SYED AMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, RAMANATHAPURAM III Semester.

SUBJECT CODE: 10122ME306 SUBJECT NAME: ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROLS MECHANICAL ENGINEERING BRANCH Regulation 2010 ANSWER KEY
1. List out some advantages of electric drives. i. ii. iii. Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power a few watts to mega watts. Ability to provide a wide range of torques over wide range of speeds. Electric motors are available in a variety of design in order to make them compatible to any type of load.

2. What is a Group Electric Drive (Shaft Drive)? This drive consists of single motor, which drives one or more line shafts supported on bearings. The line shaft may be fitted with either pulleys & belts or gears, by means of which a group of machines or mechanisms may be operated.

3. Give an expression for the losses occurring in a machine. The losses occurring in a machine is given by W = Wc + x2 Wv Where Wc = Constant losses Wv = Variable losses at full load X = load on the motor expressed as a function of rated load.

4. How heating occurs in motor drives? The heating of motor due to losses occurring inside the motor while converting the electrical power into mechanical power and these losses occur in steel core, motor winding & bearing friction.

5. Define heating time constant & Cooling time constant? Heating time constant Time required to heat the machine to 0.632 times of its final steady state value. Cooling time constant Time required to cool the machine to 0.367 times of the initial temperature rise above the ambient temperature.

PART B 6. (a) (i) Explain the factors governing the selection of motors. 1. Shaft power & speed 2. Power range 3. Starting torque 4. Maintenance 5. Total purchase cost 6. Influence on power supply 7. Availability 8. Nature of electric supply 9. Types of drive 10. Service cost 11. Speed range 12. Efficiency
13. Influence on the supply network

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Special competence Cost of energy losses Environment Accessibility Nature of load Electrical Characteristics Service capacity & rating

(b) (i) Discuss in detail the determination of power rating of motors 1. 2. 3. 4. Method Method Method Method of of of of Average losses equivalent power equivalent current equivalent Torque (8)

7. (a) (i) Explain the different types of loading of drives. (i)Continuous or contant loads In this type load occurs for a long time under tha same condition (e.g) fan loads ,paper makig machines etc (ii)Continous variable loads

The load is variable over a period of time but it occurs repeatetively for longer duration.

(e.g) metal cutting lathes , conveyors ,etc (iii) Pulsating loads: Torque which exhibits combination of constant load torque super imposed by pulsations. (e.g) Reciprocating pump, compressors, all load having crank shafts (iv) Impact load: There are peak loads occur at regular intervals of the time . (e.g) Rolling mill, presses, sharing machines, forging hammers Motor for such loads are provided with heavy loads (v) Short time intermittent loads : The load appears periodically identical duty cycles, each consisting of a period of application of load and one or rest. (e.g) all forms of cranes, hoists, elevators (vi) Short time loads : A constant load appears on the drive and the system rests for remaining priod of cycle. (e.g) motor generator set for charging batteries, household equipments (ii) Explain the choice of selection of the motor for different loads (8) Ans: Description of few points in 6th question (OR) (b) (i) Describe the simplifications based on which the heating and cooling calculations of an electric motor are made. i. The machine is considered to be a homogeneous body having a uniform temperature gradient. All the points at which heat generated have the same temperature. All the points at which heat is dissipated are also at same temperature. Heat dissipation taking place is proportional to the difference of temperature of the body and surrounding medium. No heat is radiated.

ii.

iii.

The rate of dissipation of heat is constant at all temperatures.

(3) (ii) Establish the heating time constant and the heating curves. (13) 8. (a) (i) Compare the D.C and A.C drives. DC Drives Advantage: Simple torque and speed control without sophisticated electronics Limitations: Regular Maintenance Expensive motor Heavy motor Sparking

AC Drives Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipments in industry. Their popularity is due to their simple design, they are inexpensive (half or less of the cost of a DC motor) High power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor) easy to maintain can be directly connected to an AC power source

(ii) A 100 kW motor, having rated temperature rise of 60C, has fullload efficiency of 80% and the maximum efficiency occurs at 85% full load. It has thermal time constants of 80 minutes and 65 minutes. It is cyclically loaded, 120% of full load for one hour and 50% of full load for the next hour. Find the temperature rise after 3 hour (8) K=(0.8)2=0.64, =0.9, P0 =100 kW WL(full load loss)= P0 ((1/ )-1)= 100 ((1/ 0.9 )-1)=11.11 kW WL= (k+1)Wcu =1.64 Wcu

Wcu =11.11/1.64 =6.775 kW Wconst =WL -Wcu=11.11-6.775=4.336 kW At 120 % of full load, the permissible (steady state temperature rise is ss at this load Wx=Wcu[k+(Px/Pnom]2]= 6.775[0.64+(1.2]2]=14.092 kW ss/ ss= Wx/ WL=14.092/11.11=1.268 ss=101.46 C lly At 50 % of full load ,the steady state temperature rise is . At this load ss=43.42 C th/Th=60/60=1 h1 =temperature rise after 1 hr = ss(1-e(-th/Th))=101.46(1-e-t)=64.135 C c1 =temperature rise after 2 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ h1 e(-th/Th)=51.05 C h2 =temperature rise after 3 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ c1 e(-th/Th)=82.195 C c1 =temperature rise after 4 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ h2 e(-th/Th)=57.95 C Or (b) (i) Write a brief note on classes of duty for an electric motor. (8) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Continuous duty Short time duty operation of motor Main classes of duties Intermittent periodic duty Intermittent periodic duty with starting Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading Continuous duty with starting & braking Continuous duty with periodic load changes

(ii) The thermal time constant and final steady temperature of a motor on continuous running is 30 minutes and 60C. Find out the temperature. i) After 15 minutes at this load. ii) After 1 hour at this load. iii) If temperature rise at 1 hour rating is 60C, find the maximum steady temperature. iv) What will be the time required to increase the temperature from 40C to 60C at 1 hour rating. (8)

PERIODICALTEST II, July 2011

1. Why DC series motor should never be started on no-load? However, at light or no-load, the motor tends to attain dangerously high speed. So it should not be started without load. 2. State the condition at which the starting toque developed in a slip-ring induction motor is maximum.

R2 = s X2 Slip corresponding to maximum torque, s = R2/X2. It can be shown that:

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Electrical Braking? 1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes. 2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes. 3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy efficiency. 4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly. 5. To improve the through put in many production process by reducing the stopping time. 4. What is meant by Regenerative braking in DC Motor? In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as a generator, while it is still connected to the supply here; the motor speed is grater that the synchronous speed. Mechanical energy is converter into electrical energy, part of which is returned to the supply and rest as heat in the winding and bearing.

5. What are the factors influencing the selection of starters?

PART B ---- (2 1/2 X 16 = 40 marks) 6. (a) List out the advantages and disadvantages of electrical braking over mechanical braking. 1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes. 2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes. 3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy efficiency. 4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly. 5. To improve the through put in many production process by reducing the stopping time. Or (b) Discuss any one method of electrical braking of DC Machines. (8) Dynamic braking In dynamic braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a dynamic braking resistance RDB. In and Fig. 1 this is done by changing the switch from position 1 to 2. (8)

Fig .1 Connections The supply to the field should not be removed.

Due to the rotation of the armature during motoring mode and due to the inertia, the armature continues to rotate. An emf is induced due to the presence of the field and the rotation. This voltage drives a current through the braking resistance. The direction of this current is opposite to the one which was flowing before change in the connection. Therefore, torque developed also gets reversed. The machine acts like a brake. The torque speed characteristics separate by excited shunt of the machine under dynamic braking mode is as shown in Fig. 2 for a particular value of RDB.

Fig 2: Characteristics The positive torque corresponds to the motoring operation. Fig. 3 shows the dynamic braking of a shunt excited motor and the corresponding torque-speed curve.

Fig 3: Dynamic braking Here the machine behaves as a self excited generator. Below a certain speed the self-excitation collapses and the braking action becomes Zero.

7. (a) Explain about the speed-torque characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor with suitable graph and equations. Fig. (1) shows the connections of a d.c. shunt motor. The field current Ish is constant since the field winding is directly connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant. Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant.

Fig :1 (i)Ta/Ia Characteristic.

Fig:2

We know that in a d.c. motor, Ta Ia Since the motor is operating from a constant supply voltage, flux f is constant (neglecting armature reaction). Ta Ia Hence Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. (2). The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line. It is clear from the curve that a very large current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load. (ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by; N Eb The flux and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the armature current varies (dotted line AB in Fig. 3). Strictly speaking, when load is increased, Eb (= V- IaRa) and f decrease due to the armature resistance drop and armature reaction respectively. However, Eb decreases slightly more than f so that the speed of the motor decreases slightly with load (line AC). (iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and Ta for various armature currents (See Fig. 3). It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the load torque increases.

Fig :3

Fig:4

Conclusions Following two important conclusions are drawn from the above characteristics: (i) There is slight change in the speed of a shunt motor from no-load to fullload.Hence; it is essentially a constant-speed motor. (ii) The starting torque is not high because Ta Ia. Or (b) Explain how an induction motor is brought to stop by (i) Plugging and (ii) dynamic braking. (16) (i) Rheostat or Dynamic braking In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply and is connected across a variable resistance R. However, the field winding is left connected to the supply. The armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong magnetic field and, therefore, operates as a generator, sending a large current through resistance R. This causes the energy possessed by the rotating armature to be dissipated quickly as heat in the resistance. As a result, the motor is brought to standstill quickly.

Fig: 1 Fig. (1] show dynamic braking of a shunt motor. The braking torque can be controlled by varying the resistance R. If the value of R is decreased as the motor speed decreases, the braking torque may be maintained at a high value. At a low value of speed, the braking torque

becomes small and the final stopping of the motor is due to friction. This type of braking is used extensively in connection with the control of elevators and hoists and in other applications in which motors must be started, stopped and reversed frequently. We now investigate how braking torque depends upon the speed of the motor. Referring to Fig. (1), Armature current,

Braking torque

where k2 and k3 are constants For a shunt motor, is constant. Braking torque, TB N Therefore, braking torque decreases as the motor speed decreases. (ii) Plugging In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that motor tends to rotate in the opposite direction, thus providing the necessary braking effect. When the motor comes to rest, the supply must be cut off otherwise the motor will start rotating in the opposite direction.

Fig: 2 Fig. (2) shows plugging of a d.c. shunt motor. Note that armature connections are reversed while the connections of the field winding are kept the same. As a result the current in the armature reverses. During the normal running of the motor [See Fig. 2], the back e.m.f. Eb opposes the applied voltage V. However, when armature connections are reversed, back e.m.f. Eb and V act in the same direction around the circuit. Therefore, a voltage equal to V + Eb is impressed across the armature circuit. Since Eb ~ V, the impressed voltage is approximately 2V. In order 10 limit the current to safe value, a variable resistance R is inserted in the circuit at the time of changing armature connections. We now investigate how braking torque depends upon the speed of the motor. Referring to Fig. (2), Armature current,

Braking torque,

For a shunt motor, f is constant.

Braking torque, TB = k5 + k6N Thus braking torque decreases as the motor slows down. Note that there is some braking torque (TB = k5) even when the motor speed is zero. 8. (a) Draw a neat schematic diagram of a three point starter and explain its working. (16) Three-Point Starter This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors. Schematic diagram Fig. (1) shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A. The starter consists of starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in series with the armature. The tapping points of the starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to the negative terminal of the supply. The novolt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over-load release coil. The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction.

Fig: 1

Operation (i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. (iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If novolt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current. (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply. [Or] (b) Draw a neat schematic diagram of a four point starter and explain its working.

(16)

In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line through a protective resistance R. Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no volt release coil. Note that the only difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-volt release coil is

connected. However, the working of the two starters is the same. It may be noted that the three point starter also provides protection against an open field circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point starter.

Fig: 1 Operation (i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. (iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting

resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If novolt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current. (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.

MODEL TEST

1. What are the factors influencing the choice of electric drives? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Steady state operation requirements. Transient operation requirements. Requirements related to the source. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life. Space and weight restriction. Environment and location. Reliability.

2. What is meant by continuous duty? Operation with a constant load state as shown in Figure1 with a duration sufficient to reach thermal equilibrium. The load period tB is much greater than the thermal time constant T.

Figure2 3. Why differential compound motors are not used in practical? If the load increases the speed also increasing which will cause the damage. 4. Give the application where DC Shunt, DC Series and DC Compound motors are used. Shunt: driving constant speed, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers and fans, reciprocating pumps Series: electric locomotives, rapid transit systems, trolley cars, cranes and hoists, conveyors Compound: elevators, air compressors, rolling mills, heavy planners.

5. What are the factors influencing the selection of starters? Cost Type of motor Quickness Performance Efficiency 6. Why stator resistance starter is rarely used? This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly, a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances. 7. What will be the effect of change in supply voltage on the speed of DC Shunt Motor? Speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied to a motor .Decrease in speed will decrease in speed 8. What are the advantages and disadvantage of solid state drive methods? 9. List the different methods of speed control of three phase induction motor.

Stator voltage control. Frequency control Pole changing control. Slip power recovery control.

10. What is VVVF control? Variable voltage variable frequency (V/f) constant

PART B ---- (5X 16 = 80 marks) 11.(a) Draw the typical temperature rise-time curve and derive the equation for temperature rise in an electric drive. (16) [Or] (b) The thermal time constant and final steady temperature of a motor on continuous running is 30 minutes and 60C. Find out the temperature. i) After 15 minutes at this load. ii) After 1 hour at this load. iii) If temperature rise at 1 hour rating is 60C, find the maximum steady temperature. iv) What will be the time required to increase the temperature from 40C to 60C at 1 hour rating. (16) K=(0.8)2=0.64, =0.9, P0 =100 kW WL(full load loss)= P0 ((1/ )-1)= 100 ((1/ 0.9 )-1)=11.11 kW WL= (k+1)Wcu =1.64 Wcu Wcu =11.11/1.64 =6.775 kW Wconst =WL -Wcu=11.11-6.775=4.336 kW At 120 % of full load, the permissible (steady state temperature rise is ss at this load Wx=Wcu[k+(Px/Pnom]2]= 6.775[0.64+(1.2]2]=14.092 kW ss/ ss= Wx/ WL=14.092/11.11=1.268 ss=101.46 C lly At 50 % of full load ,the steady state temperature rise is . At this load ss=43.42 C th/Th=60/60=1 h1 =temperature rise after 1 hr = ss(1-e(-th/Th))=101.46(1-e-t)=64.135 C c1 =temperature rise after 2 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ h1 e(-th/Th)=51.05 C h2 =temperature rise after 3 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ c1 e(-th/Th)=82.195 C c1 =temperature rise after 4 hrs = ss(1-e(-th/Th))+ h2 e(-th/Th)=57.95 C

12 .(a) Explain the Speed-Torque characteristics of three phase induction motor with neat diagrams. (16) 1. A torque speed curve shows how a motor's torque production varies throughout the different phases of its operation.

2. Starting torque, also called locked rotor torque, is produced by a motor when it is initially turned on. Starting torque is the amount required to overcome the inertia of a standstill. 3. Pull-up torque is the minimum torque generated by a motor as it accelerates from standstill to operating speed. If a motor's pull-up torque is less than that required by its application load, the motor will overheat and eventually stall. 4. Breakdown torque is the greatest amount of torque a motor can attain without stalling. High breakdown torque is necessary for applications that may undergo frequent overloading. One such application is a conveyor belt. Often, conveyor belts have more product placed upon them than their rating allows. High breakdown torque enables the conveyor to continue operating under these conditions without causing heat damage to the motor.

5. Full load torque is produced by a motor functioning at a rated speed and horsepower. The operating life is significantly diminished in motors continually run at levels exceeding full load torque. 6. Synchronous speed is the speed at which no torque is generated by a motor. This occurs in motors that run while not connected to a load. At synchronous speed, the rotor turns at exactly the same rate as the stator's rotating magnetic field. Since there is no slip, there is no torque produced. [Or] (b) (i) Explain the speed torque curve of single phase induction motors in detail. (8) Depending on the various start techniques, Single-Phase AC Induction Motor is classified: Split-Phase AC Induction Motor, Capacitor Start AC Induction Motor, Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor, Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor, Shaded-Pole AC Induction Motor. Below is the figure showing the torque-speed curves of various kinds of single-phase AC induction motors. From this figure, you will know more about different types of single phase ac induction motors. Figure. Torque-speed curve of different types of Single-phase induction motor

(ii) Explain the method of regenerative braking employed in DC Motors.

(8)

In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator. As a result, the kinetic energy of the motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to the supply. Fig. (1) Shows two methods of regenerative braking for a shunt motor.

(a) In one method, field winding is disconnected from the supply and field current is increased by exciting it from another source [See Fig. 1 (i)]. As a result, induced e.m.f. E exceeds the supply voltage V and the machine feeds energy into the supply. Thus braking torque is provided upto the speed at which induced e.m.f. and supply voltage are equal. As the machine slows down, it is not possible to maintain induced e.m.f. at a higher value than the supply voltage. Therefore, this method is possible only for a limited range of speed. (b) In a second method, the field excitation does not change but the load causes the motor to run above the normal speed (e.g., descending load on a crane).As a result, the induced e.m.f. E becomes greater than the supply voltage V [See Fig. 1 (ii)]. The direction of armature current I, therefore, reverses but the direction of shunt field current If remains unaltered. Hence the torque is reversed and the speed falls until E becomes less than V. 13. (a) Draw a neat schematic diagram of a four point starter and explain its working(16) In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line through a protective resistance R. Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no volt release coil. Note that the only difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two starters is the same. It may be noted that the three point starter also provides protection against an open field circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point starter.

Operation (i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. (iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If novolt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current.

(v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply. [Or] (b) Explain the different starting methods of three phase squirrel cage induction motors with neat sketches. (16) Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-cage motors employ reduced voltage across motor terminals at starting. (i) Direct-on-line starting This method of starting in just what the name impliesthe motor is started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply. The impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it is directly connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times the full-load current) and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of starting is suitable for relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines. Relation between starling and F.L. torques. We know that: Rotor input = 2p Ns T = kT But Rotor Cu loss = s Rotor input Relation between starling and F.L. torques. We know that: Rotor input = 2Ns T = kT But Rotor Cu loss = s x Rotor input

If Ist is the starting current, then starting torque (Tst) is T I2 ( at starting s 1)

If If is the full-load current and sf is the full-load slip, then,

When the motor is started direct-on-line, the starting current is the short-circuit (blocked-rotor) current Isc.

Let us illustrate the above relation with a numerical example. Suppose Isc = 5 If and full-load slip sf =0.04. Then,

Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current but starting torque is just equal to the full-load torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting torque is comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long time, it may overheat the motor and damage the insulation. (ii) Stator resistance starting In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator winding during starting. This causes voltage drop across the resistances so that voltage available across motor terminals is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting resistances are

gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the motor attains rated speed, the resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is applied to the rotor. This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly, a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.

Relation between starting and F.L. torques. Let V be the rated voltage/phase. If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x by the insertion of resistors in the line, then voltage applied to the motor per phase will be xV. Ist = x Isc Now f

Thus while the starting current reduces by a fraction x of the rated-voltage starting current (Isc), the starting torque is reduced by a fraction x2 of that obtained by direct switching. The reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting current but at the same time increases the accelerating time because of the reduced value of the starting torque. Therefore, this method is used for starting small motors only. (iii) Autotransformer starting This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced supply at starting and then connecting it to the full voltage as the motor picks up sufficient speed. Fig. (8.31) shows the circuit arrangement for autotransformer starting. The tapping on the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65% to 80% of line voltage is applied to the motor. At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to start position. This puts the autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit. Consequently, starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to run position. This takes out the autotransformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer starting has several advantages viz low power loss, low starting current and less radiated heat. For large machines (over 25 H.P.), this method of starting is often used. This method can be used for both star and delta connected motors.

Relation between starting and F.L. torques. Consider a star-connected squirrel-cage induction motor. If V is the line voltage, then voltage across motor phase on direct switching is V 3 and starting current is Ist = Isc. In case of autotransformer, if a tapping of transformation ratio K (a fraction) is used, then phase voltage across motor is KV/3 and Ist = K Isc,

The current taken from the supply or by autotransformer is I1 = KI2 = K2Isc. Note that motor current is K times, the supply line current is K2 times and the starting torque is K2 times the value it would have been on direct-on-line starting.

14. (a) Explain how the speed of a DC Shunt Motor can be varied both above and below the speed at which it runs with full field current. (16) The speed of a shunt motor can be changed by (i) flux control method (ii) armature control method (iii) voltage control method. The first method (i.e.flux control method) is frequently used because it is simple and inexpensive.

1. Flux control method It is based on the fact that by varying the flux f, the motor speed (N 1/f) can be changed and hence the name flux control method. In this method, a variable resistance (known as shunt field rheostat) is placed in series with shunt field winding as shown in Fig. (1).

Fig :1

Fig:2

The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux f.Therefore, we can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed (See Fig. 2). Generally, this method permits to increase the speed in the ratio 3:1.Wider speed ranges tend to produce instability and poor commutation. Advantage (i) This is an easy and convenient method. (ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish. (iii) The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine. Disadvantages (i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rshthe shunt field winding resistance. (ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.

Note. The field of a shunt motor in operation should never be opened because its speed will increase to an extremely high value. 2. Armature control method This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series with the armature as shown in Fig. (3).

Fig :3 N V - Ia(Ra + RC) where RC = controller resistance

Fig:4

Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) is decreased. Since N Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed obtainable is that corresponding to RC = 0 i.e., normal speed. Hence, this method can only provide speeds below the normal speed (See Fig. 4). Disadvantages (i) A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full armature current Ia. (ii) The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load. (iii) The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced. (iv) This method results in poor speed regulation.

Due to above disadvantages, this method is seldom used to control tie speed of shunt motors. Note. The armature control method is a very common method for the speed control of d.c. series motors. The disadvantage of poor speed regulation is not important in a series motor which is used only where varying speed service is required. [Or]

(b) Explain in detail the single phase semi-converter speed control for DC drive for separately excited motor.. (16) In these configurations, the armature and / or the field winding voltage can be varied using single-phase full bridge AC-to-DC converters as shown in Fig. 1-a. This is a two quadrant converter, as shown in Fig. 1-b, where the load current is always positive while the load voltage may be positive or negative. The generated waveforms are shown in Fig. 1-c. Single-phase AC-to-DC semi-converters can be also used for DC motors speed control as shown in Fig. 2-a. However, this is a first-quadrant converter, as shown in Fig. 2-b, where the load current and voltage are always positive. The generated waveforms are shown in Fig. 2-c. Usually the same AC supply is used as an input for the two converters. The average value of the armature and / or field voltage (and hence the rotational speed) can be varied and controlled by varying the firing angle of the thyristors used. The equation relating the armature and the field voltage with the supply voltage and the firing angle can be expressed as follows,

Fig.1 For single-phase full converters connected to the armature terminals: The average value (DC) of the armature voltage is,

where Va is the average value of the armature voltage, Vm is the maximum value of the supply voltage, and a is the armature converters thyristor firing (delay) angle. For single-phase full converters connected to the field terminals: The average value (DC) of the field voltage is,

where Vf is the average value of the field voltage, and f is the field converters thyristor firing (delay) angle.

Fig. 2 DC motor speed control using single-phase semi-converters For single-phase terminals: semi-converters connected to the armature

The average value (DC) of the armature voltage is,

For single-phase semi-converters connected to the field terminals: The average value (DC) of the field voltage is,

15. (a) Explain the static Kramer method and static scherbius method of speed control of three phase induction motor. (16) In a cage-type induction motor, the rotor current at slip frequency reacting with the airgap flux develops the torque. The corresponding slip power is dissipated in the rotor resistance. In a wound rotor induction motor, the slip power can be controlled to control the torque and speed of a machine. Figure 1 shows a popular slip power-controlled drive, known as a static Kramer drive. The slip power is rectified to dc with a diode rectifier and is then pumped back to an ac line through a thyristor phase-controlled inverter.

Fig 1: Static Kramer drive system

The method permits speed control in the subsynchronous speed range. It can be shown that the developed machine torque is proportional to the dc link current Id and the voltage Vd varies directly with speed deviation from the synchronous speed. The current Id is controlled by the firing angle of the inverter. Since Vd and VI voltages balance at steady state, at synchronous speed the voltage Vd is zero and the firing angle is 90 degrees. The firing angle increases as the speed falls, and at 50% synchronous speed the firing angle is near 180 degrees. This is practically the lowest speed in static Kramer drive. The transformer steps down the inverter input voltage to get a 180-degree firing angle at lowest speed. The advantage of this drive is that the converter rating is low compared with the machine rating. Disadvantages are that the line power factor is low and the machine is expensive. For limited speed range applications, this drive has been popular. Static Scherbius drive

Fig 2: Static Scherbius drive using DC link thyristor converter

Fig 3: Static Scherbius drive using cycloconverter The scheme has applications in large power fan and pump drives which requires speed control in anrrow range only. If max. slip is denoted by Smax, then power rating of diode, inverter and transformer can be just Smax times motor power rating resulting in a low cost drive. This drive provides a constant torque control. Or (b) Explain in detail about the various methods of solid state speed control techniques by using inverters. (16) Voltage-Fed Inverter Induction Motor A simple and popular converter system for speed control of an induction motor is shown in Fig. 1. The front-end diode rectifier converts 60 Hz ac to dc, which is then filtered to remove the ripple. The dc voltage is then converted to variable-frequency, variable-voltage output for the machine through a PWM bridge inverter. Among a number of PWM techniques, the sinusoidal PWM is common, and it is illustrated in Fig. 2 or one phase only. The stator sinusoidal reference phase voltage signal is compared with a high-frequency carrier wave, and the comparator logic output controls switching of the upper and lower transistors in a phase leg. The

phase voltage wave shown refers to the fictitious center tap of the filter capacitor. With the PWM technique, the fundamental voltage and frequency can be easily varied. The stator voltage wave contains highfrequency ripple, which is easily filtered by the machine leakage inductance. The voltage-to-frequency ratio is kept constant to provide constant airgap flux in the machine. The machine voltage-frequency relation, and the corresponding torque, stator current, and slip, are shown in Fig. 2. Up to the base or rated frequency b , the machine can develop constant torque. Then, the field flux weakens as the frequency is increased at constant voltage. The speed of the machine can be controlled in a simple open-loop manner by controlling the frequency and maintaining the proportionality between the voltage and frequency. During acceleration, machine-developed torque should be limited so that the inverter current rating is not exceeded. By controlling the frequency, the operation can be extended in the field weakening region. If the supply frequency is controlled to be lower than the machine speed (equivalent frequency), the motor will act as a generator and the inverter will act as a rectifier, and energy from the motor will be pumped back to the dc link. The dynamic brake shown is nothing hut a buck converter with resistive load that dissipates excess power to maintain the dc bus voltage constant. When the motor speed is reduced to zero, the phase sequence of the inverter can be reversed for speed reversal. Therefore, the machine speed can be easily controlled in all four quadrants.

Fig.1.Sinusoidal pulse width modulation principle.

Fig.2 Voltage-frequency relation of an induction motor.

Current-Fed Inverter Induction Motor Drive The speed of a machine can be controlled by a current-fed inverter as shown in Fig. 3.The front-end thvristor rectifier generates a variable dc current source in the dc link inductor. The dc current is then converted to six-step machine current wave through the inverter. The basic mode of operation of the inverter is the same as that of the rectifier, except that it is force-commutated, that is, the capacitors and series diodes help commutation of the thyristors.

Figure 3. Force-commuted current-fed inverter control of an induction motor.

FIGURE 4 PWM current-fed inverter control of an induction motor. One advantage of the drive is that regenerative braking is easy because the rectifier and inverter can reverse their operation modes. Sixstep machine current, however, causes large harmonic heating and torque pulsation, which may be quite harmful at low-speed operation. Another disadvantage is that the converter system cannot be controlled in open loop like a voltage-fed inverter.