Swichies and Connector

LABORATORY WORK BOOK
For The Course

EL-231 Electronic Devices and Circuits
Name : ________________________
Roll No. : ________________________
Batch : ________________________
Year : ________________________
Dept. :_________________________
Department of Electronic Engineering

N.E.D. University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi –75270, Pakistan
LABORATORY WORK BOOK
For The Course
EL-231 Electronic Devices and Circuits
Prepared By:
Muhammad Faisal (Lecturer) & Adeel Razi (Lecturer)
Reviewed By:
Muhammad Nauman (Associate Professor)
Approved By:
The Board of Studies of Department of Electronic Engineering

Introduction
“A practical approach is probably the best approach to mastering a subject and gaining
a clear insight.”
Electronic Devices and Circuits Practical Workbook covers those practical oriented
electronic circuits that are very essential for the students to solidify their theoretical
concepts. This workbook provides a communication bridge between the theory and
practical world of the electronic circuits. The knowledge of these practical are very
essential for the engineering students. All of these practical are arranged on the modern
electronic trainer boards.
This book comprises of three sections. The first section consists of Diode circuits. Some
of the very useful diode based circuits are discussed in this section. Labs concerning over
this part of the workbook basically provides the elementary knowledge of the subject. It
also provides some sort of introduction to the lab equipments.
The second section of the workbook describes the Bipolar Junction Transistor based
circuits. Different configurations of BJT amplifier are discussed in this part of the book.
Each and every practical provides a great in depth practical concepts of BJT. It also
covers some other useful features such as biasing concepts, different type of biasing
technique and load line concept, etc.
Field Effect Transistor (FET); one of the leading technology in electronics is discussed in
third and the final section of this workbook. It gives the introduction to the FET based
electronic circuits.
Electronic Devices and Circuits Laboratory
CONTENTS
Lab# List of Experiments Page#
Diode Based Circuits
1 To analyze the half-wave, full-wave and bridge rectifier 01
2 To study the smoothing filters 11
BJT Based Circuits
3A To study the operating characteristic of PNP transistors 19
3B To study the operating characteristic of NPN transistors 27
4 To study the different biasing circuit operations of the 35

Transistor
5 To study the Q-point and its position on the load line 46
6 To study the operation of the Common Emitter Amplifier 50
7 To study the operation of the Common Base Amplifier 59
8 To study the operation of the Common Collector Amplifier 68
9 To analyze the different configuration of the transistor 76

relating to their characteristic curves
FET Based Circuits
10 To study the output and transfer characteristic of JFET 83
11 To study the operating characteristic of FET Amplifier 90

Section One
Diode Based Circuits

Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab Session 01
NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering
Lab Session 01
OBJECTIVES
• To study the half-wave rectifier.

• To analyze the full wave rectifier.
• To analyze the Graetz (Bridge) rectifier.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Base unit for the IPES system.

• Power supply module PSU/EV.
• Module holder structure MU/EV.
• Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV.
• Experiment module MCM3/EV.
• Multimeter.
• Oscilloscope with differential probe.
BASIC THEORY
Diode Characteristics
A diode is a semiconductor device consisting of a P-N junction. Its Current-Voltage
characteristic is as shown in figure:
The key features of this graph are:
The breakdown voltage (VZ), at which the avalanche effect occurs. At this voltage there
is a rapid increase in current which, if not properly limited, leads to the destruction of the
diode.
1
The threshold (VS), at which the diode starts conducting easily. For forward bias voltage
values above this value, the current rapidly increases. In forward bias the current can be
defined by the equation:
where:
Io is the reverse current.
q is the electronic charge which is 1.63*10-19 C.
V is the anode-cathode voltage.
n is a constant depending on the type of semiconductor.
K is the Boltzman's constant which is equal 1.38*10-23 J/K
T is the temperature of the semiconductor in Kelvin.
It is important to note that the current through a diode is a function not only of the power
supply voltage but also of temperature. This dependence is true for any semiconductor,
and so the electronic properties are normally measured at a fixed temperature.
Another important parameter of a semiconductor diode is the differential resistance rd.

This is defined as the ratio between a small voltage variation and the corresponding
current variation, around the operating point. A diode is shown in figure.
Half-Wave Rectifier
A diode conducts only when forward biased, and hardly at all in the reverse direction. If
the diode is powered with ac, it is easy to see that only the positive half-wave causes
current to flow in the circuit, as the negative component is blocked. The simplest circuit
using the diode as a rectifier is represented in figure.
2
The current flows in the circuit during the half cycle (duration of a half- wave) and
produce a positive half-wave voltage across the load. The average value Vm of the
rectified voltage is:
The rms voltage is:
Full Wave Rectifier

The Half wave rectifier has too low an average (or rms) value of output voltage, as it uses
only half the input cycle. This is inconvenient, especially if the load requires a lot of
power. There are two alternatives to the simple rectifier, which rectify the whole of the
input cycle, and so increase the average and rms value of the rectified voltage.
One circuit – the full-wave rectifier, uses two diodes, as seen in figure
This dual diode rectifier requires two equal voltages, but 180’ apart, on the anodes. The
average value Vm of the rectified voltage is:
The rms voltage Veff is:
The other circuit solution to rectify both half-waves of an ac source is the Graetz, or
bridge requires 4 diodes, instead of 2 as in the last case. During the positive half-wave the
diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and during the negative half diodes D2 and D4 conduct.
However it can be seen that the current in the load R has always the same direction, for
both half cycles.
3
PROCEDURE
Analysis of the Half-wave Rectifier
• Connect jumpers J14, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the circuit
shown below.
• Adjust RV2 to obtain the minimum current in the circuit.
• Connect the Oscilloscope to display both the input voltage and the voltage across
the load.
• Compare the two waveforms and determine at which time the diode conducts.
Analysis of the Full-wave Rectifier
• Connect jumpers J14, J18, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the
circuit shown below.
• Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the common point of the two ac input
voltages. Connect the probes to display the voltage across the load and
alternatively on the anodes of diodes D3 and D7.
• Adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum load current through the circuit.
• Set the ammeter to dc, disconnect jumper J18 and measure the current.
4
Analysis of the Graetz Bridge Rectifier
• Connect jumpers J14, J16, J24, J31, J17, J15 and the ammeter to produce the
circuit shown below.
• Adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum current in the circuit.
• Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the anode of D4 and probe 1 to the
cathode of the D4 and probe 2 across the load.
• Check the behavior of the voltage on the load when the following modifications
are carried out on the circuit:
1. simultaneously disconnect jumpers J14, J15, J16.
2. simultaneously disconnect jumpers J16, J14.
3. disconnect jumpers J15, J16.
4. disconnect jumpers J14, J17.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Write down the frequency of the input AC cycle?
Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of input AC cycle?
5
Write down the frequency of the Half wave rectifier output?
Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Half wave rectifier output?
Write down the frequency of the Full wave rectifier output?
Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Full wave rectifier output?
Write down the frequency of the Bridge rectifier output?
Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Bridge rectifier output?
CONCLUSION
• In Half-wave rectifier the two signals are in phase but the load signal lacks the
negative half wave, and the input one has slightly higher amplitude.
• In Full-wave rectifier D3 and D7 rectify the half wave with the help of center-
tapped transformer. The voltage on the load consists only of positive pulses.
• When J18 is disconnected, the value of current become twice.
• In Graetz Bridge rectifier the voltage across the load is pulsating in nature.
• In Graetz Bridge rectifier; at any moment one pair of diodes in the bridge are
conducting.
SUMMARY
¾ Rectification is the process of changing alternating current to direct current.
¾ A half-wave rectifier consists of one diode that changes AC voltages to DC
voltages, using only one-half cycle of the applied AC voltage.
6
¾ A full-wave rectifier consists of two or four diodes connected to utilize both

halves of the input AC cycle for producing a DC output.
¾ The average voltage output of a half-wave rectifier is equal to:
EAVG = 0.318 x EPEAK
¾ The average voltage output of a full-wave rectifier is:
EAVG = 0.636 x EPEAK
¾ The average output voltage of a full-wave rectifier is higher than that of a half-
wave rectifier. The current capability of the full-wave rectifier is higher than that
of the half-wave rectifier.
¾ A full-wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier, and its output is
much better filtered, because it uses the entire cycle of the applied AC cycle.
¾ There are two main types of rectifiers: the half-wave and the full-wave.
– The half-wave rectifier uses only one diode and produces an output during
one half of the input signal. The direction of current flow through the
diode determines the polarity of the output voltage. The frequency of the
output of a half-wave rectifier is the same as the input.
– The full-wave rectifier uses two diodes that alternate their conduction on
each of the input signals. This allows current to flow through the load
during the entire input signal. Because of this action, the output frequency
of a full-wave rectifier is double the input frequency. The full-wave
rectifier also requires a center-tap transformer in order to perform the
complete full operation. A bridge rectifier does not use a center-tap
transformer. Four diodes are used, and the output is taken across the full
secondary.
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EXERCISES
8
9
10
Lab Session 02
OBJECTIVES
• To observe the voltages filtered with C, LC and CLC circuits on the oscilloscope.
• To measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage.
• To measure the average rectified voltage.
• To calculate the ripple voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Base unit for the IPES system power supply.

• Module holder structure MU/EV.
• Individual module SIS3.
• Experiment module MCM3/EV.
• Multimeter
• Oscilloscope with differential probe.
BASIC THEORY
In the last practical we saw how it is possible to rectify an ac signal. To obtain a
continuous signal from a rectified signal, the dc voltage pulses must be smoothed out -a
filter is able to do this. The fluctuation of a rectified signal is defined as the "Ripple”, r,
given by:
To reduce the ripple it is necessary to smooth the voltage using filters.
Capacitive filters
This can be achieved by connecting a capacitor across the load, as shown in the figure.
The behavior of the smoothed voltage, and the current, with the capacitor are also shown
in figures.
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The capacitor charges up while the diode is conducting, until it reaches the maximum
value of the rectified voltage. When the supply voltage to the anode is less than the
voltage on the cathode, (i.e. the max. voltage of the capacitor), the diode is cut off.
The capacitor will then supply current to the load. This discharge current is shown as area
2 of figure B05.2. The capacitor discharges during the time interval (t2-t1). If the
capacitor is small, and/or the resistance of the load is low, the capacitor will discharge
very quickly, and the smoothing will not be very good.
When the input voltage to the anode, is higher than the voltage left across the capacitor,
the capacitor charges up again (during interval t3-t2). The diode provides a current pulse
to replace the charge lost by the capacitor. During the time t3-t2 the capacitor must restore
the quantity of charge lost during t2-t1.
The voltage across the load looks like this;
The time taken by capacitor to discharge depends on the time constant of the circuit.
T = RC
• Maximum current flowing in diodes:
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where,
VM is the maximum voltage across the load.
f is the frequency of the ac signal.
• Average current in diodes:
Where,
Io is the average load current.
• Average output voltage:
• the ripple
Low ripple requires a high resistance, a low current and a high capacitance. Capacitive
filters are generally used in low power applications.
Inductive Filters
With this circuit, an inductance is connected in series with the load as shown in figure.
The inductance opposes the current variations and pulses from the diode, and produces a
current I, which lags behind the voltage. The behavior of the current and voltages in this
circuit are as in figure. The insertion of an inductor after a full-wave rectifier greatly
reduces the current ripple. The effect of the inductor in this case is represented in figure.
13
LC Choke-Input Filter
This type of filtering circuit, (also called an "L" section), is a common method of
smoothing a rectified voltage.
The inductance provides a first filtering of the current bumps, and then the capacitor
provides a second filtering stage. The smoothing will be better, the higher the reactance
of the coil is (compared to the parallel RC circuit), and the lower the reactance of C is,
(compared to the load R).
This filter is used in power supplies where voltage regulation is important and current
output is relatively high. It is used in radar and communication transmitters. Refer to
Figure.
LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Charge Path)
L1 placed in series with the output of the rectifier attempts to keep the current through the
load flowing at a constant rate. Figure 3 shows the charge path for C1. Any time the
current starts to decrease in this circuit, the magnetic field of L1 will begin to collapse
and will attempt to keep current moving at a constant rate. Refer to Figure.
LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Discharge Path)
The above figure shows the discharge path for C1. Again, the charge time is short so that
C1 can charge rapidly, and the discharge time is extremely long to prevent the capacitor
from discharging completely.
14
CLC and CRC Filter

This circuit is a further improvement, obtained by connecting an extra capacitor across
the input (figure), which provides an extra stage of smoothing at the input. The average
voltage output is then very close to the max. voltage of the power supply. The advantages
of this filter, (also called a "∏" section filter), are: increased dc output voltage; and lower
ripple. The main disadvantage, due to the capacitive filter is higher current peaks in the
diodes. If only small load currents are needed, an inductive filter is not necessary in the
"∏" filter. The inductor is normally expensive, and can be replaced with a resistor,
making a CRC ∏ section filter.
This is one of the most commonly used filters. It is used in circuits that require a low
current output and a load current that must be relatively constant, such as those for radio
receivers and small audio power supplies. Refer to Figure.
LC Capacitor Input Filter
The purpose of C1 is to reduce the ripple to a relatively low level and, at the same time,
to establish the DC level for the output. C1 will charge to the maximum peak value of the
input signal. Also, C1 will charge very rapidly but will discharge extremely slowly. With
this slow discharge time, the voltage on C1 will not discharge back to zero before the
next pulse is felt on C1 and recharges it. L1 and C2 form the LC filter and reduce the
ripple even further. L1 has a high value of inductance and a high value of inductive
reactance to the ripple frequency. C2 offers a low reactance to the ripple. L1 and C2 form
a voltage divider; because of the reactance offered by each component, most of the ripple
is dropped across L1 and very little ripple is felt across C2 and the load. L1 and C2 have
very little effect on the DC voltage, because the only opposition to current flow is the
internal resistance of the wire of L1. The LC filter provides good filtering action over a
wide range of currents. C1 filters best when the load is drawing very little current. L1
filters best when the current is highest. The complementary nature of these two
components ensures that good filtering will occur over a wide range of frequencies. The
LC filter has two disadvantages: it is more expensive to build, and the inductor is heavy
and bulky. The combination of rectifier and filter comprises what is normally called the
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power supply. The power supply, as designed for the application, provides the required
voltages to satisfy the equipment operation.
PROCEDURE
Analysis Capacitive Filter
1. Connect jumpers J14, J24, J29, J27, J20 and the ammeter, for dc current
measurements, to produce the circuit of figure B05.9.
2. Connect the oscilloscope to display the ac input voltage on channel, and the
voltage across the load (resistor R2) on channel.
3. Observe the voltage across the load on the oscilloscope, and measure the current
through the circuit.
4. Connect jumper J23 to produce a capacitive filter with C3.
5. Measure the current through the load; observe and measure the peak-to-peak
voltage of the ripple on the load.
6. Disconnect jumper J29 and connect jumper J30, so increasing the load resistance.
7. Take the circuit back to the last configuration, i.e. disconnect J30 and connect
J29. Disconnect J23 and connect J25 to increase the capacitance of the filter.
8. Measure the current through the circuit, observe and measure the peak-to-peak
voltage of the ripple on the load.
16
Analysis of LC Filters
1. Remove jumper J24 to produce the L C filter.

2. Measure the dc current between test points 7-8, the average current in the
circuit and observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the
load.
Analysis of CLC Filters
1. Connect jumper J23, to produce the CLC filter.

2. Measure the average current through the circuit, observe and measure the
peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load.
3. The addition of capacitor C3 provides the L C filter with a quite stable
input voltage, with an average value near to the max. power supply
voltage. Comparing the measured voltages in the different configurations,
it can be seen that the dc output voltage increases with the dc voltage from
the output of the filter, and also with the reduction of the ripple factor.
C, LC, and CLC filter circuits with full-wave rectifiers
1. Connect jumpers J14, J16, J24, J29, J27, J17, J15, and the ammeter to
produce the circuit.
2. For the following listed changes to the circuit, measure the dc current, the
ripple voltage and dc voltage across the load.
3. Connect jumper J21 to produce a capacitive filter, using Cl.
4. Connect J23 to increase the capacitance of the filter (C1 // C3).
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5. Remove J21 and J23 and connect J25 giving the capacitance of C5.
6. Disconnect J24 to create an L C filter as shown in figure.
7. Connect J23 to produce a C L C filter.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
What are the ripple voltages in case of C-filters?
What are the ripple voltages in case of LC-filters?
What are the ripple voltages in case of CLC-filters?
What effect can be observed when the load resistance increases?
What effect can be observed when the capacitance increases?
CONCLUSION
There are many types of filters, such as the LC type, inductor or capacitor input, and the RC type.
Of these, the LC type is the one most widely used because it provides better filtering with lower
voltages. The filter circuit is required by the rectifier in order to provide a smooth DC output.
CLC Filter supplies the maximum current, with the least ripples. The output voltage is
smooth and free from every kind of spikes and glitches.
18
Section Two
BJT Based Circuits

Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab Session 03-A
Lab Session 03-A
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify transistor schematic symbols.
2. Describe transistor operating characteristics.
3. Identify types of transistors.
4. Measure circuit values of voltage, current and resistance in PNP transistor
circuits.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Nida Model 130E Test Console

• Nida Series 130 Experiment Card: PC130-28
• Multimeter
INTRODUCTION
The Transistor
The definition of the transistor is:
DEFINITION
TRANSISTOR - A solid-state device made from semiconductor material with

connections made at three or more points where the electrical characteristics are
different.
It sounds complex, but it isn't. A transistor is just two PN junctions, consisting of three
pieces of doped semiconductor material. Figure 1 compares a diode and a transistor.
Figure 1. Diode and Transistor
The transistor consists of three pieces of doped semiconductor material. That gives the
device three elements. As a rule, any semiconductor device that has three or more
elements is classified as a transistor. The term transistor comes from the words
TRANSfer and resISTOR. The term was adopted because it best describes the actual
operation of a transistor, the transfer of an input signal current from a low resistance
circuit to a high resistance output circuit. Simply speaking, the transistor is a
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semiconductor device that amplifies by controlling the flow of current through its
semiconductor material.
Transistor Theory
Transistors are merely an extension of diodes. A forward biased PN junction is
comparable to a low resistance component because it passes a very large current for a
value of voltage. With a reversed biased PN junction, the comparison is a high resistance
component. A small current is developed for a value of voltage. Assume for a moment
that the current is constant through the transistor (emitter to collector). You can conclude
that the power developed over the low resistance will be less than the power developed
over the high resistance. According to Ohm's Law, the formula for power is P = I2R.
Continuing with the assumption, if the device contained a forward biased input PN
junction (low resistance) and a reversed biased output PN junction (high resistance), a
low power signal could be amplified or made larger. That is the key to transistor
operation, and it will be explained in detailed.
PNP Transistor
On the surface, the PNP transistor will operate in essentially the same way as the NPN.
However, there are major differences that must be explained:
1. The emitter, base, and collector materials are opposite of those in the NPN transistor.
2. The bias voltages are opposite.
Figure 2 helps to explain PNP transistor biasing requirements. For amplification to occur
in the PNP transistor, the emitter base junction must be forward biased and the collector
base junction must be reversed biased. The first letter (PNP) indicates that the correct
voltage for the emitter is positive, and the second letter (PNP) indicates that the base
voltage must be negative. Therefore, the base will be negative with respect to the emitter
and the collector must be more negative than the base. The bias voltages are chosen so
there is current flow through the transistor.
Figure 2. Forward Biased NPN Transistor
Forward-Biased Junction
Figure 3 illustrates a forward-biased emitter-base junction. Electrons leave the negative
terminal of the battery and flow into the base region. At the same time, the positive
terminal of the battery forces holes (lack of electrons) from the P material of the emitter
20
toward the emitter base junction. When the holes and electrons meet in the base region,
they combine. That causes a movement of electrons out of the negative terminal of the
battery, through the base, to the emitter, and to the positive terminal of the battery. That is
referred to as the base current (IB ).
Figure 3. Forward Biased Emitter-Base (EB)
Reverse-Biased Junction
To provide a negative bias, a negative voltage must be applied to the collector and a less
negative voltage to the base. That bias blocks electron flow from the collector to the
emitter, but it acts as a forward bias to hole flow. The holes in the collector are filled by
electrons that flow from the negative terminal of the power supply, VCC .
Operation
Figure 4. PNP Transistor Biasing and Operation
The interaction that exists between the forward and reversed biased junctions of the PNP
transistor is similar to that of the NPN transistor. There are some differences between
NPN and PNP transistors that should be discussed. In the NPN transistor, the voltages
used are positive. In the PNP transistor, negative voltages are used. Electron current flow
is from the collector to the emitter. Electrons leave the negative terminal of VCC , flow
through the P material of the collector, through the N material base, to the P material
emitter, and ultimately to the positive terminal of VCC . Total current flow in the PNP
transistor passes through the emitter.
21
Increasing the forward bias of a PNP transistor allows more current flow through the
collector by reducing the emitter base junction barrier. Decreasing the forward bias
reduces emitter current by increasing the emitter base junction barrier.
Alpha and beta are the ratios of current in a transistor. They are a measure of the
transistor's efficiency. Alpha is a ratio of the collector current to the emitter current. As
all of the transistor's current flows through the emitter and then divides between the base
current (IB ) and the collector current (IC ), alpha is a measure of the overall efficiency.
Ideally, 100% of the electrons leaving the emitter would arrive at the collector; however,
due to base current, the actual figure is more likely to be only 95 - 99%. The formula is:
Beta is the collector current compared to the base current. As less than 5% of the
collector current is lost to the base current, beta is always a whole number. Typical values
are in the range of 50 and up. The formula is:
Lead Identification
Figure 5. Transistor Lead Identification
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EXPERIMENT
Figure 6. PC130-28 Schematic Model
PROCEDURE
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Insert
PC130-28 into the PC2 connectors. Insert the transistor into the PC130-28 Q1
socket. (See Figure 6.) Set PC switches S1, S2, S3, S5, S6, and S7 DOWN (open)
and S4 UP to isolate the transistor from surrounding circuitry on the card.
2. The transistor inserted in the Q1 socket is an NPN or PNP transistor. Figure 7A
and 8A indicates the Q1 schematic symbol and test points on PC130-28. Figure
7B and 8B indicates the DIODE EQUIVALENT of an NPN or PNP transistor
respectively.
7A. Schematic 7B. Diode Equivalent
Figure 7. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of an NPN Transistor
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3. The diodes can be tested using the diode tester available in the digital Multimeter.
4. This test will make possible to classify which transistor is NPN or PNP.
5. In case of forward biased diode drop will be 0.7V and in case of reverse biased
diode drop will be 3V.
8A. Schematic 8B. Diode Equivalent
Figure 8. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of a PNP Transistor
7. Identification of transistor:
2N3563 or MPS918
2N4248 or 2N4249
8. Set PC switches S1, S5 and S6 UP (closed) and S8 to PNP. Set the NEGATIVE
SUPPLY control for a 12 V indication. Set the test console's PC2 DC POWER
switch to ON to establish the circuit of Figure 9.
Figure 9. Circuit Connections to Test PNP Transistor Leg Currents Alpha and Beta
24
9. A transistor will not operate properly unless the internal diodes are biased with
voltages of a specific polarity. The EB diode must be FORWARD biased and the
CB diode must be REVERSE biased. Measure the voltage on each element of the
transistor at the test points indicated in Table 3. Record the voltage and polarity of
each measurement. Determine if the diodes are forward or reverse bias.
Now, let's measure currents in the circuit and compute and
10. Connect an ammeter across S1 (TP2 to TP3). Open S1 (DOWN) and record the
BASE CURRENT in Table 4 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS. Close S1
(UP) and remove the ammeter.
11. Connect the ammeter across S5 (TP7 to TP6). Open S5 (DOWN) and record
EMITTER CURRENT in Table 4 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS. Close
S5 (UP) and remove the ammeter.
12. Connect the ammeter across S6 (TP8 to TP9). Open S6 and record the
COLLECTOR CURRENT in Table 4 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS.
Close S6 (UP) and remove the ammeter.
13. Open S1 and close S2. Connect the ammeter across S2 (TP2 and TP4). Open S2
and record the BASE CURRENT in Table 4 for the condition of MEDIUM
CURRENTS. Close S2 and remove the ammeter.
14. Repeat Steps 11 and 12 for the condition of MEDIUM CURRENTS.
and record BASE CURRENT in Table 4 for the condition of HIGH CURRENTS.
Close S3 and remove the ammeter.
16. Repeat Steps 11 and 12 for the condition of HIGH CURRENTS.
17. For each condition in Table 4, divide IC by IE (IC/IE) and record the results in the
(ALPHA) column of Table 4.
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18. For each condition in Table 4, divide IC by IB (IC/IB) and record the results in the
(BETA) column of Table 4.
19. Compare the and values for each current condition. The values should be
approximately the same.
24. Return the POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Turn the
CONSOLE POWER switch to OFF. Remove the PC130-28 card.
25. Return all equipment to its designated storage area.
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Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab Session 03-B
Lab Session 03-B
OBJECTIVE
1. Measure circuit values of voltages and current in NPN transistor circuits.
INTRODUCTION
NPN Transistor
Bias is critical to transistor operation, just as it was to the diode. With the transistor, it is a
little more complex, because two PN junctions are involved instead of one. The two
pieces of N material in the NPN transistor have an excess of electrons, while the section
of P material has an excess of holes. Each junction will have a depletion region and is
affected by bias, just as it was in the diode. In order for the transistor to amplify a signal,
the base-emitter junction or input section must be forward biased. That means it has a low
resistance. The collector-base junction, or output section, must be reversed biased. Being
reversed biased, it will have a high resistance. Figure 1 depicts the forward bias function.
Figure 1. Forward Biased NPN Transistor
Forward-Biased Junction
An important point to remember is that the N material is more heavily doped than the P
material. That means a very large number of electrons will leave the emitter and enter the
base. With the base being lightly doped and small in size, there are very few holes (lack
of electrons) available. A few of the electrons will fill the available holes. For each
electron that fills a hole in the base (P material), another electron will leave the base,
create a new hole, and enter the positive terminal of the battery.
27
Figure 2. Forward Biased Emitter-Base (EB)
Reverse-Biased Junction
The collector-base junction must be reversed biased for amplification to occur. Refer to
Figure 3. The BC junction cannot be forward biased or the current flow would be from
both the collector and the emitter into the base. When the CB is reversed biased, there is a
small reverse current flowing from the collector to the base. The current is very small and
consists of holes from the P material combining with electrons from the collector.
Figure 3. Reversed Biased Collector-Base (BC)
Operation
Figure 4. NPN Transistor Biasing and Operation
28
The bias provided to the transistor is represented by batteries. The collector battery or
power supply is labeled VCC . The base battery or power supply is labeled VBB. VBB is
very small, because the forward bias on the base is normally a small voltage in the range
of 1 volt or less. VCC is much larger, normally around 6 to 12 volts. The large difference
in the supply voltage is necessary so that current flows from the emitter to the collector.
Now we will trace electron current flow through the circuit. Electrons leave the negative
terminals of the VCC and VBB batteries and flow to the (N type) emitter. That movement
of electrons is called emitter current (IE ). The electrons will enter the electron rich
emitter and pass through to the forward biased emitter-base junction. The electron current
flow passes through the junction and enters the base. Some of the electrons will fill holes,
causing a small flow of electrons out of the base to VBB supply. That small base current,
IB, is lost as far as collector current is concerned. The vast majority of electrons that enter
the emitter pass through the base and continue on to the collector. There are several
reasons why that happens:
1. VBB is much smaller than VCC.

2. The base region is very thin.
3. The base region is lightly doped.
Most of the electrons that enter the base come under the influence of VCC . Even through
VCC , in conjunction with VBB , provides a reverse-bias to the PN junction, VCC attracts
the electrons in the base and pulls them through the collector to the positive terminal of
VCC . The current flow through the collector is called IC. The total current flow in an NPN
transistor is through the emitter. That means IE equals 100% of the current flow in the
transistor. The emitter current has to equal the base current plus the collector current.
Now, there is an important fact that we can conclude. To review, the amount of current
that flows out of the emitter is caused by the EB bias. Most of the current that leaves the
emitter passes through the base and reaches the collector. Base current is limited by the
construction of the base. The conclusion you can draw is that a small change in EB bias
will have a much greater effect on collector current than on base current. In conclusion,
the small EB bias controls the large emitter collector current.
29
EXPERIMENT
PROCEDURE
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Insert
PC130-28 into the PC2 connectors. Insert the transistor into the PC130-28 Q1
NPN into the socket.
2. Set PC switches S1, S4, S5 and S6 UP (closed); S2, S3 AND S7 DOWN and S8
to NPN. Set the POSITIVE SUPPLY control for a 12 V indication. Set the test
console's PC2 DC POWER switch to ON to establish the circuit.
3. A transistor will not operate properly unless the internal diodes are biased with
voltages of a specific polarity. The EB diode must be FORWARD biased and the
CB diode must be REVERSE biased. Measure the voltage on each element of the
transistor at the test points indicated in Table 5. Record the voltage and polarity of
each measurement. Determine if the diodes are forward or reverse bias.
30
Now, let's measure currents in the circuit and compute and
4. Connect an ammeter across S1 (TP2 to TP3). Open S1 (DOWN) and record the
BASE CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS. Close S1
(UP) and remove the ammeter.
5. Connect the ammeter across S5 (TP7 to TP6). Open S5 (DOWN) and record
EMITTER CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS. Close
S5 (UP) and remove the ammeter.
6. Connect the ammeter across S6 (TP8 to TP9). Open S6 and record the
COLLECTOR CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS.
Close S6 (UP) and remove the ammeter.
and record the BASE CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of MEDIUM
CURRENTS. Close S2 and remove the ammeter.
8. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for the condition of MEDIUM CURRENTS.
and record BASE CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of HIGH CURRENTS.
Close S3 and remove the ammeter.
10. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for the condition of HIGH CURRENTS.
11. For each condition in Table 6, divide IC by IE (IC/IE) and record the results in the
(ALPHA) column of Table 6.
12. For each condition in Table 6, divide IC by IB (IC/IB) and record the results in
the (BETA) column of Table 6.
13. Compare the and values for each current condition. The values should be
approximately the same.
CONSOLE POWER switch to OFF. Remove the PC130-28 card.
15. Return all equipment to its designated storage area.
31
SUMMARY
• A transistor is a solid state device with three (3) or more elements; it amplifies by
controlling the flow of current that passes through it.
• The two basic types of transistors are the NPN and PNP. The only difference in
symbology between the two transistors is the direction of the arrow on the emitter.
If the arrow points in, it is a PNP transistor; if it points outward, it is an NPN
transistor. NPN transistor operation is basically the action of a relatively small
emitter-base bias voltage controlling a relatively large emitter-to-collector current.
• PNP transistor operation is essentially the same as NPN operation, except the bias
polarity is reversed.
• Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of a signal.
• An amplifier is the device that provides amplification without appreciably altering
the original signal.
• The basic transistor amplifier amplifies by producing a large change in collector
current for a small change in base current. This action results in voltage
amplification because the load resistor placed in series with the collector reacts to
these large changes in collector current. This, in turn, results in large variations in
the output voltage.
• Testing a transistor to determine if it is good or bad can be done with an
ohmmeter or transistor tester.
• Precautions should be taken when working with transistors since they are
susceptible to damage by electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation.
• Transistor lead identification plays an important part in transistor maintenance
because before a transistor can be tested or replaced, the leads must be identified.
32
EXERCISES
33
34
Lab Session 04
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe operating characteristics of transistor bias stabilization.
2. Identify different biasing circuit operations.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• Nida Series 130 Experiment Card : PC130-28
• Multimeter
INTRODUCTION
Bias is required to ensure that the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the base-
collection junction is reversed biased. This lesson explains how correct bias is obtained.
As transistors are among the most reliable devices yet devised, many failures found in
transistorized equipment are due to the failure of other circuit components.
Bias Types
A basic, yet critical, problem associated with transistor amplifiers is the establishment
and maintenance of static values of current and voltage. When we discuss transistors, we
use the term static to mean circuit conditions with no signal applied. A properly biased
amplifier is stabilized so that it operates in the middle of its range. That range can be
considered to be from cut-off to saturation. Outside factors, such as ventilation and
ambient temperature, can affect the static condition of a circuit, so bias must compensate
for those changes. As a transistorized amplifier can operate from cut-off (no signal
output) to saturation (maximum signal), biasing must also ensure that a transistor is not to
be driven into saturation or cut-off by an input signal. When an amplifier operates at
either saturation or cut-off, it is considered distortion. Figure 1 depicts waveforms
distorted by improper biasing.
Figure 1. Distorted Waveforms Caused by Improper Biasing
Base Bias
Base bias is also known as base-current bias or fixed bias. Figure 2 illustrates a
transistor amplifier with base bias. Four components comprise the amplifier circuit:
1. Q1, the transistor
35
2. RL, the collector load resistor

3. CC , the coupling capacitor, and
4. RB , the base bias resistor.
CC, the coupling capacitor, is used to allow the passage of AC signals from previous
stages while blocking any DC voltages. VCC is the voltage source for the base bias, as it
is the voltage source for the collector. The advantages of this type of bias are its
simplicity, small number of components, and low cost. Base bias operates very simply. If
the collector current increases, it causes an increase in the emitter voltage, in turn
decreasing the emitter-base forward bias and decreasing the base current. The decrease in
base current decreases the collector current. Unfortunately, this type of bias works much
better in theory than in practice.
Figure 2. Base Bias
The design has one flaw: it is highly unstable. Any change in the temperature of the
transistor causes a change in collector current. If the transistor temperature increases, the
collector current increases. An increase of the static collector current shifts the static
conduction of the transistor. A shift in the static conduction of the transistor can cause the
transistor to distort a signal that it amplifies. Transistors using base bias are found in
electronic equipment where distortion isn't a consideration. A primary example is in
digital circuits where the transistor is used as an electronic switch that operates only at
saturation or cut-off. That type of circuit is discussed in the lesson on multivibrators.
Collector-Feedback Bias
Collector-feedback bias is also called self-bias. The major change from the base bias
configuration is the connection of the base resistor directly from the base to the collector.
By removing the RB from VCC , a much better method of biasing is obtained. Figure 3
portrays a self-biased transistor amplifier.
36
Figure 3. A Basic Transistor Amplifier with Self-Bias
If there is an increase in collector current due to an increase in temperature or another

reason, self bias compensates. The increase in collector current increases the conduction
of the transistor. Any increase in conduction causes an increase in the voltage drop over
RL and a decrease in the collector voltage. The decreased collector voltage is fed back to
the base by the base resistor, RB . The decreased voltage on the base decreases the
forward bias of the emitter-base junction, decreasing the current through the transistor. A
decrease in collector current caused by a decrease in temperature or another reason is also
compensated by self bias. The decrease in collector current decreases the conduction of
the transistor. Any decrease in conduction causes a decrease in the voltage drop over RL
and an increase in the collector voltage. The increased collector voltage is fed back to the
base by the base resistor, RB . The increased voltage on the base increases the forward
bias of the emitter-base junction, increasing the current through the transistor. Self-bias
has two drawbacks. First, it is only partially effective; therefore, it can only be used
where moderate changes in temperature are anticipated. Secondly, and most important, it
reduces amplification. That occurs because the collector and base signals are 180o out of
phase. The out of phase collector feedback signal, which is used for stabilization (bias),
cancels (reduces) part of the base input signal. The process of returning part of the output
signal back to the input is known as degeneration or negative feedback.
Voltage Divider Bias

Voltage divider bias is also known as combination bias. Essentially, fixed bias and self-
bias are used in conjunction. What is accomplished is that stability is improved and some
of the disadvantages of the other biasing methods are overcome. Figure 4 illustrates a
typical voltage divider configuration.
37
Figure 4. Voltage Divider Bias
Fixed bias is provided by the R1, R2 network. The current flowing through the network
from ground to VCC biases the base positive with respect to the emitter. R3 is connected
in series with the emitter to provide self bias. If the emitter current increases, the voltage
drop over R3 increases, decreasing the collector voltage. R3 provides self-bias, another
form of degeneration, decreasing the output of the amplifier. Bypass capacitor CBP is
provided to partially compensate for degeneration. It does that by shunting AC variations
on the emitter to ground while allowing the emitter bias to change with changes in
conduction. The combination of R1 and R2 providing fixed base bias and R3 and CBP
providing self-bias improves thermal stability and maintains the static state of the
transistor at the correct point.
Emitter Bias
Figure 5. Emitter Bias
Emitter bias is the final form of bias to be covered. Figure 5 depicts a typical emitter
bias circuit. Its advantage is that it provides rock-solid stabilization. Any temperature
variations affecting conduction are compensated for by the emitter and collector resistors.
There is one major disadvantage with this circuit: two power supplies are required, one
38
positive and one negative. While all of the circuits we've covered have contained NPN
transistors, the operation is the same with PNP transistors. The only difference is in the
polarity of the power supplies. Remember, NPN transistors require positive and PNP
transistors require negative.
EXPERIMENT
In this experiment, you will investigate the operating point of a typical NPN transistor
circuit. You will take various measurements in an amplifier circuit to verify the effects of
bias, and you will draw conclusions from your results.
Figure 6. PC130-28 Schematic
PROCEDURE
1. Set the NEGATIVE and POSITIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and insert PC130-
28 into the PC2 connectors. Press the console POWER switch to ON.
2. Insert transistor 2N3567 (NPN) into the Q1 socket of PC130-28. Adjust the
POSITIVE SUPPLY control to +15 V. Set PC switches S1, S2, S3 DOWN
(open); S4, S5, S6 UP (closed); S7 to R7 OUT; and S8 to NPN. Set the console
PC2 DC POWER switch to ON to establish the circuit of Figure 7.
39
Figure 7. Circuit Connections to Test IQ and VQ of a Simple Base Bias Circuit at Various IE Values
3. Analysis of the circuit of Figure 7 indicates that IB = 0amps because S1 through

S3 are open and no path for IB exists. Compute IC and IE using the formulas
and IE = IC . (Use β of 160.)

4. Record the results in the IC and IE COMPUTED columns of Table 1 for the
condition of S1 through S3 OPEN.
5. Compute VCE and VR6 for the condition of IB = 0 amps. Use the formulas VR6 =
IC x R6 and VCE = VCC - VR6. (In the Kirchhoff loop of the components R6 and
transistor C to E, VCE + VR6 = VCC ; therefore, VCE = VCC - VR6.) Record the
results in the VR6 and VCE COMPUTED columns of Table 1 for the condition of
IB = 0 A.
6. Compute IB if S1 were closed. Use the formula IB = (VCC - 0.6 V)/RB . Record the
results in the IB COMPUTED column of Table 1 for the condition of S1
CLOSED.
7. Repeat Step 3 using the value of IB determined in Step 6. Record the results for
the condition of S1 CLOSED.
8. Repeat Step 5 using the value of IC determined in Step 3. Record the results for
the condition of S1 CLOSED.
9. Repeat Steps 5 through 8 if S2 were closed and S1, S3 were open. Record the
results for the condition of S2 CLOSED.
10. Repeat Steps 5 through 8 if S3 were closed and S1, S2 were open. Record the
results for the condition of S3 CLOSED.
40
11. With S1, S2, and S3 open, measure IC and IE . To measure IC, connect a DC
ammeter across S6 (TP8 and TP9), open the switch, note the current, and close
the switch. To measure IE , connect the DC ammeter across S5 (TP6 and TP7),
open the switch, note the current, and close the switch. Record the results in the IC
and IE MEASURED columns of Table 1 for the condition of S1 through S3
OPEN.
12. With S1, S2, and S3 open, measure VR6 (TP10 to TP9) and VCE (TP7 to TP1),
using a DC voltmeter. Record the results in the VR6 and VCE columns of Table 1
for the condition of S1 through S3 open.
13. With S1 closed and S2, S3 open, measure IB, IC, and IE . To measure IB , connect a
DC ammeter across S1 (TP3 to TP2) , open the switch, note the current, and close
the switch. To measure IC and IE , follow the procedures in Step 11. Record the
results on the IB, IC, and IE MEASURED columns of Table 1 for the condition of
S1 closed.
14. With S1 closed and S2, S3 open, measure VR6 (TP10 to TP9) and VCE (TP8 to
TP1), using a DC voltmeter. Record the results in the VR6 and VCE columns of
Table 1 for the condition of S1 CLOSED.
15. Repeat Steps 12 and 13 for the remaining switch settings in Table 1.
Notice the values in Table 1. As base current increases, emitter and collector currents
increase and EC decreases. The circuit uses base bias to properly operate the transistor.
However, looking closely at Table 1, you'll notice the measured values are not exactly the
calculated values. Biasing with base bias allows temperature to affect the values.
16. Set PC switch S4 DOWN, and S7 to R6 OUT to establish the circuit of Figure 8.
Ensure switches S1 and S3 are down.
17. Analysis of Figure 8 indicates that the voltage divider of RB1 and RB2
establishes a voltage at the base of Q1 to ground. The EB diode of Q1 and RE in
41
series are the load on the divider. Additionally, the voltage drop across the EB
diode is consistent at approximately 0.6 V (for silicon). This means that
VRE = VRB2 – 0.6 V.
Figure 8. Circuit Connections to Test IQ and VQ of a Voltage Divider Bias Circuit at Various IE Values
To measure VRB2 , connect the voltmeter from TP2 (+) to TP1 (–).
To measure VRE , connect the voltmeter from TP6 (+) to TP1 (–).
18. Set PC switch S4 UP. Set the console PC2 DC POWER switch to OFF. Connect
an ohmmeter to PC TP1 and the case of R1. Adjust R1 to 10 Kilo-ohms. You can
adjust the potentiometer's resistance by connecting the multimeter from the top or
bottom case of R1 to ground (TP1).
19. Set PC switch S4 DOWN. Set the console PC2 DC POWER switch to ON.
Measure VRB2 (TP2 to TP1) and VRE (TP6 to TP1). Record the results in the
VRB2 and VRE. MEASURED columns of Table 2 for the condition of RB2 equals
10 Kilo-ohms.
20. Compute IE using the formula IE = VRE ÷ RE (where RE = 1Kohm). Use the VRE
value of Step 19. Measure IC using the procedures in Step 11. Record the results
42
in the IE and IC MEASURED columns of Table 2 for the condition of RB2 equals
10 Kilo-ohms.
21. Repeat Steps 18 through 20 for the remaining conditions in Table 2.
Notice that the values for IE and IC are the same. The only difference is that IC should be
less than IE by the amount of IB , which probably cannot be measured. (IB is in µA and IE
and IC are in mA.) Also notice that an increase in base voltage (RB2 increase) increases
the emitter and collector current.
22. Return the NEGATIVE and POSITIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Turn the
console POWER switch to OFF. Remove PC130-28 and return all equipment to
its designated storage area.
SUMMARY
• There are four main classes of bias:

1. Base Bias
2. Collector-Feedback Bias
3. Voltage Divider, or Combination, Bias
4. Emitter Bias
• Base Current Bias, or Fixed Bias, is the least stable and is used only in transistor
switches.
• Collector-Feedback or Self-bias:
– Is effective, but only partially effective.
– Reduces the amplification of the circuit.
– Utilizes degeneration or negative feedback.
• Voltage Divider or Combination Bias
– Voltage Divider or Combination Bias uses a combination of self and fixed bias.
– The base voltage is kept constant by a voltage divider network and self bias on
the emitter changes the emitter voltage with changes in conduction.
• Emitter Bias:
– Is the most stable.
– Requires a positive and negative power supply.
• NPN and PNP transistors
– All types of bias function the same with both NPN and PNP transistors.
– The only change required is in the polarity of the power supplies, positive for
NPN and negative for PNP.
• Transistor circuits use capacitors:
– For coupling AC signals from the output of one stage to the input of another.
– For blocking DC voltages from the output of one stage to the input of another.
– As a bypass capacitor in the emitter of a transistor amplifier, this will shunt AC
variations on the emitter to ground.
43
EXERCISES
44
45
Lab Session 05
OBJECTIVE
• To determine the operating point and its position on the load line.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod.PSU/EV, module holder
structure mod. MU/EV),
• Individual Control Unit
• Mod.SISl/SIS2/SIS3
• Experiment module mod.MCM4IEV
• Oscilloscope
• Multimeter
BASIC THEORY
To bias a transistor means to fix the dc voltages and the currents so that they take a
certain value, which corresponds a well defined point called the "Q", "quiescent" or
"operating" point of the circuit.
The bias network consists of a number of components connected to the active device, to
ensure its operation at the required point.
Circuit and output characteristic

A bias circuit for a common emitter amplifier is shown in figure B 18.1. The external
components are chosen so as to fix the variables Ic, VCE, IB to the required values. The
three values, ICQ, VCEQ, IBQ, define the "Q point" of the transistor.
46
Determining the bias components

To work out the component values needed to bias a transistor correctly, two methods can
be used: a graphical one using the characteristic curves, or an analytical one.
Analytical method
1. Calculate the collector resistance Rc using the equation (V cc = VCE + RcIc).
Rearranging this gives:
Rc = (Vcc -VCEQ)/IcQ
where Vcc is the power supply voltage
2. From the following equation, calculate the base current IBQ which produces a
collector current IcQ:
IBQ = ICQ / β
Where β is the transistor current gain.
3. Calculate the base resistance RB using the equation
VBB = VBE+RBIB
RB = (VBB-0.7)/IBQ
where 0.7V is the VBEQ of the transistor, and VBB is the dc voltage on the Base.
Graphical method
The "load line" of a bias circuit is defined as the line on the output characteristic of the
transistor connecting the point (VCEM, 0) to the point (0, ICsat). VCEM is the max. voltage
between collector and emitter, and is equal to the power supply voltage Vcc, and ICsat is
the max. collector current, called "saturation current" (Ic = ICsat for VCE = 0 Volt).
1. Mark the "Q" point on the output characteristic.

2. The value of ICsat is determined, by drawing the load line to cut through the Q
point and (VCEQ, 0).
3. The collector resistance Rc is calculated from the formula for the equation of the
load line (Vcc = VCE +RcIc):
Rc = Vcc / ICsat
4. The value of IBQ is found from the output characteristic, where the curve
Ic = f(VCE) crosses the Q point (ICQ , VCEQ).
47
5. The value of VBEQ which corresponds to IBQ is determined from the input
characteristic VBE = f (IB).
6. RB is calculated using the equation relating the base and emitter voltages
VBB = VBE + RBIB, from which
RB = (VBB -VBEQ) / IBQ
Operating regions of the transistor

In the output characteristic Ic = f(VCE) we can define three different operating regions of
the transistor (fig.BI8.4):
• region I: VBE is equal to 0 Volt and Ic takes very low values; VCE depends only on
the power supply voltage Vcc. In these operating conditions the transistor is "cut
off" or "blocked".
• region II: Ic is a linear function of IB and is practically independent of VCE. In
these conditions the transistor is in its "active" region.
• region III: VCE takes very low values and Ic depends only on the power supply
voltage and the collector resistance Rc (ICsat = Vcc / Rc). The transistor is fully on
or in its "saturation" region.
48
PROCEDURE
¾ Voltage and current measurements at the operating (Q) point
1. Produce the circuit of fig. 18.10, connecting the jumpers J2, J6, J8 and the meters.
The voltage measurement can be made with the oscilloscope.
2. Adjust Vcc to 20V, and using RV1, set IB to 0.

3. Increase IB to obtain Ic ~20 mA and VCE ~10 V.
4. These settings bias the transistor at a Q point defined by:
IBQ ~ 100microA
ICQ ~ 20 mA
VCEQ~ 10V
5. From the load line equation VCC=VCEQ + R2 .ICQ, calculate the saturation current
ICsat.
6. Check this result practically by varying IB with RV1. To determine the saturation
current ICsat, try to make IB > 0.1 mA.
7. Determine the cut-off voltage VCEQ also, doing your best to make IB=0.
OBSERVATION
Practically evaluated values are:
VCEQ =
ICQ =
ICsat =
Cut-off VCEQ =
Draw the Load line and indicate the Q-point?
49
Lab Session 06
OBJECTIVES
• Define the operating characteristics of a common emitter amplifier.
• Describe the circuit operation and components' purpose in a common
emitter amplifier.
• Indicate the direction of current flow in a common emitter amplifier.
• Observe normal operation of a common emitter amplifier.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• Nida Series 130 Experiment Card: PC130-30A
• Function Generator.
• Oscilloscope.
• Multimeter.
OVERVIEW
Transistors are utilized for three main purposes: amplification, oscillation, and switching.
Amplification is commonly accomplished by electronic circuits called amplifiers, which
are used either to maintain the signal level, or to increase the voltage or power of the
signal. A signal may be defined as a varying voltage representing some useful function
and/or performing some specific task. There are many types of amplifiers, all containing
some amplifying device, such as a vacuum tube or a transistor. In addition to the
transistor or vacuum tube, an amplifier contains electronic components such as capacitors
and resistors. These components are required to provide the operational characteristics of
the amplifier. During the next three lessons, the student will learn the three main types of
transistor amplifiers, the common emitter, the common base, and the common collector
amplifiers.
INTRODUCTION
If a transistor circuit is biased close to a point near the center of the DC load line, a small
AC signal can be injected into the base of the transistor. The injection of an AC signal on
the base will produce in the collector current fluctuations of the same frequency as the
injected signal. For example: If the input signal is a sine wave with a frequency of 1 kHz,
the output circuit will contain an output that will be of an enlarged sine wave at 1 kHz.
The amplifier is said to be linear because it does not change the input signal. As long as
50
the amplitude of the signal input is small, the amplifier will use only a small part of the
load line, and the operation of the amplifier will be linear.
THE COMMON EMITTER (CE) AMPLIFIER

In the common emitter amplifier, the emitter is common to both the input and output
circuit. Figure 1 illustrates an NPN transistor connected in the common emitter
configuration. The current relationship of the transistor remains: IE = IB + IC , which is the
basic equation applied to all junction transistors. However, note that in the common
emitter amplifier, the base current IB is the input current, and the collector current IC is
the output current.
Figure 1. Common Emitter Circuit
The forward current gain of the transistor in the common emitter configuration is the ratio
of the output current, or collector current, to the input current, which is the base current.
The ratio is referred to as the beta of the transistor. Beta is expressed by the formula:
Transistor manuals frequently express the beta of a transistor as hfe , but the common
term beta is used throughout the electronics industry. It varies between transistors of
different types and, to some extent, between transistors of the same type. Beta is related
to the alpha of a transistor by the following expression:
Typical betas range between 50 and 200. The true significance of beta lies in the fact that
any variations in base current will result in a much greater change in collector current.
DC bias considerations
An amplifier can best be understood when the static or no signal condition is examined
before the input signal is applied. This involves only the DC bias currents and voltages
that are applied to the transistor to establish its operating conditions. In a linear, small
signal amplifier using only one transistor, the DC bias currents are flowing at all times,
with or without an input signal.
51
Figure 3. Common Emitter Configuration Curves
Common emitter amplifier with single voltage source

A practical common emitter amplifier uses only one voltage source, which is referred to
as the collector supply voltage, VCC. Forward bias is supplied to the base-emitter junction
through a resistor connected to the collector supply voltage source. Figure 6 illustrates a
simple common emitter amplifier biased in such a manner. The transistor is an NPN
transistor, which means that the base must be positive in respect to the emitter to be
properly forward biased.
Assuming that it is desired to bias the amplifier for 50 microamperes of base current, we
calculate the value of RB as:
Figure 6. Simple Common Emitter Amplifier
If the transistor used is a PNP type rather than an NPN, the only apparent difference in
circuitry, other than the transistor, is the polarity of the potential VCC. The operation of
the circuit produces the same output.
52
Operation of common emitter amplifier with input signal
Figure 8. AC Signal Operations
Figure 9. Amplifier Operation
The voltage gain of this circuit is calculated by the formula:
Voltage gain of the amplifier is dependent upon two factors. The first is the beta of the
transistor. For a given amplifier circuit, the greater the beta, the greater the voltage gain.
Secondly, the value of the collector load resistor is an important factor. The higher the
resistance, the greater the voltage change across it for a given current change. However,
there is a limit to the value of the resistor that can be used. If the resistance is too high,
the voltage drop across it becomes excessive, and distortion results. This condition is
referred to as saturation and occurs when the voltage drop across the collector resistor
becomes close to the value of applied voltage VCC .
Input resistance of common emitter amplifier

The input current to the common emitter amplifier is the base current, which is very low.
It follows that the input resistance to the common emitter amplifier must be considerably
53
large. The input resistance to the common emitter amplifier is designated as ZIN and is
approximately beta times r'e. r'e is the AC emitter resistance and is equal to:
Output resistance of the common emitter amplifier

The output voltage of the common emitter amplifier is developed across the high
resistance of the reverse-biased collector base junction which is in parallel with RL, as
shown in Figure 10. Because RC is very high (typically 1 mega-ohm), it can be
disregarded, and the output resistance of the amplifier becomes the resistance of RL. ROUT
equals RL.
Figure 10. Output Resistance
Power gain of common emitter amplifier

The common emitter amplifier has the greatest power gain of any of the three transistor
configurations. Power gain, AP, is approximately equal to the current gain times the
voltage gain.
EXPERIMENT
The main purpose of this experiment on the common emitter amplifier is to illustrate two
conditions:
1. The static condition of the amplifier.
2. The dynamic condition of the amplifier.
54
Figure 12. PC130-30A, Common Emitter Amplifier
PROCEDURE
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Turn
the console POWER switch to ON.
2. Insert Experiment Card PC130-30A in the PC2 connector.
3. Set the test console POSITIVE VOLTAGE to 12 volts.
4. Turn the PC2 DC POWER switch to ON.
5. Perform the required DC measurements to complete Table 1.
6. Set the VCC voltage to 15 volts.
7. Repeat Step 5.
8. Set the function generator for a sine wave frequency of 5 kHz. Connect the signal
from the function generator to the PC1 OUTPUT BNC connector and, using an
oscilloscope, adjust the output for 7 VP-P as measured on PC130-30A TP2.
9. Connect the CH1 probe of the oscilloscope to TP7 (the output of Q1 on the
PC130-30A) and adjust the variable resistor R2 for an output signal of 5 volts
peak- to-peak.
55
10. Perform the measurements and calculations to complete the information in Table
2. Use the dual display mode and CH1 triggering. Adjust the TIME/DIV to
display two cycles. Measure VC , VB , and VE , using your multimeter.
11. This concludes the experiment. Turn the PC2 DC POWER switch to OFF and set
the test console's POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Remove
PC130-30A from the PC2 connector. Turn the test console POWER switch to
OFF and return all equipment to its proper storage location.
SUMMARY
• The common emitter amplifier is the most often used transistor amplifier circuit in
the electronics industry.
• The current gain of the transistor in the common emitter configuration is the ratio
of the collector current to the base current.
• In the common emitter amplifier, the input signal is applied between the base and
the emitter, and the output appears between the collector and the emitter.
• For linear operation, fixed DC bias potentials must be applied to the transistor.
• The amount of collector voltage and the collector current with no signal input
control the operating point of the amplifier.
• A load line is drawn on a set of collector characteristic curves and can be used to
determine instantaneous voltages and currents in a transistor amplifier operation.
• Forward bias on the emitter-base junction can be provided by connecting the base
of the transmitter to the power supply voltage (VCC ) through a high value of
resistance.
• The voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier can be very high.
• The common emitter amplifier input resistance is approximately equal to beta
times RIB , the resistance of the forward biased base-emitter junction.
• The output resistance of the common emitter amplifier is approximately equal to
the collector load resistance RL.
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• The power gain of the common emitter amplifier is the best of three transistor
amplifier configurations and is approximately equal to the voltage gain times the
current gain.
• The voltage gain of the amplifier depends somewhat on the size of the collector
load resistor. Within limits, the larger the resistor, the higher the voltage gain.
• The common emitter amplifier inverts the input signal.
EXERCISES
57
58
Lab Session 07
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the operating characteristics of a common base amplifier.
2. Demonstrate the ability to correctly measure the static and dynamic operating
potentials of a common base amplifier.
3. Demonstrate the ability to correctly measure the input and output signals,
polarities, and gain of a common base amplifier.
4. Demonstrate the ability to correctly measure the input and output resistance of a
common base amplifier.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• Multimeter
INTRODUCTION
The transistor is used for three basic purposes in electronics: amplification, oscillation,
and switching. Amplification is accomplished by electronic circuits called amplifiers.
Common base amplifier

In the common base configuration, the input signal is applied between emitter and base.
The signal is superimposed upon the existing DC bias current supplied by the batteries of
other DC sources.
Figure 1. Common Base Amplifier
Figure 1 is a practical common base amplifier circuit. The AC generator represents the
source of the AC signal that is to be amplified. VCC represents the collector supply
59
battery, and VB represents the forward bias battery on the base-emitter junction. RL is the
collector load resistor that will develop the output signal at the collector of the resistor.
Practical considerations allow the use of approximations that can simplify the analysis of
most electronic circuits. Because collector current and emitter current differ by such a
small amount, in the discussion that follows they will be considered as being equal. This
is permissible, because the variation of components and measuring devices can introduce
an error greater than the normal small difference between the two currents. Initially, the
bias conditions of the amplifier without the AC signal from the generator will be
considered.
Assume that the transistor has a current gain (alpha) or unity. If the value of VB is
adjusted to permit 2 mA of emitter current, then 2 mA of collector current will also flow.
The 2 mA of collector current flowing through RL will cause a voltage drop of 10 volts.
The –10 volts at the collector of the transistor is the voltage drop across the transistor
from emitter to collector.
The circuit has been redrawn to illustrate this point (Figure 2). As far as the collector
supply voltage (VCC ) is concerned, the transistor and RL are in series, and the voltage at
the collector of the transistor will always be the collector supply voltage, VCC , less the
voltage drop across the collector load resistor.
In Figure 11, VC is –20 volts minus the –10 volts dropped across RL , or –10 volts. With
the bias conditions established, the effect of the input signal can be considered. Assume
that the positive alternation of the input signal is as shown in Figure 13. The bias battery,
VB , and the generator are not in series. The total forward bias is 0.6 volts, that is, 0.5
volts from the bias battery and 0.1 volt from the positive alternation of the generator.
The input resistance to the transistor is very low because of the forward bias on the base-
emitter junction. Assuming 100 ohms of input resistance, an increase of 0.1 volt will
cause an increase of 1 mA of emitter current.
Figure 2. Equivalent Circuit
Collector current will also increase by 1 mA, and the voltage drop across RL will
increase from 10 volts to 15 volts. The collector will rise from –10 volts to –5 volts, a
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change of 5 volts, due to the increase of 1mA of collector current. This change of
collector voltage is the output signal of the amplifier. When the AC signal changes its
polarity on the second alternation, the signal voltage and the bias voltage are in
opposition. The total bias on the transistor is the difference between the two, or 0.4 volts.
The 0.1 volt decrease of the bias reduces the emitter current by 1 mA, just as the increase
of 0.1 volt caused emitter current to increase by 1 mA. The decrease of emitter current
results in a decrease of collector current. Current through RL falls to 1 mA, and the
voltage drop across RL decreases to 5 volts, causing VC to decrease to –15 volts. In this
manner, the 0.2 volt peak-to-peak(pp) AC signal has resulted in a 10 volt peak-to-peak
change at the collector.
Figure 3. Amplifier Waveforms
Figure 3 shows how these changes have occurred around the circuit. Two important
points are:
1. There is considerable voltage gain in this amplifier.
The input signal was 0.2 VPP . The collector voltage, VC , varies from –15 volts to –5
volts, a change of 10 volts. Coupling capacitor CC allows the changing VC voltage to be
felt between points A and B (Figure 1) as an AC output signal referenced to zero volts.
So a 10 VPP signal is the output of the amplifier.
Common base amplifiers may have voltage gains of several hundred.
2. There is no signal inversion across the amplifier; the output signal at any instant
has the same polarity as the input signal. This is typical of the common base
amplifier.
Input and output resistance, common base amplifier

The input resistance of the common base amplifier (Figure 1) is the resistance
encountered by the signal generator, or any other signal source while it is supplying the
input signal to the amplifier. The output resistance of the amplifier is the resistance
61
within the amplifier across which the output signal is developed. Before the input and
output resistance of the amplifier is discussed, we will take a closer look at the transistor.
Figure 4. Equivalent Resistive Circuit
1. Emitter AC resistance r'e: This resistance, r’e, represents the resistance of the
forward biased emitter-base junction to an AC signal. Because of the forward
bias, this is a small resistance. It is the input resistance to the common base
amplifier.
2. Base resistance r'b: This resistance is the pure ohmic resistance, typically about
400 ohms in value, of the semiconductor material of the base region. It is
sometimes referred to as the base spreading resistance.
3. Collector resistance r'c: This resistor represents the reverse biased collector-base
junction, and is very high in value, 1 mega-ohm being typical.
Power gain of common base amplifier

The common base amplifier is not considered a power amplifier because the current gain
of this circuit is approximately unity. However, power gain of any circuit can be
expressed by the ratio of the output power to the input power.
Power is equal to the voltage times the current. The equation above may be expanded to:
In the expression, EOUT/EIN is the voltage gain (AV) of the amplifier, and IOUT/IIN is the
current gain (alpha). Therefore, in the common base configuration, power gain is equal to
alpha times the voltage gain:
EXPERIMENT
This experiment involves the following:
• DC operation of the common base amplifier.
• Dynamic conditions of the common base amplifier.
• Method of determining the input and output resistance of the CB amplifier.
62
Figure 5. Experiment Card PC130-32, Common Base Amplifier
PROCEDURE
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF, and
turn the console POWER switch to ON.
2. Insert experiment card PC130-32 in the PC1 connector.
3. Set the test console's voltage to 12V.
5. Perform VCC adjustments and measurements to complete the information required
for Table 1.
Look at the DC voltages in Table 1. This is the static operation of a common base
amplifier circuit.
6. Referring to Figure 5:
Why is the emitter resistor R5 unbypassed?
What component holds the base at AC ground potential?

7. Set the VCC voltage to 12 volts.
63
8. Prepare the function generator for operation. Connect the output to the test
console's PC1 INPUT BNC. Set the function generator for 5 kHz at 5 volts peak
to peak measured at pin E on PC130-32.
9. Using an oscilloscope, perform measurements to complete the information
required in Table 2. Refer to Figure 15 as required. Display at least two cycles.
Use the dual display mode with CH1 triggering.
Notice that there is voltage amplification and the output signal is in phase to the input
signal.
10. The input resistance can be calculated using:
In a common base amplifier, the input impedance is the AC resistance of the emitter.
Therefore, r'e = ZIN . Notice that the value is small, between 15 to 150 ohms.
11. The output resistance in a common base amplifier is basically the value of the
collector load resistor. Remember, the resistance of the reversed biased collector
is in parallel to the collector load resistor to AC signals (the DC power source,
TP6, appears as a ground to AC signals).
Therefore, ZOUT =
12. Ensure that the input signal is 5 kHz at 5 VP-P and that VCC is 12 V. The circuit
should be operating normally and have an output. Using the multimeter (in DC),
measure the normal operating bias voltages.
64
SUMMARY
The following key points from this lesson should be remembered:
• An amplifier is an electronic device that is used to increase the voltage or power
level of a signal.
• The voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the output voltage to the input
voltage. In a multistage amplifier, the overall voltage gain is the product of the
individual stages' gain.
• Amplifiers may be classified in accordance with their usage, coupling, bandwidth,
configuration, or input signal.
• In the common base amplifier, the input signal is applied between the emitter and
the base. The output signal appears between the collector and the base.
• The current gain (alpha) of the common base amplifier is the ratio of collector
current to emitter current and is always less than unity.
65
EXERCISES
66
67
Lab Session 08
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the operation characteristics of a common collector amplifier.
2. Demonstrate the ability to correctly measure the static and dynamic operating
potentials of a common collector amplifier.
3. Demonstrate the ability to correctly measure input and output signals, polarities,
and the signal amplitude of a common collector amplifier.
4. Observe normal operation of a common collector amplifier.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• Multimeter
OVERVIEW
The common collector amplifier also has current gain, but the voltage gain is less than 1.
The distinction between voltage amplifiers and power amplifiers is in the amount of
current the amplifier is required to deliver to the load, such as the loudspeaker in a radio.
Power amplifiers are required to deliver high currents, but in a voltage amplifier, current
is of small consideration. The magnitude of the voltage change at the output of the
amplifier is more important.
INTRODUCTION
The common collector amplifier has a voltage gain of less than unity and has the highest
current gain of any of the transistor amplifier configurations. Because power gain is the
product of current gain and voltage gain, it can be stated that the common collector
amplifier does not have a high power gain. However, the common collector amplifier
does have a very valuable characteristic. Its input resistance is high and its output
resistance is low. This characteristic makes the common collector amplifier very useful as
an impedance matching device. For this reason, the common collector amplifier is often
called an emitter follower.
68
Emitter follower
Figure 3 shows an emitter follower circuit. There are two parts to the schematic diagram
that identify the circuit as an emitter follower. First, the collector of the transistor is
connected directly to the power supply. Second, the output signal is obtained from the
connection between the emitter and the emitter resistor, R3.
Figure 3. Emitter Follower
R3, the emitter resistor, is the load resistor for the emitter follower. The output signal is
developed across R3 when the input signal causes the current flow through the transistor
to increase and decrease.
The transistor in the emitter follower circuit, or in any transistor amplifier circuit, is a
variable resistance. The resistance between the collector and emitter is controlled by the
current that flows through the base connection. If the current through the base connection
increases, the resistance between the collector and emitter decreases. A decrease in base
current causes the collector-to-emitter resistance to increase. The AC output signal of an
emitter follower is in phase with the input signal. Figure 4 shows the input and output
waveforms of a typical emitter follower circuit. The arrows pointing to the positive peaks
of both the input and output waveforms indicate the same instant of time, and all
corresponding points on both waveforms occur at the same time. This circuit is called an
emitter follower because the output AC signal appearing on the emitter follows the input
AC signal applied to the base.
Figure 4. Input and Output Voltages Figure 5. Voltage Gain
The voltage gain from input to output of an emitter follower is slightly less than 1;
therefore, the amplitude of the output signal is slightly lower than the input signal. In
Figure 5, the input signal is a peak amplitude of 1 volt, while the output signal has a peak
amplitude of 0.9 volts. There is actually a loss of 0.1 volt. Since there is a loss in voltage
69
from input to output, it would appear that an emitter follower is not an amplifier.
However, an emitter follower is an amplifier because the output signal can do more work
than the input signal. The increased power of the output signal is due to the low internal
resistance of the emitter follower, and the low internal resistance will permit a much
greater AC current to flow through the load.
The input resistance of an emitter follower is high. Typical values may be anywhere from
approximately 20,000 ohms to more than 500,000 ohms, depending on the transistor used
and the resistor in the circuit. The internal resistance through which the output current
must flow is normally low. Typical values of output resistance may vary from
approximately 50 ohms to 1,000 ohms, depending on the transistor used and the resistor
in the circuit. The voltage gain of an emitter follower is less than 1, but it is relatively
constant over a wide range of values for the emitter resistance and the resistance of the
load.
The power gain of an emitter follower is lower than the power gain of the common
emitter amplifier, but it does have a useful amount of power gain. Typical values of
power gain are from approximately 10 to 30, depending on the transistor and the circuit
in which it is used.
The current gain of an emitter follower depends largely on the beta of the transistor and
the circuit in which it is used. Generally, the current gain is approximately equal to the
beta of the transistor. Typical values of current gain in practical applications will be from
approximately 25 to 40.
The illustrations in this lesson have shown only PNP transistors, but NPN transistors can
be substituted in every circuit. When PNP transistors are used, the polarity of the power
supply voltage must be positive with respect to the ground, instead of negative. When a
positive power supply voltage is used, the directions of the electron flow will be reversed.
Regardless of which type of transistor is used, the AC waveforms remain the same, and a
positive alternation at the input will produce a positive alternation at the output.
EXPERIMENT
This experiment will provide the observation of normal operation and troubleshooting
practice of the common collector or emitter follower amplifier.
70
Figure 6. PC130-31 Schematic
PROCEDURE
1. Set the Nida Model 130E Test Console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY
controls to OFF and turn the test console POWER switch to ON. Insert PC130-31
in the PC2 connector and set the S1 and S2 switches to the OUT position.
2. Set the test console for a POSITIVE VOLTAGE of 12 volts.
4. Using a voltmeter, measure the following static operating potentials to ground.
Record results below.
5. Why do VB and VE indicate a reverse bias?
6. Connect the oscilloscope (DC input to TP4). Use the multimeter to measure VE ,
and use the oscilloscope to measure VB simultaneously.
Does Q1 have forward EB bias?
7. Set the function generator to 5 kHz. Connect the signal from the generator to the
PC1 OUTPUT BNC connector and set it to 2 VPP . Measure from pin E.
8. Use dual display mode and CH1 triggering. Display approximately two cycles.
Fill in Table 1.
71
Notice that the output signal is in phase with the input signal and the voltage gain is
approximately 1.
9. The input resistance can now be determined using the relationship RIN = EIN/IIN (5
kHz input frequency).
10. Set the S1 switch on PC130-31 to the IN position and measure the signal
amplitude at each end of R1, VPP.
11. The output resistance can now be determined by using the relationship
ROUT = EOUT / IOUT
12. The power gain of the emitter follower can now be determined.
72
Review the measured and calculated values. You should see that the voltage gain is
approximately 1 and that the output signal is not inverted. Also, you should notice a
current and power gain along with high input impedance and low output impedance.
These are the characteristics of a common collector amplifier.
13. This completes the experiment. Turn OFF all power. Set the POSITIVE and
NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Remove the PC130-31 card from the PC2
connectors. Remove all connecting cables and restore all equipment to its proper
storage location.
SUMMARY
The common collector amplifier is referred to as an emitter follower because of its high
impedance input and low impedance output. Due to this inherent characteristic, its design
use is valuable. The following key points should be remembered about the emitter
follower.
• An emitter follower is mainly used as an impedance matching device between a
high impedance signal source (a source with a high internal resistance) and a low
resistance load.
• The input resistance of an emitter follower is high. Typical values of input
resistance are from approximately 20,000 ohms to about 500,000 ohms.
• The output resistance (internal resistance) of an emitter follower is lower than the
output resistance of the common emitter amplifier. Typical values of output
resistances are from approximately 50 to 1,000 ohms.
• The voltage gain of an emitter follower is less than 1, but the gain is relatively
constant over a wide range of load resistances.
• The power gain of an emitter follower is lower than the power gain of the
common emitter amplifier. Typical power gains of emitter followers in practical
circuits are from approximately 10 to 100.
• The current gain of an emitter follower is approximately equal to the beta of the
transistor.
• The input signal to an emitter follower is always applied to the base, and the
output is obtained from the voltage that is developed across the emitter resistor.
The output signal of the emitter follower is always in phase with the input signal.
• Problems in an emitter follower circuit can be located by following standard
troubleshooting procedures.
73
EXERCISES
74
75
Lab Session 09
OBJECTIVES
• To analyze the different configurations (Common Base/Emitter/Collector).

• To note the behavior of the characteristic curves.
• To calculate the static current gain.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Base unit for the IPES system (power supply module PSU/EV, module holder
structure mod. MU/EV), Individual Control Unit mod.SISl/SIS2/SIS3
• Experiment module mod.MCM4/EV
• Oscilloscope
• Multimeter
BASIC THEORY
A transistor amplifier can be connected in three different ways or configurations. These
configurations are called the "common emitter", "common collector" or "common base",
depending on which terminal is set to ground. That terminal is then the common
reference for output and input.
Common Emitter Amplifier

As seen in fig. B 17.1, the signal to be amplified is applied to the base terminal and the
amplified output is taken from the collector. If the applied voltage V BE increases, the
current IB also increases, and so does the current Ic (as Ic = hFE .IB). This increase of Ic
increases the voltage VRC and, as VRC = Vcc -VCE, the output voltage VCE decreases.
Similarly when VBE decreases, VCE increases.
We see that:
• the amplifier is inverting, i.e. if the input voltage increases, the output voltage
decreases and vice versa.
• the voltage amplification rises as the value of Rc increases, as a variation in Ic
produces a voltage variation which goes up as Rc increases.
A Common Emitter Amplifier is the only one with a high current and voltage gain, so the
power amplification is very high.
76
Common Collector Amplifier

In this configuration (fig.BI7.2), the collector is the common terminal as it is the only one
among the three which is linked to a fixed voltage (Vcc). However, for ease of reference,
the input signal applied to the base and the output signal taken from the emitter are
referred as usual, to the ground of the circuit (and not to the collector).As VBE is almost
constant in a conducting transistor, any rise or fall of VIN is transferred onto the emitter
and so at the output we have:
VOUT = VIN -VBE
As a result:
• the amplifier is non inverting. If VIN increases, VOUT increases, too
• the voltage amplification is equal to 1, i.e. the emitter voltage variation is equal to
the base variation. This configuration is also called an emitter follower, because
the output follows the input.
The common collector amplifier does not at first seem to be of much use, as it does not
amplify the input voltage. However it is widely used, because it has high input impedance
and a low output impedance. Consequently it can handle input signals from a source of
high impedance, and still deliver an ouput to a low impedance load. In other words, it is
an impedance matcher.
Common Base Amplifier

In this configuration, whose general features are seen in fig. B 17.3, the signal to be
amplified is applied to the emitter and the amplified output is taken from the collector.
When the input voltage VEB (which must always be negative) increases, this means that
VBE drops, the current IB increases, too, and so does the current Ic.
VCB = Vcc -RcIc,
77
The output voltage increases. Similarly, when VEB drops, VCB drops, too.
Note that:
• the amplifier is non inverting
• the voltage gain is proportional to the value of Rc
• the input circuit, as it is crossed by the emitter current IE, has a very low
impedance.
This configuration is particularly used in radio frequency circuits as the input impedance,
in the order of tens of Ohm, matches the 50 Ohm characteristic impedance of antennas
and transmission lines.
PROCEDURE
Common emitter circuit
• Curve VBE = f ( IB) with VCE held constant.
1. Connect jumpers J1, J8, J6, the ammeter between 3-4 and the voltmeter (or the
oscilloscope) between 4-8 to produce the circuit of fig.B17.4
2. Measure the voltage VBE for each value of the current IB shown in the table:
3. Plot the characteristic curve VBE = f (IB).
4. Calculate, at some point on the linear conduction region of the base-emitter
junction, the static input resistance: RIE = VBE/IB
5. You should obtain a value of some thousands of Ohms for RIE. A common
emitter circuit has an average value for its static input resistance.
78
RIE =
• Curve IC = f (VCE) for constant IB
1. Connect jumpers J2, J6, J8, and the meters as indicated in fig.B17.5. The voltage
VCE can also be measured with an oscilloscope.
2. Adjust VCC to 0V, and IB to 20 micro-A
3. Increase the variable voltage Vcc. Measure the collector current IC for the values
of VCE shown in the following table:
4. Plot a curve Ic = f(VCE) for each value of IB, and describe the behavior.
The collector current Ic increases rapidly with the voltage VCE (when this is low), to
become a linear, (almost horizontal), function of VCE and proportional to the base current
IB. For small values of IB, the curves are parallel in the linear region. For values of IB over
mA, the current Ic tends to take values proportional to the collector voltage VCE. In the
linear region the static output resistance is high.
5. For VCE = 5 V calculate, from the previous table, the static current gain
hFE = Ic / IB
for each pair of values (Ic, IB). Complete the following table with the data:
79
6. Plot the curves IC = f (IB) and hFE = f (IB)

The value found depends on Ic, and in particular it gradually increases with Ic to a certain
value, dependent on the transistor, then finally it decreases.
Common base circuit

• Curve VEB = f (IE) with VCB held constant.
1. Connect the instruments as shown in the diagram of fig. B17.6. The voltages can
also be measured with the oscilloscope
2. Keeping VCB constant at 0.5 V, measure the emitter voltage VEB for the values of
IE given in the next table, and obtained by adjusting RV2
3. Plot the input characteristic VEB = f (IE) for VCB = 0.5V.
Input Resistance =
• Curve Ic = f (VCB) for constant IE
1. Set Vcc to 0V and IE to 3 mA initially, by adjusting RV2.

2. Increase Vcc and calculate the collector current Ic , by measuring the voltage
across resistance R4 (lKohm), for each value of VCB in the following table:
3. Repeat these measurements for IE = 1 mA.
4. Draw the curve of Ic = f(VCB).
5. Compare the results of the output characteristics for the common base and
common emitter connection.
6. Calculate from the linear region of the curve Ic = f(VCB) the static output
resistance: ROB = VCB/Ic on the characteristic at IE = 3 mA.
80
ROB =
Common collector circuit

• Curve VCB = f (IB) for constant VCE
1. Connect jumpers J1, J6, J7, J4, and the meters as in the circuit of figure B 1 7.7.
The voltages can also be measured with the oscilloscope.
2. Adjust Vcc to obtain VCE = 5V
3. Vary RV1 to obtain the current values IB shown, keeping VCE = 5 V constant.
Measure the voltage VCB for each value of IB.
4. Repeat these measurements for VCE = 10V.
5. Plot the characteristic input curves for each value of V CE and describe their
behavior.
6. The curve VCB = f(IB) depends on VBB and between B and E there is basically a
diode. Once the base emitter junction is forward biased VBE is constant at about
0.7V; so VCB is constant, and equal to (VCE -VBE)
7. Using the equation RIC = VCB / IB calculate the input resistance, RIC.
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RIC =
• Curve IE = f(VEC) for constant IB
1. Connect jumpers J2, J7, J4, and the meters to produce the circuit of figure B 17.8
2. Adjust Vcc to 0V and IB to 80microA. Gradually increasing Vcc, measure the
emitter current IE for each value of VCE in the next table.
3. Repeat the measurements for IB = 50microA.
4. Plot the characteristic output curve for each value of IB.
SUMMARY TABLE
82
Section Three
FET Based Circuits

Lab Session 10
OBJECTIVES
• To find the output characteristic ID = f (VDS).

• To find the transfer characteristic ID = f (VGS).
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
• Base unit for the IPES system (power supply mod.PSU/EV, module holder structure
mod. MU/EV),
• Individual Control Unit
• Mod.SISl/SIS2/SIS3
• Experiment module mod.MCM4/EV
• Oscilloscope
• Multimeter
BASIC THEORY
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
The field-effect transistor differs from the PNP or NPN bipolar transistors in its operation
as well as in its structure. The current in the JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
consists of a single type of carrier. The JFET symbols, for N and P channels are shown in
figure B14.1, while the physical models are outlined in figure B14.2. The terminal D is
the Drain, G the Gate, S is the Source. The main difference between a bipolar transistor
and a FET is that a BJT controls one current (I collector) with another current (I base),
while a FET controls a current (I Drain) with a voltage (V Gate-Source).
83
Operating principle
Consider an N channel JFET with dc voltages shown in figure B14.3.
If the voltage VG is zero, the current 10 flows through the resistance of the doped N type
semi-conductor. If VG increases, reverse biasing the PN junction, some of carriers in the
junction region are removed. The volume of the region which has no carriers is
proportional to this applied voltage (figure BI4.4).
You can note that the N channel restricts, and that its conductivity decreases. In other
words, the resistance between S and D increases as the volume of the depletion region
increases. In normal operation the PN junction between Gate and Source is reverse
biased. The input current is very low: this causes the JFET to have very high input
impedance, of many Mega ohms.
Suppose now we short-circuit the Gate and the Source and apply a voltage between them,
VDS > 0. As the Drain is at positive potential with respect to the Gate, the PN junction
becomes more reverse biased the higher the voltage VDS (figure BI4.5). In these
conditions a depletion region occurs which reduces the channel conductivity. Increasing
the voltage VDS, produces two opposed effects:
1. The current density between D and S increases

2. The channel resistance between D and S increases.
84
As the last effect is non linear with the voltage, a point is reached for a certain value of
VDS where the current ID no longer increases. When VGS = 0 Volt, the max. current
between drain and source is called loss. Vp (pinch-off voltage) is the minimum voltage
VDS for which the current 10 has a constant value IDSS.
The current ID is then proportional to the voltage VDS and to the voltage VGS. With
|VGS| > VP, the channel is completely closed and IDS = 0, irrespective of the voltage VDS.
This voltage value VGS is called the disconnected voltage and is indicated by VGSoff. Note
that VGSoff differs from Vp only in sign: VGSoff = -Vp.
Characteristic curves
The output, or Drain characteristics of an FET (fig.B14.6) show how the Drain current ID
depends on the Drain-Source voltage VDS (for different values of the Gate-Source voltage
VGS). Note that:
• for VDS < V p - |VGS| the FET behaves as a resistor (ohmic region)
• for VDS > Vp - |VGS| the current ID does not depend on VDS but depends only on VGS
(saturation region)
• when VGS decreases (becomes more negative), so does ID.
Mutual conductance characteristic

In the saturation region of the FET, ID depends in practice only on VGS (fig. B14.7). This
dependence is expressed by the equation:
85
IDS = Drain current in saturation region.

IDSS = Drain current for VGS = 0.
Vp = Pinch-off voltage.
The MOSFET
The "Metal-Oxide-Silicon FET" represents an evolution of the JFET in its technology
and construction. Although its principle of operation is similar to the FET, it has a
different structure. A thin layer of insulating oxide is placed between the Gate and the
Drain-Source channel. For this reason, it is sometimes called an "Insulated Gate FET"
(IGFET). There are two kinds of MOSFET. One type operates on the principle of carrier
depletion, and the other on the principle of carrier enhancement. Their symbols are
shown in figure B 14.8.
Depletion Type MOSFET

The structure of an N channel DEPLETION MOSFET is as shown in figure B14.9. As in
the FET, the channel between D and S is continuous. It is supported by a lightly doped
semiconductor base (P type), called the "Substrate". In the absence of Gate biasing, the
MOSFET conducts with the carriers available in the channel. If the Gate is reverse
biased, the channel is depleted of its carriers and conduction decreases. The "Drain
current" / "Drain-Source voltage" output characteristic is shown in figure B14.10.
86
Enhancement Type MOSFET

The N channel Enhancement type MOSFET is shown in figure B14.11. It does not have a
continuous channel between Drain and Source, and so it cannot conduct when there is no
Gate biasing. However for VGS > 0 negative carriers are attracted by the Gate into the
area between S and D. An N-channel is created and the device can then conduct. This is
the only kind of FET which is cut off with VGS = 0, and which controls the Drain current
with a positive V GS. This behavior is similar to a bipolar transistor. Figure BI4.12.
shows the "Drain current" / "Drain-Source voltage" output characteristic.
MOSFET compared to the JFET
The advantages of the MOSFET compared to the JFET are:

• as the Gate is insulated, these devices present an even higher input impedance than
the JFET
• the Gate usually has a lower input capacitance, so the MOSFET shows a better
response to high frequencies.
• The disadvantage of MOS technology is that the insulating coating of SiO2 can be
damaged permanently by electrostatic discharges. They must be handled with care
87
before connection to the circuit. One simple protection consists of short-circuiting the
three pins. Another is to store them in anti-static material.
PROCEDURE
Determining the output characteristic of a JFET
1. Connect jumpers J31, J32, J18, the ammeter between 23 and 24, the voltmeter (or the
oscilloscope) between Drain and Source to produce the circuit shown in figure.
2. Adjust the voltage Vcc of the variable power supply to 0V initially. Then gradually
increase Vcc and measure the current ID into the circuit and the voltage VDS of the
FET for each value of Vcc in the following table:
3. Plot the curve ID = f (VDS) (see next example) and find the pinch-off voltage Vp, and
the saturation current IDSS.
88
Determining the transfer characteristic of a JFET
4. Produce the circuit of fig.B14.18, by connecting jumpers J30, J37, J19, the ammeter
and the voltmeter (or the oscilloscope) as shown in the figure.
5. Vary VGS by adjusting RV8 and measure the current ID for each value of the
following table.
6. Evaluate the Gate voltage VGoff for which the Drain current is reduced to zero
7. Plot the curve ID = f(VGS) (see next example), and evaluate the value of IDSS.
CONCLUSION
The two graphs represent the output characteristic and the transfer characteristic of JFET.
89
Lab Session 11
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and describe the schematic diagram and symbol of a FET amplifier.
2. Describe the operating characteristics of a FET amplifier.
3. Observe normal operation in a FET amplifier circuit.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
¾ Nida Model 130E Test Console
¾ Nida Series 130 Experiment Card : PC130-49
¾ Function Generator
¾ Oscilloscope
¾ Multimeter
INTRODUCTION
In previous lessons, you studied the transistor amplifier. A bipolar transistor is a current
device, where a small input current causes a large output current in an AC amplifier. The
field effect transistor, or FET as it is called, is used as an amplifier also. Internally, the
FET is much different from the bipolar transistor; therefore, the bias circuits for FET
amplifiers are different from transistor bias circuits.
A FET works on the principle of transconductance. The term "conductance" means 1/R
or 1/E. "Trans" refers to transfer from input to output. Thus, when applied to a FET,
"transconductance" means output current controlled by input voltage. In a transistor,
input current controls the output current. In a FET, the input voltage controls the output
current. The abbreviation for transconductance is "Gm" when referring to DC bias and
"gm" when referring to AC variations. If a FET has a gm equal to .001 mho (1 m-mho), it
means that a 1 volt input causes a 1 milliampere output (1 mA ÷ 1 V = .001 mho). Most
FETs have a transconductance range of 1 to 10 m-mhos. To amplify a voltage, the
changing output current must be impressed on a resistance, which will cause a changing
voltage.
In this manner, a changing input voltage may be converted to a changing output voltage,
and voltage gain results. FET amplifiers do not exhibit large voltage gains. A basic rule
to determine voltage gain is to multiply the RD bias resistor times .002. This means a FET
amplifier with an RD that is equal to 10k-ohmsexhibits a voltage gain of approximately
20. The output of a FET (source and drain) is biased much like the transistor. Instead of
an RC resistor, an RD resistor is used. If the device is an N channel type, the supply
voltage, called VSS, is positive. The input bias circuit for a FET is much different for a
90
transistor. In fact, the bias is backwards for a FET. The input diode between the gate and
source leads must be reversed biased. If the diode in a FET is forward biased, the circuit
will not operate properly and the device may be damaged.
The Field Effect Transistor (FET)

In many respects, the FET works much like an electron tube. The source is like the
cathode, the gate is like the grid, and the drain is like the plate. A reverse bias is applied
to the gate to control the current flow through the FET. The symbol for a FET is different
from the symbol for a transistor. The arrowhead is on the gate instead of the emitter. The
source and drain leads are drawn at right angles to the gate as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Basic JFET Configuration
FET Operation
Look at Figure 1; it is necessary for understanding the FET operation. The FET works
much like an electron tube. The FET conducts from source to drain, and the gate voltage
controls the current flow. The FET conducts less and less as the gate is made more and
more negative (PN junction increases). The gate can be made so negative that the FET
will be cut off. The FET will also have maximum conduction if it is not biased by a
negative gate voltage (PN junction decreases). Thus, the FET can be conducting
normally, cut off, or saturated much like the electron tube. Measuring the drain voltage is
an easy way to see what a FET is doing. If the drain voltage is the same as the drain
source voltage, the FET is cut off. If the drain voltage is very low (less than a volt), the
FET is saturated. If the drain voltage is somewhere between cut-off and saturation, the
ET is conducting normally. The FET will amplify a small PN junction barrier signal to a
large signal. The input is applied to the gate to vary the bias on the FET. Varying the bias
will change the conduction through the drain load resistor which reproduces the signal.
The output signal is inverted or 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal.
91
The FET Amplifier Characteristics And Biasing Joint FET (JFET)

Bias Circuit
A JFET is formed from a bar of either P or N type material with a small section of the bar
replaced by the opposite type material. Figure 2 shows a typical JFET bias circuit. At
saturation, there will be no potential difference between the gate and the source. At cut-
off, when no current flows through the N channel, the source voltage may be several
volts more negative than the gate potential. Polarities are reversed for a P channel device.
A JFET operates as a variable resistor, of which the resistance is controlled by the voltage
applied to the gate. However, unlike a resistive device, changing the drain voltage will
have very little effect on drain current, within an area of operation called the active
region. Below the active region, a FET will behave like a resistive device. A change in
drain voltage will produce a proportional change in drain current. The transition point
between the active and resistance regions is called Pinchoff. The change in the drain
voltage will not be proportional to a change in the input signal (gate voltage) if the input
signal swing is of large amplitude. RG in Figure 2 is used to develop the input signal and
to provide a DC ground return for the bias voltage. RS develops the bias operating point,
which is usually made to lie in the middle of the active region. RD develops the output
signal. A bypass capacitor is usually placed across the source resistor in order to increase
amplifier gain. As in a common emitter circuit, the source resistance helps stabilize
amplifier operation against VDD and temperature variations. A JFET is a depletion mode
device.
Figure 2. FET Bias Circuit
MOSFET (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET) Bias Circuit

Unlike the P-N junction JFET device, a MOSFET has an electrically isolated gate
element. Depletion mode JFETS and MOSFETS employ identical biasing circuits.
Enhancement mode MOSFETS, on the other hand, require a positive bias source which
may be similar to the voltage divider bias circuit of a bipolar transistor. Figure 3A shows
the bias circuit of a depletion mode MOSFET. Figure 3B shows the bias circuit of an
enhancement mode MOSFET. There is one important difference between a depletion
mode MOSFET and a JFET. The gate of the N channel MOSFET can be made positive
with respect to the source. But this must never occur in an N channel JFET, because the
P-N junction formed by the gate and the channel would become forward biased and
92
probably destroy itself.
Figure 3. MOSFET Bias Circuits
FET Amplifier Configurations

FET circuits can be grouped into three operating categories: voltage amplifiers,
impedance matching circuits, and switching circuits. The circuit configurations that
accomplish these operations are the common source, common drain (source follower),
and common gate. The operation of JFETs and MOSFETs are similar enough not to
warrant separate explanations. The circuitry of each configuration is nearly identical to
the ones covered under bipolar transistors. A common source amplifier is shown in
Figures 2 and 3. Figure 3B is an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET. This is
normally an off device; it must be properly biased to turn on. Depletion mode devices are
normally turned on. See Figure 4 for examples of common drain and common gate
circuits. Figure 4A is a common drain circuit (source follower) with very high input
impedance and low output impedance. Figure 4B is a common gate circuit. In both
circuits of Figure 13, the outputs are in phase with the inputs.
Figure 4. Common Drain and Common Gate Configurations
93
FET Amplifier Characteristics

The FET has certain advantages over a bipolar transistor as well as limitations. The
bipolar transistor has a relatively low input impedance whereas the FET has an input
impedance of several mega ohms. The non-linear output from a FET can be used to
automatically control the gain of amplifiers. One of the most significant features of a FET
is its low noise characteristics. Great care must be taken when handling MOSFETS due
to their sensitivity to static electricity.
EXPERIMENT
Figure 5. Common Source Amplifier, PC130-49
PREPARATION
In this experiment, you will measure the electrical characteristics of a common source
JFET amplifier, using a multimeter and an oscilloscope.
PROCEDURE
1. Set both SUPPLY controls to OFF, and turn the console POWER switch to ON.
2. Insert experiment card PC130-49 on the PC1 connector.
3. Connect the function generator to the PC1 INPUT BNC. Set the function
generator's output for 1 kHz, 3 VPP as measured using an oscilloscope on pin E.
4. Adjust the POSITIVE SUPPLY control to 12 volts. Turn the PC1 DC POWER
switch to ON. Use the multimeter to measure DC voltages and the oscilloscope to
measure AC voltages.
5. Set R6 fully clockwise (CW) on PC130-49. This will reduce the load on the
amplifier and allow better readings.
6. Refer to Figure 5. Perform the required measurements and calculations to
94
complete the information requested in Table 1.
Notice from Table 1 that the FET has an extremely small DC gate voltage, a small source
voltage, and a large drain voltage. These are characteristics of a FET that is functioning
properly. Also notice that the AC signals are relatively low for the gate and source, with a
large amplified signal on the drain. This, too, is characteristic of a FET. The gain of the
FET can always be determined from the ratio of the AC output voltage to the AC input
voltage. This ratio corresponds to the drain voltage over the gate voltage. The phase
difference between the input and output (gate and drain) of a common source FET is
always 180o out of phase, as you have just seen. Such a large output signal from the FET
makes it obvious that the circuit is a voltage amplifier. The common source amplifier is
typically used as a voltage amplifier. This concludes the experiment on the common
source FET amplifier.
console POWER switch to OFF, and return all test equipment to its designated
storage area.
SUMMARY
¾ A FET amplifier does not exhibit a very large voltage gain, but it is switchable as
a linear amplifier.
¾ The FET amplifier is not used for its voltage gain characteristic. It is used because
of its extremely large input resistance and power gain.
¾ The primary difference between a FET amplifier and a transistor amplifier is the
input resistance of each.
¾ A transistor amplifier input impedance is in the tens of ohms for the common
base, in kilohms for the common emitter, and in the hundreds of kilohms for the
common collector.
¾ If an input generator with a large RG is connected to the input of a transistor
amplifier, the input (EIN) to the transistor will load down the generator and reduce
95
the overall stage gain accordingly.

¾ The input resistance to a FET amplifier is in the megohms.
¾ The input resistance is set by the bias resistor (RG) and not by the FET itself. This
is true because the input of a JFET is comparable to a reverse biased silicon diode.
¾ If an input generator with a large RG is connected to the input of a FET amplifier,
the input of the FET will not load down the generator because of its large input
resistance. As a result, the overall stage gain of a FET amplifier may be larger
than a transistor amplifier, when driven by a high resistance generator. The
amplifier gain is relatively unimportant, and the stage gain is a true measure of the
amplifier performance.
¾ Because of its large input resistance, a FET amplifier draws very little current
from the input generator.
¾ This results in a large current gain.
¾ The power gain of any amplifier is equal to (POUT ÷ PIN), where POWER
equals (E x I).
¾ Mathematically, this results in the equation POWER GAIN = AV x AI. Since AI
is very large for a FET, the power gain will also be large.
¾ The maximum power output of any generator always occurs when RL = RG.
¾ Because the output of a FET amplifier (or any amplifier) is a generator, maximum
power output of the amplifier occurs when RL = RG. As a result, maximum
power gain of an amplifier also occurs when RL = RG of the amplifier.
¾ Power gain is the primary goal of an amplifier.
¾ Voltage gain or current gain alone will not drive a speaker.
¾ This is also true for FET amplifiers.
¾ Because of their large power gain, FET amplifiers out perform transistor
amplifiers.
¾ If it were not for the low power handling capabilities, cost, and sensitivity to noise
damage, the FET would be more popular than the transistor.
96
EXERCISES
97
98
99

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LABORATORY WORK BOOK

For The Course

Roll No. : ________________________

Department of Electronic Engineering

For The Course

EL-231 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Muhammad Faisal (Lecturer) & Adeel Razi (Lecturer)

Muhammad Nauman (Associate Professor)

The Board of Studies of Department of Electronic Engineering

Lab# List of Experiments Page#

Diode Based Circuits

1 To analyze the half-wave, full-wave and bridge rectifier 01

2 To study the smoothing filters 11

BJT Based Circuits

3A To study the operating characteristic of PNP transistors 19

3B To study the operating characteristic of NPN transistors 27

4 To study the different biasing circuit operations of the 35

5 To study the Q-point and its position on the load line 46

6 To study the operation of the Common Emitter Amplifier 50

7 To study the operation of the Common Base Amplifier 59

8 To study the operation of the Common Collector Amplifier 68

9 To analyze the different configuration of the transistor 76

FET Based Circuits

10 To study the output and transfer characteristic of JFET 83

11 To study the operating characteristic of FET Amplifier 90

Diode Based Circuits

• To study the half-wave rectifier.

• Base unit for the IPES system.

The key features of this graph are:

Another important parameter of a semiconductor diode is the differential resistance rd.

The rms voltage is:

Full Wave Rectifier

The rms voltage Veff is:

Analysis of the Half-wave Rectifier

Analysis of the Full-wave Rectifier

Analysis of the Graetz Bridge Rectifier

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Write down the frequency of the Half wave rectifier output?

Write down the frequency of the Full wave rectifier output?

Write down the frequency of the Bridge rectifier output?

¾ A full-wave rectifier consists of two or four diodes connected to utilize both

• Base unit for the IPES system power supply.

To reduce the ripple it is necessary to smooth the voltage using filters.

The voltage across the load looks like this;

• Maximum current flowing in diodes:

• Average current in diodes:

• Average output voltage:

LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Charge Path)

LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Discharge Path)

CLC and CRC Filter

LC Capacitor Input Filter

Analysis Capacitive Filter

1. Remove jumper J24 to produce the L C filter.

Analysis of CLC Filters

1. Connect jumper J23, to produce the CLC filter.

C, LC, and CLC filter circuits with full-wave rectifiers

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

What are the ripple voltages in case of C-filters?

What are the ripple voltages in case of LC-filters?

What are the ripple voltages in case of CLC-filters?

What effect can be observed when the load resistance increases?

What effect can be observed when the capacitance increases?