Material Selection and FMA

University of Cambridge Materials Science & Metallurgy
Natural Sciences Tripos Materials Science & Metallurgy PART IIA and IIB
SELECTION OF MATERIALS C2
Dr. E.R. Wallach
Easter Term 2009
Materials Science Pt II
Selection of Materials [C2]
SELECTION OF MATERIALS The aims of the course, building on a basic knowledge of elementary mechanics and microstructures, are to: summarise the basic steps in the design process; show how materials, with a combination of appropriate properties, may be chosen for a given application; reacquaint students with the range and different combinations of properties that are available using the Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) software, introduced in the Michaelmas Term; indicate the synergy between shape and material properties to the design process and the resulting behaviour of a component; consider what to do if things go wrong: failure analysis and what can be learnt. The lectures are supplemented by practical studies, in examples classes, covering the examination of classical microstructures, specific household objects and actual objects that have failed in service. The previous examples class in the Michaelmas Term provided an introduction to the CES software (available on the computers in room 201) and the software can be used to underpin the concepts introduced in the course. The software, with its data available on a wide range of properties for many types of material and on fabrication methods, is useful for other courses as well as for Part III. Lecture 1. Classes of materials and types of properties. Types of design problems: original, developmental and variant. Steps in the design process: sequential and iterative progress. Lecture 2. Causes of failures in service. Specifications and standards: need and types (dimensional, quality, code of practice). Costs and cost effectiveness in design. Analysis of costs. Lecture 3. Materials data: required accuracy, sources. Combining materials properties for specific design problems (example of aircraft skin selection). Optimisation/ranking and expert systems. Use of weighting factors. Materials property charts without shape and their use in materials selection. Lecture 4. The effect of shape on materials selection. Shape factors (macro and microscopic). Performance indices which include shape, and materials property charts including shape. Lecture 5. Failure analysis: approaches to adopt when things go wrong. Reasons for failure. Analysis of failure for metals: types of failure and fracture surface examination. Introduction to examples of actual failures (to form the basis of independent study and an examples class to discuss the artefacts). Lecture 6. Analysis of failure for ceramics and polymers: types of failure and fracture surface examination.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Design Ashby M.F., "Materials Selection in Mechanical Design", 3rd Edition, Elsevier, 2005. Electronic book via Newton search on University Library website [www.lib.cam.ac.uk/electronicresources/ebooks.php enter Ashby in search field] Ashby M.F. & Jones D.R.H., "Engineering Materials 2", 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005. [www.lib.cam.ac.uk/electronicresources/ebooks.php enter Ashby in search field] Charles J.A., Crane F.A.A. & Furness J.A.G., "Selection and Use of Engineering Materials", 3nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997. Dieter G.E. "Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, 1986. Ashby M.F., Shercliff H., Cebon D., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design Elsevier Science & Technology, 2007. [www.lib.cam.ac.uk/electronicresources/ebooks.php enter Ashby in search field] As43a
AB97
As40 K114 AB208
Failure analysis ASM International, "Fractography", Metals Handbook, 12, 9th Edition, 1987. ASM International, "Failure analysis and prevention", Metals Handbook, 11, 9th Edition, 1986. ASM International, "Handbook of case histories in failure analysis", Metals Handbook, 1, 1992. Jones D.R., "Engineering 3: materials failure analysis", Pergamon, 1993. R112 R111 Kw32 Kw31
Note: ASM Metals Handbooks are currently available electronically to members of the University via: http://products.asminternational.org/hbk/index.jsp
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1. 1.1.
Background Categories of materials To date, dealt with a variety of engineering and electronic materials. These can be classified in a number of ways, e.g.
ALLOYS
METALS
MICROSTRUCTURE PE, PS, PC ENGINEERING
POLYMERS
NANOTUBES STRUCTURAL
CERAMICS
BIO-COMPATIBLE
COMPOSITES
FUNCTIONAL BUTYL RUBBER SILICA
ELASTOMERS
SILICONES Si BASED
GLASSES
METALLIC
ELECTRONIC
THIN FILM
The evolution of individual, as well as classes of, material over time has been highly dependent on the technologies available during any period. Now other factors are increasingly entering materials selection and development, namely energy and environmental considerations.
Relative importance of four major classes of engineering material as a function of time.

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1.2.
Types of property
Two major classes: - fundamental: can be measured directly - ranking: combination of several fundamental and generally more subjective e.g. formability, machinability, figure or order of merit such as hardenability 1.3. Selection criteria
The large number of available materials (over 50,000 depending on what is regarded as different ) means that selection criteria are needed for rational choice. Factors to consider include: - requirement and functionality required - design of component - lifetime planned - properties of materials: mechanical, chemical and physical - availability of materials: shape and purity - fabrication routes and dimensional tolerances - aesthetics - lifetime anticipated and possible failure modes - cost: development, materials, fabrication, sales - legal issues: patents, royalties, contracts - health & safety issues - social aspects, e.g. environmental concerns: energy involved and pollution e.g. CO2 emissions Need also for - accurate data which is readily available - means of optimise and/or rank data 2. 2.1. Design Design stages For a given design problem, there are typically a number of steps to consider, as shown on the left and on the following page. A given component will be especially constrained by a few of the above factors, in which case, emphasis will need to be focussed on particular steps For instance, if a particular failure mechanism is likely to dominate, the design may be limited by a simple combination of material properties If the combination of properties can be identified, they can be simultaneously optimised, see section 2.2. For example, if failure is by buckling, then for minimum weight, maximise E0.5/ where E is Youngs modulus and is density. This is the approach of materials selection introduced in Pts IA and Pt IB, and summarised in Section 2.2, page 4.
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Design stages in going from concept to production and marketed product
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2.2.
Optimisation of a combination of material properties, performance indices To determine the least mass of a rod for different loading conditions. F Let rod length l and load F be fixed by design requirement. Mass m of rod of material with density is given by
l
m = r
[A]
Now consider possible failure mechanisms and hence appropriate equations which include material properties of interest in order to derive a performance index M, a ratio of material properties which then can be optimised to identify the most suitable materials.
2.2.1. Failure by plastic yielding S y =

F r2
[B]
- radius r is the only free variable, - all other terms are defined for a given application (S is a chosen safety factor e.g. 0.3) - eliminate r between [A] and [B] to derive performance index for failure by plastic yielding m =
Fl S y
2.2.2. Failure by buckling
Fcrit =
n 2 E I
l2
n 2 E r 4 l2 4
[C]
where n depends on the end constraints - eliminate r between [A] and [C] to derive performance index for failure by buckling m =
2 F l2 n
2.2.3. Failure by fast fracture
KIc =
[D]
- no apparent free variable in above equation [D] where KIc is fracture toughness and is a geometric factor depending on the crack location. - in some situations, can assume crack length a is proportional to a dimension of body, e.g. r - substitute for from equation [B] and eliminate r to derive performance index for fast fracture m = c
(KIc )
4/3
where c is a constant =
F S
4/3
1/3 l
Note: equations [B], [C] and [D] represent constraints for different failure mechanisms.
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2.3.
Design approaches
Three different design approaches can be defined.

2.3.1. Original design
New principle or material involved
2.3.2. Developmental or adaptive design
Refine or improve an existing principle or component
Date Cleaner 1900 Hand-powered 1950 Cylindrical 1965 Spherical 1985 Cylindrical 1997 Centrifugal
Dominant materials Wood, canvas, leather Mild steel Mild steel ABS & PP PP & PC
Exterior Fasteners Power parts W
Suck l/s 1 10 18
Weight kg 10 6 5.5 4 6.3
Cost 240 96 80 60 190
11 7 4
28 4 1
50 300 450 800 1200
ABS = acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
PP = polypropylene
PC = polycarbononate
Costs recalculated and expressed in 1998 equivalent values. [Adapted from Ashby M.F., "Materials Selection in Mechanical Design", 3rd Edition, Elsevier, 2005.]
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2.3.3. Variant design
Change of scale from model or pilot plant. Design will proceed iteratively until model or pilot plant built and tested. Then need to scale up. Consider variant design for three different failure modes. a) plastic collapse for which dominant material property likely to be y (or, possibly, UTS) neither affected as greater area when scaling up enables greater load to be carried
b) fast fracture KIc = y

a
- critical crack length a can be related to a dimension of the component, e.g. r - hence y will have to be reduced to avoid brittle failure - let the scaling factor be when changing scale, and so assume a a which can arise as crack detection can be more difficult in thicker sections (depends on detection technique) larger volume statistically more likely to contain a larger defect - hence y will decrease by 1/ Cases (a) and (b) can be optimised by plotting stress against size versus scaled thickness t
applied stress
scaled thickness t
Ideal thickness or size - most efficient use of material since optimises both properties - safest design as find some plasticity can occur rather than catastrophic fast fracture - flaws may be detected by leakage (e.g. pressure vessels) deformation (e.g. beam sagging) c) corrosion - want to make 1/6 scale model of traction engine with boiler of 10 mm thick mild steel plate - require to contain pressurised steel for corrosion over lifetime total thickness required original 6 mm 4 mm 10 mm model 1 mm 4 mm 5 mm or
- in practice, to both minimise weight and improve aesthetics, may change boiler material - use copper in model (too expensive for original) and, possibly, too low strength
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3. 3.1.
Lifetime of components Factors to consider
Lifetime of object affected by: design properties of the materials used dominant failure mechanism defects Planned lifetime involves knowledge of time-dependent properties particularly, for example fatigue creep degradation data obtained from accelerated tests Unexpected failure can arise from: design errors - under design leads to premature failure over design overloads other component (plus unnecessary expense) material or fabrication defects - standards / quality control deterioration in service - misuse, change in expected use or loading.
3.2. Standards and specifications 1
Invariably imposed on - materials: composition, heat treatment (temper) & extent of working fabrication methods and tolerances on dimensions inspection methods Various types: dimensional or quantitative quality: expectation from manufacturing process specification of level of performance code of practice: installation and/or measurement procedures
4. Cost
Components can be classified between extremes of performance emphasis cost emphasis Use terms such as cost value - price paid - extent to which performance criteria are satisfied for the cost based on life expectancy social expectations, e.g. increasing emphasis to conserve world resources cost effectiveness - extent to which savings can be made by downgrading a property - achieve by design changes material selection - space, military, medical - domestic appliances, cars
Examples of price per unit weight for different materials or complex products are shown in the figure on the next page.
1
Primo Levi, Periodic Table, Penguin Press,1975, Chapter on Chromium, page 152. -7-
Price per unit weight versus complexity of materials and products
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Breakdown of costs for fabricated components: Total cost to consumer
Purchase price
Cost of ownership
Costs of production (a) basic materials - abundance - supply/demand - quantity needed - purity - contract duration - exchange rates (b) manufacture costs - labour - equipment needed - equipment lifetime - quantity to make - energy demands
Fixed costs
Manufacturers profit
(a) maintenance (b) repairs
(a) factory overheads - rent and rates - heating & light (b) administration (c) sales & marketing (d) research & development
(c) insurance (d) amortisation
5. 5.1.
Materials data and sources Accuracy of data
structure insensitive
density modulus thermal expansion specific heat 10% error
y engineering polymers (E/50)

thermal conductivity electrical conductivity hardness of ceramics 50% error
y and UTS
structure sensitive
for metals
KIc for all materials
depends on
composition processing heat-treatment
5.2.
Data sources
Books e.g. ASM Metals Handbook Manufacturers data sheets On-line manufacturers data and collated data Databases: need to know and select relevant properties plus how to combine/weight properties for given projected use do not necessarily show data reliability, e.g. structure insensitive versus those that are highly dependent on, say, composition and/or processing history
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6. 6.1.
Materials selection approaches Expert systems: data optimisation/ranking
Expert systems are based on computerised selection with ranking/ weighting factors. Utilise stored databases which are interrogated by programs which poses questions to a user to obtain answers and hence information to define the problem and appropriate weighting factors. Generally will combine several sets of properties, suitably weighted, in order to provide an overall optimised index to advise the user. Can be fast and efficient for simple problems. Dangers: - limited by skill of programmer to have foreseen all possible situations; - may be limited by data in database although on-line systems can minimise this; - reliant on weighting factors, the basis of which may not be seen by the user; - may always attempt to provide an answer even when inappropriate to do so.
6.1.1. Example of choosing a casting mould material a. Go / no-go approach, based on simple acceptability
a = acceptable, U = underprovision, O = overprovision, E = excessive __________________________________________________________________________________ Material Heat Rigidity Resistance to Mouldability Cost Decision resistance stress cracking __________________________________________________________________________________ M1 a a a a E Reject M2 a a a a a M3 O a U U a Reject M4 U U a a a Reject M5 a O U a a M6 a a O a a __________________________________________________________________________________
b. Degree of merit, based on numerical rating of 1 (worst) to 5 (best) __________________________________________________________________________________ Material Heat Rigidity Resistance to Mouldability Overall rating resistance stress cracking (maximum =20) __________________________________________________________________________________ M1 4 3 3 3 13 = 0.65 M2 2 3 4 3 12 = 0.6 M3 5 4 1 1 11 = 0.55 M4 1 1 4 3 9 = 0.45 M5 4 5 1 3 13 = 0.65 M6 3 2 5 5 15 = 0.75 __________________________________________________________________________________
3. Weighting factors __________________________________________________________________________________ Material Heat Rigidity Resistance to Mouldability Overall rating resistance stress cracking (maximum =75)
x5 x5 x2 x3 __________________________________________________________________________________ M1 20 15 6 9 50 = 0.67 M2 10 15 8 9 42 = 0.56 M3 25 20 2 3 50 = 0.67 M4 5 5 8 9 27 = 0.36 M5 20 25 2 9 55 = 0.73 M6 15 10 10 15 50 = 0.67 __________________________________________________________________________________

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Limitations in above example are: - real data are not shown so extent to which different properties are markedly different is not seen - weighting factors are somewhat arbitrary - very subjective approach.
6.1.2. Example of selecting a metallic alloy for civilian aircraft wing material a. Data for possible materials.
b. Potential problem is units are dissimilar so normalise with respect to highest value for each property and then average to obtain overall rating.
c.
Can also include weighting factors although somewhat subjective choice of values.
+ + + +
Note that temperature limit introduced. Even if highest speed is Mach 2, overall skin temperature will be < 200C. Hence stainless steel and titanium both are clearly over design but for different reasons (density is problem for steel while cost is for titanium). Aluminium alloy 2 is to be avoided due to poor fracture toughness.
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6.2.
Materials selection charts
6.2.1. Approach
Use simple combinations of material properties to optimise design for a given problem Approach as in section 2.2, page 4: - set up equations combining material properties and geometry of problem; - identify free variable not specified by constraints of problem and eliminate from equations; - resulting equation includes a performance index, a ratio of material properties for optimisation.
6.2.2. Summary of minimisation of weight for different forms of loading ____________________________________________________________________
minimise weight for a given - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------- - - - - - - - mode of loading stiffness ductile brittle strength strength ____________________________________________________________________ tie (slender column)
E
y y2/3
K Ic
bending of rod/tube
E 1/ 2
2 K Ic / 3
buckling of rod/column
E 1/ 2
bending of plate
E 1/ 3
1/2 y
1 K Ic/ 2
____________________________________________________________________ For minimum cost, replace with CR cost per kg material where CR is relative cost per unit weight of material = cost per kg mild steel
____________________________________________________________________ Above shows that same key materials properties are relevant to similar modes of loading although material property exponents alter E 1/ n Example: consider stiffness where = k where k is a constant
hence
log (E) = n log () + k'
Graphs of log(E) versus log() will give straight lines of gradients 1, 2 or 3 corresponding to the modes of loading above.
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6.2.3. Use of materials selection charts
Charts: - allow visual comparisons of properties and combinations of properties; - materials on the same line of the appropriate gradient for a given loading have the same normalised property, i.e. are equivalent in terms of the ratio of the two properties; - allows fast evaluation of suitable materials, including relative merits from position on graph; - on-line version allows interactive manipulation of diagrams to see details; - on-line version enables more than one combination of properties per graph; - on-line version shows progressive elimination of materials as additional constraints used. Problems remain that: - need independent knowledge to assess dominant properties for a given design and application, similarly to estimate weighting factors; - structure sensitive data still not catered for (though can use lowest values) - still have to assume likely failure mechanism from simple tests or assessments, yet it is not always reliable to extrapolate from short to long term as different mechanisms may be involved.
Schematic Youngs modulus versus density charts showing (a) primary constraints and (b) lines of different gradient
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6.3.
Multiple constraints
For aircraft wing material (section 6.1.2., page 10), weight must be minimised but simultaneously need good stiffness, strength, toughness. Can be difficult to handle if more constraints than free variables - sometimes called overconstrained.
Approaches: a) Sequential performance indices (iterative approach as used in CES)

- exercise judgement by identifying most two important constraints (e.g. mass and yield strength); - using these two constraints (and ignoring others), eliminate the free variable; - hence derive a performance index and identify subset of possible materials - use remaining constraints repeatedly to eliminate free variable(s) - derive further indices and hence refine existing subset of materials (may have to enlarge original subset of materials in light of other indices)
b) Use of coupling equations

As an example, consider a rod length l which while having a low weight must be both strong (to support a load F) and stiff (not extending its original length l more than u),.
l
As previously, m = A l
and strength [X]
= F / A then eliminating free variable A
m = F l ( / )
Similarly for the elastic stiffness constraint, using E = / = (F/A) / (u/ l )
m = (F / u) l 2 ( / E)
[Y]
Since these two expressions for mass are for same rod, then [X] & [Y] can be equated to give:
E
l u
or
l E/ = / u
Best material is that which maximises (E /) and also ( / ) coupled in the way shown by equation. Plot lines of the specification (l/u) on appropriate selection charts as coupling lines Index 2, E/
coupling line: gradient = l / u
Index 1, / Best material will be: on the coupling line and as high as possible (to optimise both E/ and /) In the search box, i.e. the area defining optimal values for both above ratios.
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7. 7.1.
Effect of shape on materials selection Shape factors
Occasionally,
section shape is not a factor in designing a component and design optimised solely by material choice.
More generally, design combines section shape with material choice and so shape factors are required. Need to consider macroscopic shape factors: overall bulk shape of a section microscopic shape factors: structural anisotropy within a bulk section
7.2. Macroscopic shape factors
e B f twisting of beam to failure T
Macroscopic factor: is dimensionless quantity failure mode e.g. elastic bending of beam TYPE OF LOADING
- measures the structural efficiency of a section shape relative to a solid round bar of the same cross-sectional area, under equivalent loading; - equals 1 for solid bar of circular cross-section and increases to 10 for I-beam section, hence recognises the mass distribution around a central axis for different geometries; - depends on shape solely and, as it is a ratio, is independent of size or scale.
7.2.1. Determination of macroscopic shape factor
For elastic bending, the stiffness or bending resistance is determined both by the material properties and also by the second moment of area, I, about the axis of bending, where I has dimensions of length4. Shape factor
e B
S stiffness of shaped beam I = B = o stiffness of circular solid beam of same cross - sectional area Io SB
hence
e B
=1
for a solid circular cross-section bar and

b h3 12
Consider a rectangular bar
a circular bar
r4 4 A2 4
I =
I =
= Io
Hence
e B
4 I
A2
Note that there will be different expressions for different loading conditions or failure modes.
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7.2.2. Use of shape factors with materials selection maps
Consider an elastic beam of
fixed stiffness given length minimum mass
SB
l
m=Al
[X] [Y]
For elastic bending of beam
e B
4 I
A2
CEI l3 C E 4
e B
Bending stiffness
SB =
=
so eliminate I using [Y]
A2 l3
[Z[
Eliminate free variable A using equation [X] in equation [Z]
m =
4 l 5 S B l3
1/2
2 e B E
1/2
For best choice of lightest beam of different shape and material, want highest value of performance index M where
M =
[ E ]
e B
1/2
divide by
e B
and rearrange
[E / ]
e 1/2 B e / B
Plot normal materials selection map of ln E versus ln and identify suitable material. Now reduce value of each material variable (E and ) by the value of
e B .
This shows the shaped material behaving as a new material as shown below.
Best material for light, stiff beam has highest E1/2/ Shaped material of same cross-sectional area behaves as different material with new modulus and density as defined by equation above.
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e Microscopic shape factor B
7.3.
Various structural materials have in-built shape factors, many of which mimic structures found in nature, e.g. honeycombe fibre composite concentric cylindrical layered structures Effects often shown by anisotroic properties.
e Can treat microscopic shape in similar fashion to macroscopic shape using B
wood palm wood plant stems cuttlefish shell
e B
e B
e B
e B
microscopic
macroscopic
overall structure (multiply shape factors)
7.3 Summary: use of shape May optimise a design by choosing sections with higher values of second moment of area, which can then help to reduce weight.
However, need to be aware that might introduce a different failure mode, e.g. thin wall tubes may fail by buckling when under compressive load rather than by plastic yielding.
8.
Selection based on fabrication methods and environmental factors
Materials can be selected according to their properties, as has been shown in many of the examples used above. However, the design stages (see section 2.1, page 2) need to consider many other criteria, as are summarised in section 1.3 (page 2) including fabrication methods (shaping, surface treatment and joining) and environmental factors such as embodied energy and CO2 emissions. The CES software allows selection using such criteria in combination with material properties or separately.
8.1. Fabrication methods
A summary of bulk fabrication methods is given on the next page, followed by two CES charts showing possible fabrication methods, the second as a function of the mass of the possible components.
8.2. Environmental factors
Representative CES charts, showing the embodied energy and CO2 emissions associated with the making annually of different materials, are provided on page 20.
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MATERIAL PREPARATION Extraction Alloying Refining Reclamation
SHAPING
CASTING
C.V.D. or P.V.D.
FORMING Bulk: rolling extrusion drawing forging Consolidation: powder routes
vapour liquid
solid
------> Casting: polycrystaline single crystal directional solidification
FINISHING MACHINING Milling Turning Drilling Grinding Spark erosion Ultrasonic drilling Laser machining COATING Electroplating Electroless Plasma spray Ion coating Laser coating JOINING Mechanical Adhesive Brazing & soldering Fusion welding Solid-state welding
N.D.T.
PRODUCT
Summary of bulk fabrication methods
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Embodied energy per mass for different materials [Ashby M.J., Materials and the environment, Elsevier, Chapter 6, p 117, 2009]
Annual carbon dioxide emissions to atmosphere from material production [Ashby M.J., Materials and the environment, Elsevier, Chapter 6, p 119, 2009]
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Possible material fabrication routes for different classes of material
[Ashby M.F et al, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design, Elsevier, p 414, 2007]
Pos sible material fabrication routes for different classes of material
[Ashby M.F et al, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design, Elsevier, p 414, 2007]
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9. 9.1.
Failure analysis General approach
Aim
find the primary cause of failure initiate corrective action to prevent repetition.
Method field assessment:
obtain samples & controls record background data (plus service history) preliminary examination of failed part reconstruction of events
initial assessment:
non-destructive evaluation macroscopic examination (fracture surfaces, cracks) microscopic examination (including microhardness) collection of information on (history of) suspect components
detailed assessment:
mechanical testing chemical analysis (bulk, local, surface, corrosion/wear products) test under simulated service conditions
diagnosis: report:
ensure data are self consistent analysis of all data suggestions for the future
action:
Reasons for failure
implementation of report (no action, modifications, withdrawal)
design deficiency material's problem overload (abuse) failure to observe specification.

History of component
design criteria:
specifications - codes of practice safety factor
materials selection:
specifications substitution
manufacturing practice: codes of practice records service history: loads displacements temperature environment statistical data.
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10. Analysis of failures metals 10.1. Types of failure
Ductile
Unusual as earlier plastic deformation generally detected and classed as failure. Ideally would neck to a point but triaxial stress state occurs in sample centre leading to failure initiation, often at inclusions. Final failure at edges gives characteristic shear lips. Brittle
Transgranular as insufficient slip systems available due to: crystal type - e.g. hcp compared to fcc temperature below ductile brittle transition TDBTT Intergranular a. 70:30 brass
strain rate stress concentration
b. H in steel
Due to segregation to grain boundary (gb), e.g. H, P, Sn, Sb, S in steels. May also arise due to second phases forming at gb, or precipitate distribution. Embrittlement (gas, liquid metal): characteristic intergranular as above, e.g. H in steel (b above)
Stress corrosion
require susceptible alloy, e.g. stainless steels (as shown) Al-Zn-Mg alloys (7xxx series), brasses in ammonia
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Corrosion
Surface oxide debris evident Pitting and crevice corrosion is especially common
Fatigue
Al 7178 Stage 3 can be ductile or brittle failure
varying loads (beach marks)
See characteristic striations associated with stage 2
Creep
Voiding and gb sliding may be observed in stage 3 No coarse microstructural changes in stages 1 & 2 (could observe in tem)
High-temperature degradation.
Signs of oxidation, gb local melting, grain growth
Wear
erosion solid particles carried in a fluid adhesion transfer of one solid (softer) to another abrasion cutting of softer solid by harder so material removed
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10.2. Fracture surface examination non-destructive
presence of colour or texture changes temper colours oxidation corrosion products presence of distinctive features on surface shear lips beach marks chevron marks river lines gross plasticity large voids or inclusions secondary cracks direction of fracture propagation fracture initiation site nearby stress raisers mode of loading
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Beach marks: distinct regions on a fracture surface which indicate a change in the fracture mechanism or rate of crack propagation
A typical example is illustrated above for fatigue showing the three areas corresponding to crack initiation, crack propagation and fast failure Chevron marks: arise when a crack in a steel initiates along the centre line of a plate (so may be associated with inclusions at which cracks initiate) and then runs to the surface of the plate. The marks point in the direction away from that of crack propagation and so can be used to trace the direction of crack growth and ultimately the source of origin of fracture.
River lines occur especially in relatively inclusion-free steels. Brittle failure (cleavage) results in roughly flat surfaces which are normal to the applied (tensile) stress and which often are on a particular set of planes. When the crack crosses a grain boundary, especially tilt, many small parallel cracks can form with steps between them. These then continue to grow and run into each other to form a single crack with a larger step. The characteristic pattern is the river pattern or river lines. Hence can show the direction of crack propagation and is a clear sign (with the characteristic failure surface) of brittle failure.
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10.3. Fracture stages
local degradation:
wear fretting corrosion pitting oxidation
crack initiation:
cracks < 100 m hence difficult to see optically cracks either grow to be catastrophic or may be stable cracks often initiated externally at stress concentrators internally at inclusions as shown below in steel
slow crack growth: ductile tear fatigue creep stress corrosion cracking spend high proportion of life time growing crack hence can [can define suitable quality control or inspection period can evaluate risk of leaving other parts in service]
fast crack growth:
onset of instability at critical crack length and leads to brittle failure ductile tearing plastic collapse
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11. Analysis of failures ceramics and glasses 11.1. Types of failure
brittle (generally) from design deficiency defects introduced during fabrication or machining service damage - impact especially thermal shock oxidation & corrosion related ductile at high temperature for glasses (viscous flow and so strain rate dependent) crystalline ceramics where slip systems thermally activated
11.2. Fracture appearance
Frequency of cracks is measure of: energy introduced and
residual stresses in the body
Little branching in thermal shock see below for crack in glass
Crack direction reflects type of loading and magnitude of stresses applied
C r Direction of crack/s also affected by near stress raisers such as machining marks change in section thickness hole or internal porosity internal defect, impurity
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Fracture generally radiates out from a single point or small area Branching occurs when: vcrack > vs where vcrack is crack velocity vs is speed of sound in the ceramic or glass multiple bifurcation A B
fracture origin
Crack patterns also can be determined from fragments and/or "witness mark" - small area with debris or burnished appearance
11.3. Fracture initiation site Fracture site appearance changes as vcrack increases, leads to mirror, mist and heckle. mirror: crack accelerates from initiation site (often surface defect, inclusion or stress raiser)
crack initially proceeds on one plane estimate size of mirror (indicated by diameter AB in above sketch (i) = Kc r 0.5 where = 3.5 0.3 equation is reasonably material independent but is more complex if defects present, then have to introduce stress intensity factors; note similarity to fracture toughness KIc = f ( a)0.5 (ii) f r 0.5 = constant - value of the constant is material dependent: glass 2.3 Al2O3 9 Si3N4 14
Hence can estimate critical defect size c by;

- running controlled tests and plot f against r - later can estimate f for any observed r value - use Griffith to estimate defect size c
ln f
f = A (E /c) 0.5
or can use Evans & Tappin
f = Z/Y (2E /c) 0.5

- Z is dimensionless term (1 2), depends on flaw configuration.
ln r
- Y is dimensionless term (1.7 2.0), depends on flaw depth & test geometry
- 28 -
mist: as crack velocity increases, may intersect inclusion or shift in direction of principal stress
slight deviation from original plane small radial ridges (although generally not seen on crystalline ceramics)
hackle: - larger ridges than mist and transforms to crack branching - if abrupt change in stress field, points in new direction of crack movement,
100 m
Fracture initiation in silicon nitride
Fracture in glass [http://cems.alfred.edu/ces252/Fracto.html]
11.4. Wallner lines Simultaneous propagation of crack front & elastic shock wave
||
- as each wave overtakes the primary fracture crack principal stress momentarily deviated/disturbed - curvature approximate shape of crack front (assuming wave intersects with entire fracture front) direction of crack propagation and indication of stress distribution (distance of each part of line from crack origin).
- 29 -
12.
Analysis of failures polymers
Some phenomena apparently similar to metals although mechanisms quite different, e.g. ductile-brittle transition toughness & fracture mechanics fatigue stress corrosion. Fracture behaviour influenced by: type of bonding and extent of cross-linking chain packing (amorphous versus crystalline polymers) extent of crystallisation and average crystallite size.
12.1. Deformation catagories
(i)
dilational: crazes, voids, microcracks crazing: - principally in amorphous polymers, brittle in tension e.g. polystyrene (PS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Crazing ahead of crack in PS
Fibrils in crazes in polystyrene low molecular with 1% of higher weight molecular weight
- limited extent in semi-crystalline e.g. polycarbonate in tensile-fatigue loading c.f. tension failure by shear banding. - slit-like microcracks spanned by oriented fibrils as illustrated above
o width 1-2 m and up to several mm in length o grow normal to applied stress o fibrils strength & density depend on molecular weight higher molecular weight have fewer, longer stable crazes
- precedes crack, c.f. plastic zone ahead of crack in metals - absorbs energy so improves toughness - whitening effect (especially if associated voiding) due to scattering of light (ii) non-dilational: shear bands. most polymers in compression exhibit this behaviour microscopic localised deformation along shear planes at 45 to applied compressive load strain magnitude ~ 2-3 locally
- 30 -
12.2. Types of failure
ductile due to: mechanical overload effects of liquids particlulate fillers
brittle failure in ductile material (often) associated with choice of polymer design - stress concentration mould design poor joining processing - inhomogeneous melt degraded melt surface defects non-uniform dispersion of additives non-uniform cooling - coarse spherulites high chain orientation imperfect internal welds service factors prolonged loading fatigue thermal degradation photochemical degradation corrosion stress corrosion
- 31 -
SELECTION OF MATERIALS PAST TRIPOS QUESTIONS
In addition to the following specific questions, see also questions in the essay parts of the papers as these often have a materials selection bias. 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 1j, 9, 28 1b, 8 1b, 3, 25 10i, 11, 36 10j, 17 10d, 14 1j, 7 10b, 25 1e, 18 5, 10j 10b, 38
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Material Selection and FMA

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Material Selection and FMA

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University of Cambridge Materials Science & Metallurgy

Dr. E.R. Wallach

Easter Term 2009

Selection of Materials [C2]

Selection of Materials [C2]

As40 K114 AB208

Selection of Materials [C2]

Relative importance of four major classes of engineering material as a function of time.

Selection of Materials [C2]

Selection of Materials [C2]

Design stages in going from concept to production and marketed product

Selection of Materials [C2]

2.2.1. Failure by plastic yielding S y =

2.2.2. Failure by buckling

2.2.3. Failure by fast fracture

Selection of Materials [C2]

Three different design approaches can be defined.

New principle or material involved

2.3.2. Developmental or adaptive design

Refine or improve an existing principle or component

Exterior Fasteners Power parts W

Weight kg 10 6 5.5 4 6.3

Cost 240 96 80 60 190

50 300 450 800 1200

ABS = acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

Selection of Materials [C2]

2.3.3. Variant design

b) fast fracture KIc = y

Selection of Materials [C2]

Lifetime of components Factors to consider

Selection of Materials [C2]

Price per unit weight versus complexity of materials and products

Selection of Materials [C2]

Breakdown of costs for fabricated components: Total cost to consumer

(a) maintenance (b) repairs

(c) insurance (d) amortisation

Materials data and sources Accuracy of data

density modulus thermal expansion specific heat 10% error

y engineering polymers (E/50)

KIc for all materials

composition processing heat-treatment

Selection of Materials [C2]

Materials selection approaches Expert systems: data optimisation/ranking

Selection of Materials [C2]

Selection of Materials [C2]

Materials selection charts

log (E) = n log () + k'

Selection of Materials [C2]

6.2.3. Use of materials selection charts

Selection of Materials [C2]

Approaches: a) Sequential performance indices (iterative approach as used in CES)

b) Use of coupling equations

and strength [X]

= F / A then eliminating free variable A

Similarly for the elastic stiffness constraint, using E = / = (F/A) / (u/ l )

coupling line: gradient = l / u

Selection of Materials [C2]

Effect of shape on materials selection Shape factors

7.2.1. Determination of macroscopic shape factor

for a solid circular cross-section bar and

Consider a rectangular bar

Selection of Materials [C2]

7.2.2. Use of shape factors with materials selection maps