood, which carries other substances with it. Human heart is four chambered. There are two receiving chambers, the auricles and two pumping chambers, the ventricles. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium of the heart (via veins called the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava). The blood is then pumped into the right ventricle and then through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where the blood is enriched with oxygen (and loses carbon dioxide). The oxygenrich (oxygenated) blood is then carried back to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein. The blood is then pumped to the left ventricle, then the blood is pumped through the aorta and to the rest of the body. This cycle is then repeated. Every day, the heart pumps about 7,600 liters of blood, beating about 100,000 times. Heart contains valves which prevents mixing of blood in the four chambers. The wall of the heart is very muscular and does not tire. These muscles contract and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction followed by its relaxation constitute a heartbeat. Blood Pressure: The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg. Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding. Heart Attack: Heart attack is clinically Also called coronary thrombosis. The blood vessel supplying blood to the heart is blocked. This affects/stops the functioning of the heart resulting in heart attacks. If the blocked artery is one of the arteries supplying to the brain, it causes a condition called stroke. Stroke is the inactivation of a certain region of the brain which controls a particular activity. It may be sight, limb movements, etc.

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Excretion:
In living organisms energy is produced by metabolically burning food. But this is accompanied by the formation of a variety of by-products which are harmful to the organism. These wastes have to be eliminated. The removal of harmful and unwanted toxic waste products of metabolism is known as excretion. Different organisms use varied strategies to do this. Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding water and complex multi-cellular organisms use specialised organs to perform the same function.

Green plants in darkness or plants that do not contain chlorophyll produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory waste products. Carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis. Oxygen itself can be thought of as a waste product generated during photosynthesis. Plants can get rid of excess water by transpiration. For other wastes, plants use the fact that many of their tissues consist of dead cells, and that they can even lose some parts such as leaves. Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them. In lower animals carbon dioxide is eliminated directly into the environment through the body surface. In higher animals it is excreted out along with the exhaled air through the lungs. Excess water is excreted in the form of urine and sweat. Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid , Amino Acids are the nitrogenous waste products produced by animals. The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys : Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released through the urethra. o The kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped organs situated in the abdominal cavity, one on either side of the vertebral column in the lumbar region of the body. They lie asymmetrically, the right kidney being lower than the left as the right side of the abdominal cavity is occupied by the liver. Each kidney is 10 cm long, 6 cm wide and 4 cm thick and weighs 200 - 250 g in adults. A thin, tough, fibrous whitish capsule envelops each kidney. The outer surface of each kidney is convex while the inner surface is concave. o The kidneys function as a pair of filters through which about one litre of blood circulates each minute. The entire blood in the body passes through them in 5 - 6 minutes. In a day it filters 1800 litres of blood which is 400 times the blood volume. o A normal adult excretes 1 - 1.8 litres of urine per day. o The nephron is the kidneys functional unit. Each kidney contains from one to two million nephrons. Each nephron has a network of capillaries called glomerulus which fits into a cup called the Bowman's capsule and a long tubule consisting of proximal convoluted tubule, Henle's loop, distal convoluted tubule and connecting tubule. o How is urine produced? :The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood. Just as CO2 is removed from the blood in the lungs, nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric acid are removed from blood in the kidneys. o Hormones of the Kidneys: The human kidney is also an endocrine gland secreting two hormones: 1) Erythropoietin (EPO), Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D as well as the enzyme renin. Diseases of Kidney :

o o

Acute Renal Failure: No urine is formed by kidney and the wastes and water accumulates in the body. It can be treated by dialysis, by an artificial filtration of blood through semi permeable membaranes. Kidney stone: It is also known as renal calculi, kidney stones are the result of crystallization of certain substances found in urine, including calcium, phosphate, oxalic acid, and uric acid. Stones may form in the urine collecting area (pelvis) of the kidney, as well as the ureters (narrow tubes connecting the kidney to the urinary bladder). In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. A matching kidney from another person may also be transplanted. Principle of dialysis Blood is made to flow into the dialysis machine made of long cellulose tubes coiled in a tank having a dialyzing solution. Waste substances diffuse out of lood into tank. The cleansed blood is pumped back into patient. Urinary Bladder:This is a large muscular storage sac that collects urine from both the kidneys through the ureters. As the urine gets drained into the bladder its volume increases. The mouth of the bladder is guarded by a tight ring of muscle called the sphincter which regulates the opening or closing of the bladder. When the sphincter relaxes, urine is released out through the urethra. Urethra:This is a short muscular tube that carries urine at intervals from the urinary bladder to the outside. The base of the urethra is also guarded by a sphincter which keeps the urethra closed except while passing urine.

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Endocrine System:

Glands are of two types:

1. Exocrine glands: Exocrine glands are those which pour their secretions into a duct. For example, sweat glands, tear glands, etc. 2. Endocrine glands: Endocrine glands are those which are richly supplied with blood vessels and pour their secretions directly into the blood vessels. The secretions reach their target through blood. These glands are called the ductless glands as they do not have ducts. For example, thyroid, adrenal, etc. Hormones: The secretions of the endocrine glands are called hormones. Hormones are grouped into three classes based on their structure: 1. Steroids: Steroids are lipids derived from cholesterol. e.g. Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Steroid hormones are secreted by the gonads, adrenal cortex, and placenta. 2. Peptides: Peptides are short chains of amino acids; most hormones are peptides. They are secreted by the pituitary, parathyroid, heart, stomach, liver, and kidneys. 3. Amines: Amines are derived from the amino acid tyrosine and are secreted from the thyroid and the adrenal medulla.

The human endocrine system consists of the following glands:

Hypothalamus o Pineal o Thyroid o Parathyroid o Pituitary: o Thymus o Adrenal o Pancreas o Ovary in female o Testes in male Hypothalamus: Forms a part of fore - brain, secretes neurohormones, which effect the release of hormones from pituitary. Pituitary gland: Also called Master Gland. It is the smallest endocrine gland. It is a pea shaped gland that is located below the hypothalamus in the brain. It is under the control of the hypothalamus and in turn controls many functions in the body. Hormones Produced by Pituitary: o Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. o Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates overall growth of the body. Its deficiency causes dwarfism and overproduction causes gigantism. o Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): Influences the secretion from the cortex of adrenal glands. o Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): It is secreted in males and females both. In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis and development of seminiferous tubules. In females, it stimulates formation and growth of ovarian follicle in ovary. o Luteinizing hormone (LH): In females only. Final maturation of ovarian follicleand ovulation takes place by LH only. o Lactogenic Hormone : Initiates milk production in the pregnant females.
o

Prolactin maintains the pregnancy and stimulates the secretion of milk. o Oxytocin helps in contraction of uterus during delivery. Pineal : It is a small round gland in the brain. It secretes melatonin that regulates the sexual cycle. Thyroid Gland: It is the largest endocrine gland located in the neck between the trachea and larynx. It is a butterflyshaped, bilobed gland that is situated at the base of the larynx. The two lobes are joined by an isthmus. The hormone secreted is thyroxine. Controls BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate). o Thyroxine : Regulates physical, mental and sexual development. A diet, poor in iodine, which is insufficient for the synthesis of thyroxin, leads to simple goitre. Oversecretion results in exophthalmic goitre in which the person shows a marked increase in metabolic rate, protrusion of eyes, rapid heart rate and shortness of breath. o Thyrocalcitonin : It controls the amount of calcium in the body. Parathyroid Gland: Secretes Parathormone, which is also known by the name of Collip's Hormone. Deficiency of parathormone causes brittle bones. Oversecretion of parathormone softens the teeth and bones. Thymus Gland: Situated near the heart. It secretes hormone called thymosin. Thymosin helps in the production of lymphocytes. Pancreas: It is a narrow gland present at the junction of stomach and duodenum. It is an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland. Its 3 types of cells secrete 3 different hormones. Beta cells secrete Insulin which controls the amount of sugar in the blood. Its hyposecretion leads to Diabetes Mellitus. Alpha cells secretes Glucagon which increases blood sugar level. The delta cells secrete somatostatin that inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Adrenal: The adrenal glands are present on top of the kidneys and appear cap-like on top of each kidney. Consists of 2 Distinct Parts : Outer cortex and inner medulla. o Adrenal Medulla secretes Adrenaline or epinephrine which effects liberation of glucose from glycogen stored in liver and increases the rate of metabolism. Its over - secretion leads to increased saliva flow, tears, bile and sweat, quickens heart beat, speeds up respiratory activities. o The adrenal cortex secretes hormones like the glucosteroids, mineralocorticoids and cortisones. Glucosteroids increase the blood sugar level in times of stress by converting protein into glucose. Testes produce testosterone which produces the secondary sexual characteristics like moustache and beard. Ovaries along with the egg-production, secrete oestrogen from the mature follicle that produces the secondary sexual characteristics like enlargement of breasts. After ovulation, another hormone, progesterone is produced from corpus luteum that maintains the pregnancy.
o

Plant hormones or phytohormones: The phytohormones have been put in five different
categories based on their actions. o Auxins: Auxins are phytohormones that are mainly concerned with cell enlargement. It is produced by shoot apex, young leaves and roots (to some extent). They only move in upward direction through phloem or xylem. o Gibberellins: Gibberellins are plant hormones that are mainly responsible for cell elongation. They cause the cells to grow in length. They are synthesised in embryos, young leaves, root tips, buds and seeds. They move up or down in the plant body through xylem or phloem. o Cytokinins: They are phytohormones that induce cell divisions even in mature tissues. There are many types of cytokinins present. For example, zeatin, a cytokinin present in maize grains. Cytokinins are synthesized in the fruits and seeds where rapid cell division takes place. o Abscissic Acid (ABA): It is a growth inhibitor that results in dormancy and abscission. It is synthesized in stem, leaves, fruits and seeds.

Ethylene:Ethylene is a gaseous growth regulator that speeds up the ripening process. It is a gas produced by most of the plant organs. Chemically, ethylene (ethene) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon

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Nervous System:
The nervous system perceives the changes around us through our senses. It controls and coordinates all the activities of the muscles in response to the changes outside. It also conducts messages between different parts of the body.

The units of nervous system are specialised cells called the neurons. A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body and an axon. Around the cell body are short sensory projections called the dendrons. The fine branches of dendrons are called the dendrites. These short fibres receive messages and pass them on to the cell body or the cyton. The axon carries an impulse transmitted to it by the cell body to another neuron or to an effector muscle or gland. There are three types of neuron sensory, motor and association. A synapse is the junction between two neuron. A bunch of neurons together make up a nerve. In mammals these neuron comprise 2 types of nervous system i.e. Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are of three types based on the types of neurons they carry. They are: 1. Sensory Nerves or the Receptor Nerves: They are made up of only sensory neurons. For example, the cranial nerves that conduct impulses from the organs to the central nervous system. 2. Motor Nerves or the Effector Nerves: They are made up of only motor neurons. For example, the cranial nerves that conduct impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands (effector). 3. Mixed Nerves : The nerves that are made up of both sensory and motor neurons. For example, all spinal nerves. The human nervous system can be divided into three main parts: 1. Central nervous system: It is made up of the brain and the spinal cord which is the continuation of the brain. Brain and spinal cord are surrounded by membranes called the meninges.

The average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3 pounds). The brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) and trillons of "support cells" called glia. The brain consists of gray matter (40%) and white matter (60%) contained within the skull. The
brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem (medulla). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds the brain. Although the brain is only 2% of the bodys weight, it uses 20% of the oxygen supply and gets 20% of the blood flow. Brain contained in the skull called cranium. The brain appears as three distinct but connected parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem a central core that gradually becomes the spinal chord. Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of brain and makes up 85% of the brains weight. This is the thinking part of the brain.The cerebrum is made up of two halves, with one on either side of the head. The right half of the cerebrum controls the left side of your body, and the left half controls the right side. These two hemisphere is jointed by a nerve fibres known as corpus callosum. The surface of each cerebral hemisphere shows many convolutions called Gyri separated by sulci(depressions). Thalamus: It is an area which coordinates the sensory impulses from the various sense organs eyes, ears and skin and then relays it to the cerebrum.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is composed of scattered masses of grey matter in white matter at the base of the brain. Although it is the size of only a pea (about 1/300 of the total brain weight), the hypothalamus is responsible for some very important functions. It is responsible for regulation of temperature, hunger, thirst and emotional reactions. The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary. Mid Brain: It is a small portion of the brain that serves as a relay centre for sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the head, neck and eye muscles. It provides a passage for the different neurons going in and coming out of the cerebrum. Hind Brain : It consists of cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata: Cerebellum: The cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. It is smaller than the cerebrum at only 1/8 of its size. It controls our balance, movement, and coordination (how your muscles work together). Because of our cerebellum, we can stand upright, keep your balance, and move around. Pons: Pons literally means bridge. It serves as a relay station between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord and higher parts of the brain like the cerebrum and mid brain. Medulla Oblongata :It is a small region of the brain. It is hidden as it is well protected because of its importance. It has the cardiovascular centre and the breathing centre. It also controls activites such as sneezing, coughing, swallowing, salivation and vomiting. Spinal Cord: spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord, is about 70 cm long. Therefore, the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column. It is covered by the same meninges as the brain and its main function is conduct impulses to and from the brain and acts as a reflex centre. 2. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that connect the different parts of the body (peripheral tissues) to the central nervous system. Reflex Actions: When the body instantly responds to an external stimulus, it is called reflex action. Reflex may be natural or conditioned. Natural reflex does not involve the brain whereas conditioned reflex involves the brain. The path along which the impulses travel in a reflex are called the reflex arc. Animals have a nervous system for controlling and coordinating the activities of the body. But plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles.

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