890

Long-term deflection prediction of concrete members reinforced with glass fibre reinforced polymer bars
Tara Hall and Amin Ghali

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of the long-term deflection behaviour of concrete shallow beams reinforced with glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars. The long-term deflections of the GFRP-reinforced beams are compared to deflections of identical beams reinforced with steel bars. All beams were under sustained loading for approximately 8 months. The variables were the level of sustained loading and the reinforcement materials: steel or GFRP. The experimental immediate and long-term deflections of both the steel- and the GFRPreinforced beams were compared to calculated deflections using the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, and the ACI 318-95 code using the recommendations of ACI Committee 209; these references are for steel reinforced concrete members. The test results indicate that under similar loading conditions and the same reinforcement ratio, the GFRP-reinforced beams had long-term deflections, due to creep and shrinkage, 1.7 times greater than those of the steel-reinforced beams. A comparison of the theoretical and experimental immediate and long-term deflections indicates that the CEBFIP Model Code 1990 gives reasonable predictions for all beams, and that the ACI 318-95 code, using the ACI Committee 209 recommendations, overestimates the deflections due to the combined effects of creep and shrinkage. Key words: glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP), steel, reinforced concrete, long-term, deflections, flexure, elastic modulus. Rsum : Cet article prsente les rsultats dune tude exprimentale du comportement en dflexion long terme de poutres basses en bton armes de barres en polymre renforc de fibres de verre (PRFV). Les dflexions long terme de poutres renforces de PRFV sont compares des dflexions de poutres identiques armes de barres en acier. Toutes les poutres taient sous un chargement soutenu pour approximativement huit mois. Les variables furent le niveau de chargement soutenu et les matriaux de renforcement : acier ou PRFV. Les dflexions exprimentales immdiates et long terme des poutres armes dacier ou de PRFV furent compares des dflexions calcules selon le modle du code CEB-FIP de 1990 et le code ACI 318-95 utilisant les recommandations du comit 209 de lACI. Ces rfrences sont pour des membres en bton arm dacier. Les rsultats de tests indiquent que, sous des conditions de chargement similaires et avec le mme rapport de renforcement, les poutres armes de PRFV avaient des dflexions long terme, dues aux effets de glissement et de rduction, 1,7 fois plus grandes que celles des poutres armes dacier. Une comparaison des dflexions thoriques et exprimentales immdiates et long terme indique que le modle du code CEB-FIP de 1990 donne des prdictions raisonnables pour toutes les poutres, et que le code ACI 318-95, utilisant les recommandations du comit 209 de lACI, surestime les dflexions dues aux effets combins de glissement et de rduction. Mots cls : polymre renforc de fibres de verre (PRFV), acier, bton arm, long terme, dflexions, flexion, module dlasticit. [Traduit par la Rdaction] Hall and Ghali 898

Introduction
Investigations into the flexural behaviour of concrete members reinforced with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
Received July 30, 1999. Revised manuscript accepted January 7, 2000. T. Hall1 and A. Ghali. Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada. Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be received by the Editor until February 28, 2001.
1

Present address: Associated Engineering Alberta Limited, 1000 Pacific Plaza, 10909 Jasper Avenue, Edmonton, AB T5J 5B9, Canada.

bars have been chiefly concentrated upon short-term behaviour. Experimental data of long-term deflections are scarce. Kage et al. (1995) investigated the long-term deflections of concrete beams reinforced with various types of FRP bars (carbon, aramid, and glass) and compared their behaviour to that of a steel-reinforced beam. The authors concluded that long-term deflection predictions, calculated using equations developed for steel reinforced concrete beams, tended to overestimate the actual long-term deflections of FRP reinforced concrete beams. These long-term predictions are calculated using the effective moment of inertia, Ie (ACI 31895). Arockiasamy et al. (1996) investigated the long-term loaddeflection behaviour of four concrete beams reinforced with CFRP bars. From these experiments, the authors concluded that existing methods, developed for the calculation of long-term deflections of steel reinforced concrete mem 2000 NRC Canada

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 27: 890898 (2000)

Hall and Ghali Fig. 1. Experimental details: (a) third-point loading on specimens (l = 3200 mm) and (b) typical section for all beams (dimensions in mm). Table 1. Characteristics of the shallow beams. Longitudinal reinforcement Slab name Lg-S-3-1.5 Lg-G-3-1.5 Lg-S-3-3.0 Lg-G-3-3.0 d (mm) 147 148 147 148 %r 1.46 1.29 1.46 1.29 Concrete fc (MPa) 27 30 28 31

891

Ec (GPa) 21 22 21 21

bers, can be used for CFRP reinforced concrete beams. In their analysis, the authors used equations found in Ghali and Favre (1994) to calculate the long-term deflections. These equations are based on first principles of equilibrium and compatibility. The creep coefficients and free shrinkage values used in these equations are calculated using equations from the ACI Committee 209 recommendations (1992). Brown and Bartholomew (1996) and Brown (1997) investigated the long-term deflections of eight concrete beams reinforced with GFRP bars. The authors concluded that current methods of predicting the long-term deflections of steel reinforced concrete beams can be used for FRP reinforced concrete beams with only some minor modifications. The equations used by the authors are found in the ACI Committee 209 recommendations (1992). In the present paper, experimental immediate and longterm deflections of four shallow beams are compared with theoretical values. Immediate and long-term deflections were recorded on two concrete beams reinforced with GFRP bars, as well as two concrete beams reinforced with steel bars. Two levels of sustained loading are considered with the ratio Ma/Mcr = 1.5 and 3.0, where Ma is the maximum applied moment and Mcr is the moment just sufficient to produce cracking. The analytical prediction methods used herein are those found in current steel reinforced concrete design codes. The objective of the analytical predictions is to determine whether or not long-term deflection prediction methods for steel reinforced concrete members can be used, with or without modification, for the long-term deflection prediction of FRP reinforced concrete members.

der long-term sustained loading. The beams were 280 mm wide, 180 mm thick, and 3500 mm long. They were simply supported on a span of 3200 mm and were subject to third point loading. Figure 1 shows the locations of the point loads, P, and the cross section of the beams. Two of the beams were reinforced with three steel bars and two with three glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars. The GFRP bars used in these experiments were type 1 CBar produced by Marshall Industries Composites Inc. Structural Reinforcements, Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A. The manufacturer gave the following properties for type 1 CBar: ultimate tensile strength of 680 MPa and tensile elastic modulus of 42 GPa. The cross-sectional area for the 15 mm diameter bars used in these tests was 176 mm2. The deformed steel bars used in these experiments were 16 mm diameter bars with a cross-sectional area of 200 mm2. The nominal yield strength and elastic modulus were 400 MPa and 200 GPa, respectively. (It was not possible to avoid the difference in reinforcement cross-sectional areas of steel and GFRP.) The concrete mix design had the following proportions and a watercement ratio of 0.68: 300 kg/m3 type 10 Portland cement, 204 kg/m3 water, 862 kg/m3 fine aggregate (fineness modulus of 2.9), and 1029 kg/m3 coarse aggregate (maximum 14 mm diameter). The concrete strength, fc, and the modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec, were determined from cylinder tests performed at the start of the long-term tests and the results are given in Table 1. The age of the concrete at the start of the long-term sustained loading was 31 days. Table 1 also gives the names of the beams, the depth of the reinforcement from the extreme compression fibre, d, and the percent reinforcement ratio, %r. The names of the beams represent the type of reinforcement, the number of reinforcing bars, and the magnitude of the sustained load. Test setup and procedure This experimental program consisted of two parts. First, the beams were subjected to short-term cyclical loading to represent service conditions. The cycles were immediately followed by the application of a pair of sustained concentrated loads, PLT. At the concrete age of 31 days, the beams were mounted (Fig. 2) over simple supports and subjected to short-term cyclical loading producing cracking. The loading was applied with a 40 kN MTS linear actuator and the deflections were measured with APEX linear-displacement transducers. Beams Lg-S-3-1.5 and Lg-G-3-1.5 underwent approximately identical short-term cyclical loading. The eleven cycles of loading had a maximum of 12 kN and a minimum of 4 kN. The value of 12 kN corresponded approximately to the mag 2000 NRC Canada

Experimental program
Test specimens and materials Four reinforced concrete shallow beams were tested in flexure, first under short-term cyclical loading and then un-

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Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000

nitude of the sustained load applied later to these beams. Similarly, before sustained loading, beams Lg-S-3-3.0 and Lg-G-3-3.0 underwent 19 cycles of loading between a maximum of 20 kN and a minimum of 4 kN. The magnitudes of the sustained loads, PLT, are given in Table 2. The sustained loads applied to beams Lg-S-3-1.5 and Lg-G-3-1.5 correspond to a maximum sustained moment of approximately 1.5Mcr, where Mcr is the cracking moment. The same is true for beams Lg-S-3-3.0 and Lg-G3-3.0, except that the maximum sustained moment is approximately 3.0Mcr. Table 2 also gives the maximum sustained moment, MLT, due to PLT combined with the specimens self-weight, the experimental cracking moment, Mcr,exp, and the ratio MLT/Mcr,exp. The beams were simply supported with rollers. The load was applied by suspending a concrete block from the beam at the third points. The device used to measure deflections consisted of a sturdy thin walled steel rectangular hollow section supported at both ends of the 3.2 m span by sheet metal supports. A dial gauge with a least count of 0.01 mm was placed at midspan (Fig. 3). Deflection measurements were taken daily for 2 weeks and then weekly until the removal of the sustained loads after approximately 8 months under load. Other measurements taken were concrete strains and curvatures. The temperature and relative humidity were measured on a regular basis. Concrete cylinders were cast from the same batches of concrete as the beams for use as shrinkage specimens.

where q is the uniform load per unit length, l is the span, and Ec is the modulus of elasticity of the concrete. The fact that deflections calculated with Ie do not accurately predict the deflection of FRP reinforced concrete members is well known (Faza and GangaRao 1992; Benmokrane et al. 1996). Thriault and Benmokrane (1997) recommend the use of the following modified effective moment of inertia, Ief, in the calculation of the immediate deflections of FRP reinforced concrete members: [3] M I ef = I cr + (bI g - I cr ) cr M a Ig
3

where b is a reduction coefficient. Thriault and Benmokrane (1997) recommend b = 0.6 for type 1 C-Bar. Gao et al. (1998) recommend the following relationship in the calculation of b for use in eq. [3]: [4] E b = a f + 1 E s

where Ef is the modulus of elasticity of the FRP bar; Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel bars; and a = 0.5 for GFRP bars according to test results of simply supported beams. The authors suggest that until more data become available regarding the value of a for other types of FRP bars, a may be taken as 0.5 for all types of FRP bars. Mean curvatures, ym According to CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, the mean curvature, ym, at a cracked section can be calculated by [5] [6] y m = (1 - z)y1 + zy 2 y1 = M ; EI1 y2 =
2

Analytical prediction of deflections

Immediate deflections Immediate deflections occur at the application of the sustained load. In this paper the experimental immediate deflections are compared with the theoretical values calculated using the methods described below. Effective moment of inertia, Ie Bransons equation for the effective moment of inertia is well known for its use in calculating the post-cracking deflections of steel reinforced concrete members. It is adopted in North American concrete design codes, including CSA A23.3-94 and ACI 318-95. This equation interpolates between the moment of inertia of the gross uncracked concrete section, Ig, and the moment of inertia of a transformed cracked section, Icr, to account for the tension stiffening effect of the concrete in tension. [1] I e = I cr M + (I g - I cr ) cr M a Ig
3

M EI 2

[7]

M z = 1 - b1b2 cr M

where Mcr is the moment just sufficient to produce cracking and Ma is the maximum applied moment. The value of Ie is assumed to be constant over the length of the cracked member. Therefore, simple equations can be used to calculate the midspan deflection such as the following for uniform loading, Dunif: [2] Dunif = 5ql 4 384Ec I e

where y1 and y2 are the curvatures for uncracked transformed sections and for fully cracked transformed sections, respectively; I1 and I2 are the moment of inertia for uncracked transformed sections and for fully cracked transformed sections, respectively; z is the interpolation coefficient to account for tension stiffening; M is the bending moment at the section; b1 is the coefficient characterizing the bond quality of the reinforcing bars and is equal to 1.0 for high bond bars and 0.5 for smooth bars; and b2 is the coefficient representing the influence of the duration of application or of repetition of loading and is equal to 0.8 for first loading and 0.5 for sustained or cyclic loading. Eurocode 2 (1991) uses the value of b2 = 1.0 for first loading instead of 0.8 adopted by CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. Once the mean curvatures are calculated at a number of sections along the member, they can be integrated to determine the midspan deflection. Mean moment of inertia, Im The mean curvature at a section can also be calculated by the following equations to give the same answer as eq. [5]:
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Hall and Ghali Fig. 2. Sketch of cyclic loading setup (l = 3200 mm).

893

[8]

ym =

M EI m

Table 2. Sustained loads and cracking moments. PLT (kN) 5.3 5.9 11.5 11.5 MLT (kNm) 7.2 7.8 13.8 13.8 Mcr,exp (kNm) 4.8 5.5 5.6 4.9 M LT M cr, exp 1.49 1.43 2.47 2.82

where Im is the mean moment of inertia derived from eqs. [5], [6], and [8], [9] Im I1I 2 = (1 - z)I 2 + zI1

Slab name Lg-S-3-1.5 Lg-G-3-1.5 Lg-S-3-3.0 Lg-G-3-3.0

By substituting eq. [7] into eq. [9] and rearranging, the following equation also calculates Im: [10] Im M = I1I 2 I1 + b1b2 cr M a
2 (I 2 - I1) -1

the mean moment of inertia, Im in eq. [10], can be used to determine the curvature at any section: [13] (y) Branson = (y) CEB-FIP = M EI e M EI m

Deflection and curvature Calculation of the deflection, D, at the centre of a member from curvatures, y, is a geometry problem, which can be solved by virtual work or by use of well-known equations. For example, when y varies parabolically over the length of a member, the deflection at its centre, measured from the chord joining its two ends, is given by [11] D= l2 (y A + 10y centre + y B) 96

[14]

where ycentre is the curvature at mid-length; yA and yB are curvatures at the two ends; and l is the member length. When the member is simply supported, yA = yB = 0 and eq. [11] becomes [12] D= 5l 2 y centre 48

If, for simplicity, the deflection is to be calculated using only the curvature at the central section, eq. [12] (giving the same results as eq. [2]) or a similar equation can be employed using the curvature value determined by eq. [13] or [14]. The amount of computation will almost be the same. The choice of which of the two equations should be used should depend upon the accuracy in the curvature at individual sections. In other words, the effort spent in numerical integration should not be part of the decision of which method one should use to predict the deflection. Long-term deflections Many methods have been developed to try to predict the long-term deflections of steel reinforced concrete members due to creep and shrinkage. In the present analysis, two of these methods are used to calculate theoretical deflections for both the steel and GFRP reinforced concrete beams. ACI Committee 209 recommendations ACI Committee 209 recommends the use of the following equation to calculate the long-term deflections, Dt, due to
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From eq. [11] it can be seen that the deflection is largely dependent on the curvature at the centre. It is well established that the deflection can be calculated by numerical integration of curvature over the length of the member and the accuracy can be increased by increasing the number of sections. Either the effective moment of inertia, Ie in eq. [1], or

894 Fig. 3. Photograph of typical long-term test setup.

Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000

creep and shrinkage of steel reinforced concrete members subjected to sustained loading. [15] Dt = Dcp + Dsh

where Dcp is the deflection due to creep and Dsh is the deflection due to shrinkage. The creep deflection, Dcp, is calculated as a fraction of the immediate deflection, Di, [16] Dcp = kr Ct Di

ing first principles and the experimental free shrinkage determined from the cylindrical concrete shrinkage specimens. Brown and Bartholomew (1996) and Brown (1997), based on tests, concluded that for FRP-reinforced sections, eq. [17] needs to be adjusted. Applying their adjustment to the experiments presented in the present paper, the following equation should be used to calculate the creep deflection in place of eq. [16]: [19] Dcp = t 0.6 Qcr (0.6Ct,steel )Di 10 + t 0.6

where kr is a multiplier to account for the effect of compression reinforcement. In the case of the present experiments, kr = 1.0, since there is no compression reinforcement. Ct is the concrete creep coefficient, which is related to the time since loading was applied, t (days), as follows: [17] Ct = t 0.6 CuQcr 10 + t 0.6

where Cu is the ultimate creep coefficient (at t = ). The value of Cu can vary between 1.30 and 4.15, but an average value of 2.35 is suggested for use if specific data are not available. Qcr is a correction factor for nonstandard conditions. A part of this correction factor corrects for the difference between ambient and standard relative humidity, but only for humidity greater than or equal to 40%. t is the time, in days, between the start of loading and the instant at which the deflection is calculated. For the laboratory conditions of the experimental program presented in this paper, Qcr = 0.87. The shrinkage deflection, Dsh, is calculated from the shrinkage curvature, ysh, induced by the presence of the restraining influence of the longitudinal reinforcing bars. [18] Dsh = Ksh y shl 2

CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 Based on CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, the long-term deflections can be calculated in a similar manner to the immediate deflections discussed above. That is, the long-term mean curvature, Dym(t1, t0), is calculated at a number of sections along the member and integration of the curvatures is used to determine the midspan deflections. The timedependent change in mean curvature is [20] Dy m (t1, t 0) = (1 - z)Dy1(t1, t 0) + zDy 2 (t1, t 0)

where t1 is the age of the concrete at which Dym(t1, t0) is to be determined and t0 is the age of the concrete at the application of the sustained load. Dy1(t1, t0) and Dy2(t1, t0) are the long-term curvatures due to creep and shrinkage calculated for uncracked and fully cracked sections, respectively. The following equations can be used to calculate both Dy1(t1, t0) and Dy2(t1, t0) (derived from Ghali and Favre 1994): [21] Dy(t1, t 0) = [Dy(t1, t 0)]creep + [Dy(t1, t 0)]shrinkage

where the subscripts creep and shrinkage refer to the changes in curvature due to creep and shrinkage. [22] I + Ac y c Dy [Dy(t1, t 0)]creep = y(t 0)j (t1, t 0) c I
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where Ksh is a multiplier for the type of support conditions and is equal to 0.125 for simply supported members; and l is the span length. The shrinkage curvature was calculated us-

Hall and Ghali Table 3. Experimental and theoretical immediate deflections. Ie (eq. [1]) Slab name Lg-S-3-1.5 Lg-G-3-1.5 Lg-S-3-3.0 Lg-G-3-3.0 Di,exp (mm) 4.5 14.7 9.3 34.4 Di,theo (mm) 3.5 5.6 9.2 30.1 % error 22 62 1 13 Ief (eq. [3]) Di,theo (mm) 8.8 34.5 % error 40 0.3 y m (eq. [5]) Di,theo (mm) 3.9 16.0 9.3 38.0 % error 13 9 0 11 Im (eq. [10]) Di,theo (mm) 4.2 17.9 9.5 38.7 % error 7 22 2 13

895

[23]

[Dy(t1, t 0)]shrinkage =

ecs(t1, t 0) Ac y c d I d

where y(t0) is the immediate curvature (eq. [5]); j (t1, t0) is the creep coefficient; ecs(t1, t0) is the free shrinkage strain; Ic is the moment of inertia of concrete area, Ac, about an axis through the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section; Ac is the area of concrete considered effective; yc is the y-coordinate of the centroid of Ac measured downwards from the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section; Dy is the ycoordinate of the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section, measured downward from the centroid of the transformed section at t0; I is the moment of inertia of the ageadjusted transformed section about an axis through its centroid; and d is the depth of the tension reinforcement from the compression fibre. Derivation of eqs. [22] and [23] is based on compatibility and equilibrium. At all reinforcement layers and at any instant the strains in concrete and the adjacent reinforcement are equal. To satisfy equilibrium, the resultant of stresses in the concrete and the reinforcement at any instant must be equal to the known forces on the section (M and normal force, if any). The age-adjusted transformed section is determined using the age-adjusted elastic modulus of the concrete, Ec (t1, t0): [24] Ec (t 0) Ec (t1, t 0) = 1 + c(t1, t 0) j (t1, t 0)

efficient b1 is equal to 1.0 for high bond bars. In eq. [10] the mean moment of inertia, Im, is assumed constant over the member length. Using ym (eq. [5]) gives the best prediction for all beams (average of absolute values of errors = 8%). The average of absolute value of errors using Im (eq. [10]) is 11%. Using Ie (eq. [1]) underestimates deflection for all beams (average underestimation of 25%). The underestimation is more significant when Ma/Mcr is relatively low (closer to 1.5). The influence of Ma/Mcr on the accuracy of the Ie method has been observed by Ghali (1993), Faza and GangaRao (1992), and Benmokrane et al. (1996). The present test series confirms that the underestimation of deflection by the use of Bransons equation [1] increases when the tension stiffening is significant. Using the modified moment of inertia, Ief in eq. [3], given by Thriault and Benmokrane (1997), at the applied moment level of 1.5Mcr underestimates the immediate deflections by 40%. However, at the applied moment level of 3.0Mcr the error is 0%. Thus, the errors found using Ief (eq. [3]) are similar to those found using Ie (eq. [1]) in that the accuracy increases with the increase in load (i.e., decrease in tension stiffening effect). Long-term deflections Figure 4 compares the total midspan deflection versus time since loading of the four beams. The total deflection includes the immediate and the long-term deflections due to creep and shrinkage. The curves for the GFRP and steel reinforced concrete members have similar shapes. Figure 5 compares the long-term midspan deflection versus time of the four beams. The long-term deflection is that due to creep and shrinkage. On average, the GFRP reinforced concrete beams exhibited deflection due to creep and shrinkage about 1.7 times greater than the similarly loaded steel reinforced concrete beams. The value 1.7 has a corresponding ratio of 3.5 when the immediate deflection is considered (Table 3). The temperature in the laboratory where the beams were tested remained constant at 23 2C. Figure 6 shows the variation in ambient relative humidity over the duration of the tests and the average shrinkage of eight 150 300 test cylinders. The average relative humidity in the laboratory over the period of the tests was 24%. Figures 710 compare the experimental long-term deflections to the theoretical values calculated using the methods discussed above. The theoretical long-term deflections calculated using the ACI Committee 209 recommendations for steel reinforced concrete beams were determined using the experimental immediate deflection, Di, in place of the theoretical value, for the calculation of the deflection due to creep, Dcp. The ACI
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where Ec(t0) is the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at age t0 and c(t1, t0) is the ageing coefficient. The creep coefficient j (t1, t0) is calculated with equations given by CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. The creep coefficient is dependent upon several parameters, including the member size, the concrete strength, the age of the concrete at application of the sustained load, and the ambient relative humidity. The free shrinkage, ecs(t1, t0), is determined from the experimental cylindrical shrinkage specimens.

Test results and discussion

Immediate deflections The experimental and theoretical immediate midspan deflections due to the sustained loads are compared in Table 3. The theoretical values, Di,theo, are calculated using four methods, as discussed above: (i) effective moment of inertia, Ie in eq. [1]; (ii) modified effective moment of inertia, Ief in eq. [3]; (iii) mean curvatures, ym in eq. [5] (with integration); and (iv) mean moment of inertia, Im in eq. [10]. Both eqs. [5] and [10] use the coefficients b1 and b2 from CEBFIP. The loading coefficient b2 is equal to 0.5, since the beams were pre-cracked with cyclical loading. The bond co-

896 Fig. 4. Total midspan deflection versus time since loading.

Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000 Fig. 7. Lg-S-3-1.5: long-term midspan deflection versus time since loading.

Fig. 5. Long-term midspan deflection versus time since loading.

Fig. 8. Lg-G-3-1.5: long-term midspan deflection versus time since loading.

Fig. 6. Relative humidity and shrinkage versus time since loading. Fig. 9. Lg-S-3-3.0: long-term midspan deflection versus time since loading.

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Hall and Ghali Fig. 10. Lg-G-3-3.0: long-term midspan deflection versus time since loading. Table 4. Free shrinkage of concrete and compressive stress at extreme fibre. Slab name Lg-S-3-1.5 Lg-G-3-1.5 Lg-S-3-3.0 Lg-G-3-3.0 eci (106) 295 537 596 1149 sci (MPa) 6.2 11.1 13.1 23.7 sci/ fc 0.23 0.40 0.43 0.77*

897

*This ratio exceeds 0.6; see the section Remarks.

Conclusions
1. 2. Committee 209 deflections overestimate the experimental deflections of all four beams. The ratios of the theoretical to experimental long-term deflections are 1.7 and 2.4, respectively, for the steel-reinforced beams Lg-S-3-1.5 and Lg-S3-3.0. The corresponding ratios are even greater for the GFRP-reinforced beams (4.4 and 10 for Lg-G-3-1.5 and LgG-3-3.0, respectively). However, if the modified ACI Committee 209 equations (suggested by Brown and Bartholomew 1996) are used, the overestimation is 2.8 and 6.1 times the experimental values, respectively, for beams Lg-G-3-1.5 and Lg-G-3-3.0. These errors are still 1.7 and 2.3 times greater than those for the similarly loaded steel-reinforced beams. The theoretical long-term deflections calculated using the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 give reasonable predictions for all four beams (Figs. 710). The ratios of the theoretical to experimental deflections are 1.2, 0.7, 1.4, and 0.9, respectively, for beams Lg-S-3-1.5, Lg-G-3-1.5, Lg-S-3-3.0, and Lg-G-3-3.0. Although this method requires a greater degree of computation than the ACI 209 Committee recommendations, it also provides a greater degree of accuracy. The experimental creep coefficients vary with change in sustained load. Both the steel- and GFRP-reinforced beams have creep coefficients 1.7 times greater in the beams loaded to 1.5Mcr compared to those loaded to 3.0Mcr. The creep coefficients, for similarly loaded beams, are approximately 2.1 times greater in the steel-reinforced beams than in the GFRP-reinforced beams. Remarks The equations of CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 for the calculation of the creep coefficient, j(t1, t0), and the free shrinkage, ecs(t1, t0), are functions of the ambient relative humidity. It is recommended by the code that these equations be used only at a relative humidity between 40% and 100% and for sustained compressive stress less than 60% of the compressive strength. However, the average relative humidity for the test specimens was 24% and the immediate compressive stress at the extreme compression fibre in beam LgG-3-3.0 was 77% of the concrete strength (Table 4). These two factors do not appear to have significant influence on the predicted deflections plotted in Figs. 710. The CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 accurately predicts both the immediate and long-term deflections for both steel- and GFRP-reinforced shallow beams. Bransons equation underestimates the immediate deflections of the tested steel-reinforced and GFRPreinforced shallow beams. The significance of the underestimation increases when the tension stiffening is important. The ACI Committee 209 recommendations overestimate the deflections of the tested steel- and the GFRPreinforced concrete shallow beams. The overestimation is more significant for the GFRP-reinforced beams.

3.

Acknowledgements
This research is part of the work of ISIS Canada (Intelligent Sensing for Innovative Structures Network). The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Networks of Centres of Excellence Program of the Government of Canada and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. The authors also thank the City of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, for donating the GFRP bars (C-Bar) used in this experimental program.

References
ACI. 1992. Manual of concrete practice, Part 1, 1992. Prediction of creep, shrinkage and temperature effects in concrete structures. Standard ACI 209R-92, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Mich. ACI. 1995. Building code requirements for structural concrete and commentary. Standards ACI 318-95 and ACI 318R-95, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich. Arockiasamy, M., Amer, A., Shahawy, M., and Chidambaram, S. 1996. Long-term behavior of concrete beams reinforced with CFRP bars under sustained loads. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures (ACMBS-II), Montreal, Que., pp. 673 680. Benmokrane, B., Chaallal, O., and Masmoudi, R. 1996. Flexural response of concrete beams reinforced with FRP reinforcing bars. ACI Structural Journal, 93(1): 4655. Brown, V.L. 1997. Sustained load deflections in GFRP reinforced concrete beams. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Sapporo, Japan, Vol. 2, pp. 495502. Brown, V.L., and Bartholomew, C.L. 1996. Long-term deflections of GFRP reinforced concrete beams. Proceedings of the 1st In 2000 NRC Canada

898 ternational Conference on Composites in Infrastructure (ICCI 1996), Tuscan, Ariz., pp. 495502. CEB-FIP. 1990. Model code for concrete structures. Comit EuroInternational du Bton Fdration Internationale de la Prcontrainte, Thomas Telford House, London, England. CSA. 1994. Design of concrete structures with explanatory notes. Standard A23.3-94, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Ont. European Committee for Standardisation. 1991. Eurocode 2: design of concrete structures. Part I: general rules and rules for buildings. European Prestandard, ENV 1992-1: 1991E, European Committee for Standardisation, rue de Stassart 36, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium. Faza, S.S., and GangaRao, H.V.S. 1992. Pre- and post-cracking deflection behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with fibrereinforced plastic rebars. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, Sherbrooke, Que., pp. 151160. Gao, S., Benmokrane, B., and Masmoudi, R. 1998. A calculating method of flexural properties of FRP reinforced concrete beams, part 1. Technical Report, Universit de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Que. Ghali, A. 1993. Deflection of reinforced concrete members: a critical review. American Concrete Institute Structural Journal, 90(4): 364373. Ghali, A., and Favre, R. 1994. Concrete structures: stresses and deformations. 2nd ed. E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall, London, England. Kage, T., Masuda, Y., Tanano, Y., and Sato, K. 1995. Long-term deflections of continuous fiber reinforced concrete beams. Proceedings of the 2nd International RILEM Symposium on NonMetallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Ghent, Belgium, pp. 251258. Thriault, M., and Benmokrane, B. 1997. Effects of FRP reinforcement ratio and concrete compressive strength on the flexural behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with FRP C-Bar rods. Technical Report No. 3, Universit de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Que.

Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 27, 2000 Ic moment of inertia of Ac about the axis through the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section Icr moment of inertia of a cracked transformed concrete section (m4) Ie effective moment of inertia (m4) Ig moment of inertia of an uncracked gross concrete section (m4) Im mean moment of inertia (m4) kr multiplier for long-term effects of compression reinforcement Ksh multiplier for type of support conditions l span length (m) M bending moment at a section (kNm) Ma maximum applied moment (kNm) Mcr moment just sufficient to produce cracking (kNm) Mcr,exp experimental concrete cracking moment (kNm) MLT maximum applied moment due to the sustained load, PLT, and self-weight (kNm) P load applied at the third points of a member (kN) PLT applied sustained load for the long-term tests (kN) q uniform load per unit length (kN/m) Qcr correction factor for nonstandard conditions t time since the application of the sustained load (days) t1 age of the concrete at which Dy(t1, t0) is to be determined t0 age of the concrete at the application of the sustained load yc y-coordinate of the centroid of Ac measured downwards from the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section b1 bond coefficient b2 loading coefficient Dcp creep deflection due to sustained loading (m) Di immediate deflection due to sustained loading (m) Dsh shrinkage deflection due to sustained loading (m) Dt long-term deflection due to sustained loading (m) Dy y-coordinate of the centroid of the age-adjusted transformed section measured downward from the centroid of the transformed section at t0 Dy(t1, t0) time-dependent change in curvature (m1) Dy m(t1, t0) time-dependent change in mean curvature (m1) Dy 1(t1, t0) long-term curvature calculated for uncracked section (m1) Dy 2(t1, t0) long-term curvature calculated for fully cracked section (m1) esh free shrinkage strain ecs(t1, t0) free shrinkage strain fsh shrinkage curvature (m1) j(t1, t0) creep coefficient %r percentage reinforcement ratio y curvature of a section (m1) y 1 curvature of an uncracked transformed section (m1) y 2 curvature of a fully cracked transformed section (m1) y m mean curvature (m1) y(t0) immediate curvature (m1) z interpolation factor used in determining the mean curvature at a section c(t1, t0) ageing coefficient

List of symbols
Ac area of concrete considered effective (m2) Ct concrete creep coefficient Cu ultimate concrete creep coefficient Dunif midspan deflection of a uniformly loaded simply supported concrete member (m) d depth of the longitudinal reinforcement from the compression fibre (m) E modulus of elasticity (GPa) Ec modulus of elasticity of concrete (GPa) Ec(t0) modulus of elasticity of the concrete at age t0 (GPa) E c (t1, t0) age-adjusted elastic modulus of the concrete (GPa) fc concrete compressive strength (MPa) h height of a concrete member (m) I moment of inertia of the age-adjusted transformed section about an axis through its centroid (m4) I1 moment of inertia of an uncracked transformed section (m4) I2 moment of inertia of a fully cracked transformed section (m4)

2000 NRC Canada