Background briefing paper

Reading and the Key Stage 3 Strategy

Key Stage 3 National Strategy English

Strategies to enhance pupils reading

In teaching pupils to read it is recognised that the ability to decode text and orchestrate a range of other cues whilst reading are vital elements of the reading process, but that they are not in themselves enough to produce critical, engaged and fluent readers. It is also important that as part of the reading process pupils understand what they read, engage with it, critically evaluate it, make connections between what they have read and their existing knowledge and reflect upon their responses and what they have learnt. In shared, guided and independent reading we should be supporting pupils as they develop these strategies and behaviours, as well as teaching them the necessary skills they need to read at a literal level. In shared and guided reading sessions teachers have the opportunity to: explicitly teach strategies for enhancing critical understanding and informed reflection; model how to use such strategies; support pupils as they practise the use of these strategies; encourage pupils to become enthusiastic, autonomous and thoughtful readers.

In this paper we will look at some recent research which demonstrates the importance of explicitly teaching comprehension within the reading curriculum; consider why having a range of strategies to promote comprehension is crucial for pupils; consider the importance of pupils monitoring their own understanding as they read and of making their own decisions about which strategies may be helpful to them; suggest some of the strategies that can be used to support pupils as they develop as enthusiastic, autonomous, engaged and thoughtful readers.

Recent research into reading comprehension (or making meaning from texts) Over the last few years there has been a renewed research interest (Pressley 2000, Kintsch 1998, Duke 2001) into, what is called in the USA, reading comprehension. This renewed research interest is not however a return to the concept of comprehension current in the period from 1945-1980. At that time the research was characterised by attempts to identify the sub-skills of comprehension, then to establish some sort of hierarchy and then to teach these identified skills to pupils in progressive order. Such an approach is still to be found in some reading comprehension exercises. Rather, the renewed research focus is based on seeing the child as actively engaging with the text to create meaning. It emphasises the acquisition of strategies whilst engaged in authentic reading, rather than being taught as a separate suite of skills; it 2

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English has broadened the range of strategies to include both cognitive and interpretive strategies and it uses a problem solving approach (Pearson 2001). It also recognises the impact of reader differences and the wider socio-cultural context within which any act of reading takes place. Pressley (2000) has undertaken a major research review in this field and he offers a list of approaches to reading development, and particularly comprehension development, which represent an up-to-date synthesis of all the major strands of research-derived strategies for improving reading. Some of it is particular to Ks1 & 2 but much of it is directly relevant to KS3. Pressleys list of pedagogic strategies to improve comprehension (and which relate to KS3) is: teach the use of context cues and monitoring meaning; teach vocabulary; encourage extensive reading; encourage students to ask their own Why? questions of a text; teach self-regulated comprehension strategies, e.g.: prior knowledge activation question generation construction of mental images during reading summarization analyzing into story grammar and non-fiction genre components; encourage reciprocal teaching (teacher modelling of strategies + scaffolding for student independence); encourage transactional strategies instruction (an approach based on readers exploring texts with their peers and their teacher).

Pressleys list of strategies places considerable emphasis on various forms of vocabulary work. The importance of vocabulary development is also stressed in the USA governments National Reading Panel Report (NRPR, 2000), which has undertaken a review of the research evidence regarding effective teaching of reading. In looking at reading comprehension it examined 230 research studies and noted three main themes in the research on the development of reading comprehension skills. First, reading comprehension is a complex cognitive process that cannot be understood without a clear description of the role that vocabulary development and vocabulary instruction play in the understanding of what has been read. Second, comprehension is an active process that requires an intentional and thoughtful interaction between the reader and the text. Third, the preparation of teachers to better equip students to develop and apply reading comprehension strategies to enhance understanding is intimately linked to students' achievement in this area. (NRPR, 2000)
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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English The second element noted by the NRPR (intentional and thoughtful engagement between the reader and the text) is also stressed in Pressleys list which puts emphasis on a number of ways in which the students comprehension might be enhanced through making connections and considering responses. Such activities are characterised as being cognitive and social, and are also active (for example rehearsing prior knowledge, generating mental images, activating knowledge about text structure) and interactive (for example asking why questions, engaging in reciprocal teaching, working with the teacher and peers) This emphasis on collaborative and/or interactive approaches to reading comprehension has been a characteristic of research in the field over the past ten years and draws on theoretical perspectives from the cognitive sciences (for example from schema theory and story grammar) and socio-cultural perspectives (for example the teaching models of Vygotsky and Bruner). The model of teaching advocated by Pressley and the NRPR is therefore a balance of direct instruction along with teacher modelling and guided practise, leading to independent practise and autonomy. This model is one which is reflected in KS3 English department training . Both Pressley and the NRPR research overview on comprehension emphasise the crucial role of the teacher in explicitly encouraging the use of comprehension strategies. The NRPR cites evidence to show that the pupils of teachers who consciously included reading comprehension strategies within their reading programmes made better progress in their reading. It seems that comprehension improves when teachers provide explicit instruction in comprehension strategies (Gambrell et al, 1999) and when teachers design and implement activities that support understanding (Tharp, 1992, Stahl et al 1997). Explicitly planning to include such strategies within shared and guided reading would therefore seem to be an essential part of a successful reading programme.

The importance of having a range of learning strategies It seems from research quoted above that there is a growing consensus about the kinds of experiences pupils need to develop their reading comprehension, in the teaching model and in the range of strategies that might be helpful. We will consider specific strategies in Part 2 of this paper but the NRPR report drew attention to the importance of pupils having a range of reading comprehension strategies. Work in cognitive psychology has shown that pupils need to have access to a range of strategies to enable development to take place. Siegler (2000) in a recent overview into learning and development makes the point that learners need a range of production strategies (ways of doing things) and that having a wide range of production strategies is important for development to take place. Learners, he claims, add to their repertoire of strategies by: observation (watching someone do it); discovery / invention (finding out for themselves); direct instruction (explain, show, tell, practise, feedback); 4

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English analogy (if this works for x it might also work for Y).

They then go on to refine these strategies by: automation (practising it until it becomes habitual), reflection (doing something and then thinking about it), examination (i.e. social examination, comparing and contrasting with others).

Access to a range of strategies is important for development but also to accommodate pupils different learning styles. Research into brain function has shown that different areas of the brain are used when different kinds of thinking and learning are required. Some pupils show a marked preference for strategies that require a particular type of learning to be used. Using a range of strategies ensures that pupils can use both those strategies that they prefer but also those that require that other types of learning are stimulated. Howard Gardner (1993) has identified seven different aspects of learning. These are: linguistic or verbal, visual/spatial, logical/mathematical, physical/ kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal and metacognitive.

Robert Fisher gives a useful summary of strategies to enhance these different types of learning in his book Teaching Pupils to Learn (1995, p 5-11).

The importance of metacognitive awareness in reading comprehension Siegler sees the pupil as moving from acquiring strategies to a being able to reflect on their usefulness and compare them with others. This implies a level of conscious decision making by the pupil. This self awareness and ability to reflect is important in learning. Gardner lists metacognitive intelligence as one of the types of learning but it is one that, until recently, was rarely actively encouraged in many classrooms. Vygotsky (1962) suggested that there are two stages in the development of knowledge; firstly there is automatic unconscious acquisition (we learn things or do things but do not know that we know these things) and secondly there is a gradual increase in active conscious control over that knowledge (we begin to know that we know and that there is more we do not know). The second of these is a metacognitive level of understanding. Over the last decade we have become increasingly aware of the importance of metacognition in learning to read (Baker and Brown, 1984). One of the characteristics distinguishing younger readers from older readers, and poorer readers from fluent readers, is that younger and poorer readers often do not recognise when they have not understood a text (Garner and Reis, 1981); i.e. there is evidence that they are not actively aware 5

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English of their own level of understanding and are therefore not able to make an autonomous decision to use a strategy to enhance their understanding. Other readers show a greater awareness of their own level of understanding for they will stop when a text does not make sense to them. Some will then go on to select from their range of strategies that which might help overcome their problem. In shared and guided reading sessions we can model for pupils how fluent readers monitor their understanding and use strategies to clarify their own understanding. These may range from semantic strategies to work out a troublesome word to sophisticated reflections on whether the meaning is deliberately obscure (as in a mystery) or perhaps challenging the author/text because you think they are incorrect. Such teacher modelling is an important part of the learning opportunities within reading sessions. The work of Gerry Duffy and Laura Roehler (Duffy et al 1987; Duffey and Roehler, 1989) concerning teacher demonstration and modelling are the ones most often referred to. Guided reading Guided reading is an approach that is concerned with developing pupils reading skills and understanding of texts through scaffolded support and monitoring by the teacher. Scaffolding itself, as Harrison (2002) points out, was based on Vygotskys (1962) Zone of Proximal Development, and the term used by Wood (1976) to describe the teaching support that enables a pupil to make the next learning step. Perhaps the main aim of guided reading is to assist pupils in learning how to use independent reading strategies successfully, and in an analysis of research that underpins the guided reading approach, Jean Biddulph (2002) cites the following as the benefits of guided reading: Guided reading allows the teacher to focus on the specific comprehension strategies required by individual students. Guided reading enables the teacher to select texts that focus on the specific strategy the learner needs to be introduced to, develop, or practice. Guided reading enables students to be taught a range of comprehension strategies, which allows them to comprehend a variety of genres and texts. Guided reading helps improve readers comprehension by activating relevant prior knowledge and to connect new information with what they already know. Teachers using guided reading select texts and teaching strategies that build on students background knowledge. Regular guided reading sessions help teachers to understand and cater for the diverse backgrounds of their students. Working with small groups for guided reading allows teachers to monitor student learning needs and adjust their teaching accordingly.

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English Implications for consultants If we accept that a pupils ability to read with understanding goes beyond merely decoding texts then it follows that we need to: know a wide range of strategies to encourage reading comprehension; know when and how to use them effectively within shared and guided reading; know how to model the strategies to pupils; know how to encourage pupils to use then themselves in shared, guided, group and independent reading; help teachers become aware of a range of strategies and why they should be using them.

Part 2 of this paper suggests an extensive range of strategies that we can use in our work to encourage deeper and wider reading.

References
Baker, L. & Brown, A.L. (1984) Metacognitive Skills and Reading. In Pearson, D. (ed), Handbook of Reading Research, New York: Longman. Biddulph, J (2002) Guided Reading: Grounded in theoretical Understandings Duffy, G.G. et al (1987) Effects of explaining the reasoning associated with using reading strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 347 - 368 Duffy, G.G. and Roehler, L.R. (1989) Why strategy instruction is so difficult and what we need to do about it. In C.B. McCormick. G.Miller and M.Pressley (Eds.) Cognitive strategy research: from basic research to educational applications. (pp 133 -154). New York: Springer-Verlag. Fisher, R. (1995) Teaching Pupils to Learn, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. Gambrell, L.B., Morrow, L.M., Neuman, S.B., & Pressley, M. (1999) Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, New York: Guilford Publications. Gardner, H. (1993) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, New York: Basic Books. Garner, R. & Reis, R. (1981) Monitoring And Resolving Comprehension Obstacles: An Investigation Of Spontaneous Text Lookbacks Among Upper Grade Good And Poor Comprehenders. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 569-582. Harrison, C (2002) Roots and Research. DfES/0353/2002). Available on the Key Stage 3 website www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/keystage3/publciations Harrison, C (in press) What Does Research Tell Us About How To Develop Comprehension? In Fisher, R., Brooks, G. & Lewis, M. (eds.), Raising Standards in Literacy, London: Routledge. Kintsch, W. (1998) Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. National Reading Panel, (2000) Report Of The National Reading Panel, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Available at www.nationalreadingpanel.org. Pearson, D. (1996) Reclaiming the Center. In Graves, M., van den Broek, P. & Taylor, B.M. (eds.), The First R: Every Childs Right to Read, New York: Teachers College Press. Pressley, M. (2000) What Should Comprehension Instruction Be The Instruction Of? In Kamil, M. et al. (eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Siegler, R. (2000) The Rebirth of Pupils Learning. Child Development, 71:7,26-35 Seigler, R. & Jenkins, E. A. (1989) How Pupils Discover New Strategies. Hillsdale N.J.: Erlbaum
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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English

Stahl, S. A. (1998) Vocabulary Development, Cambridge, MA: Brookline Press. Tharp, (1992) The Effective Instruction of Comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 17: 4, 503-527. Vygotsky, L. (1962) Thought and Language, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Development, 17, 89-100. Further reading This background paper is, necessarily, a brief overview. If you are interested in any particular aspect of enhancing reading comprehension you should certainly visit the National Reading Panel Report, Chapter 4 (on comprehension) and the library section of the CEIRA website (the presentations section) where you will find up-todate work in this area.

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English Part 2 Strategies to Develop Pupils' Reading There is a large body of literature on strategies to support readers in understanding, responding to and reflecting on texts. What follows is a 'reference list' and a very brief outline of some of the main strategies. Each of these comes from a background of theory, research and classroom practice and references are given where possible. You may well find that some of the things we mention are already well known to you (e.g. character grids), but others may be completely new. It is not an exhaustive list and it is one that we hope will continue to grow as we share our successful practice with each other. As you look at these consider whether they are pre-reading, during reading or post-reading strategies. Also consider how pupils could use these strategies in independent reading as well as when reading with a supportive adult. The strategies apply equally to texts where exploring the visual information is important to a full understanding. Cognitive strategies Prior knowledge activation Activation of prior knowledge can develop pupils understanding by helping them see links between what they already know and new information they are encountering and thus making teaching more effective. There are many ways of encouraging pupils to bring to the forefront of their minds, knowledge that relates to the text they are about to read or are reading. Brainstorming around the title, chapter heading, picture on the front cover (these can be written, oral or drawn). Word association chain around key word in title or in the text. Ask for memories around key word in title or an artefact (This reminds me of It makes me think of). Filling in a mind-mapping, concept mapping or other grids/proforma (e.g. the first column of a KWL grid).

The use of such strategies is based on insights from schema theory, which explores how we build and access knowledge.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980) Schemata: The Building Blocks Of Comprehension, in Spiro, R., Bruce, B. & Brewer, W. (eds.) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Langer, J.A. (1981) From theory to practice: a pre-reading plan. Journal of Reading. 25, 2. Anderson, R.C. (1994) The Role Of Readers Schema In Comprehension, Learning And Memory. In R.B. and M.R.Ruddell (Eds) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, (Fourth Edition). Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association.
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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English Prediction/group prediction This involves discussing a text with a teacher or reading partner. The aim of the strategy is to establish the purpose for reading, to encourage reasoning whilst reading and to test predictions. The pupils should offer evidence for their hypothesis. This can be oral, or pupils could make written predictions/revisions in a reading journal. Prediction is one of a group of strategies, including cloze procedure, summarising, sequencing, comparing texts and alternative representations. These are known collectively as Directed Activities Related to Text (DARTS), which were developed, by Lunzer and Gardiner in the 1980s.
Lunzer, E. & Gardner, K. (1979) The Effective Use of Reading. Oxford: Heinemann Lunzer, E. & Gardner, K. (1984) Learning from the Written Word. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd Wray, D. & Lewis, M. (1997) Extending Literacy: Pupils Reading and Writing Non-fiction. London & New York: Routledge

Constructing images (visualising, drawing, drama) Creating visual images is claimed to improve comprehension by linking prior experiences to the new idea thus building richer schemas (also see Activitating prior knowledge above). The teacher models the process by reading aloud and talking about any associations that come to mind and asking the pupils to picture it. Pupils are then encouraged to do the same for other passages and verbalise this process to a partner. Can be used with both fiction and non-fiction texts. During and after reading pupils can draw what they see, or undertake freeze frames of key moments in a narrative, or design storyboards for a particular incident.

Moline, S. (1997) I See What You Mean. Pupils Working With Visual Information. Longman Johnson, C (2000) Speaking, Listening and Drama, in Fisher R and Williams M (eds.) Unlocking Literacy: A Guide For Teachers, London: David Fulton.

Summarising Effective summarising involves pupils evaluating a text and deciding which elements of it are most significant. Model skim reading a text. Then encourage skim reading or rereading and ask for oral summaries. Go through a text paragraph by paragraph highlighting the key sentence/sentences in each. Pupils can be asked to write brief summaries at the end of each chapter outlining key events and further insights into character, plot and theme. 10

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English Summarise by restructuring key information contained in a text into a non-prose form. It may involve pupils drawing a matrix, a tree diagram, a semantic map/word web, a labelled picture or a retrieval chart.

Fisher, R. (2000) Stories Are For Thinking. Creative Ways To Share Reading. In Fisher, R. and Williams, M. (eds.) Unlocking Literacy: A Guide For Teachers, London: David Fulton. Neate, B. (1992) Finding Out about Finding Out, Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton. Mallet, M (2000) Young Researchers, London : Routledge. Moline, S. (1997) I See What You Mean: Pupils Working With Visual Information. Longman

Questioning/ clarifying Discussion Class, group or individual focused discussion with the aim of clarifying understanding. Such discussion goes beyond simple recall questions into inference and deduction. Talk to the Author A text is provided (with wide margins). Questions to the author are written in the margin, for example 'Who was this? Why did this happen?' The teacher models the process initially and then the pupils try. It is claimed that it encourages pupils to engage with the text and helps them differentiate between fact and opinion, as well as helping them search for bias.
Cairney, T. H. (1990) Teaching Reading Comprehension: Meaning Makers at Work, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Focus journals These journals are claimed to encourage students to review their background knowledge, reflect on previous learning and predict future learning. The pupils will have read some of the book in private reading and when they join the guided group it is a way of focusing their attention before reading the next section. The teacher writes the focus on the board before the pupils join the group e.g. what seemed important to you in what you learnt about X? The pupils read the focus, reflect on their response and write in their journals. This then serves as a basis for discussion.
Pardo, L. S. & Raphael, T. E. (1991) Classroom Organisation For Instruction In The Content Areas. The Reading Teacher, 44: 8.

Story grammar/ text structure analysis Throughout the 1970s and early 80s cognitive psychologists examined individuals mental representations (schema) of story components and how these components fitted together. They argued that as we listen to and read stories so our knowledge about stories grows and we can draw on this knowledge to help us predict and understand what is happening, and is likely to happen, in new stories. This accumulating knowledge of stories texts develops in us a set of expectations for the structure of a story, helps facilitate our understanding of stories and improves our memory/recall of a story. This
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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English work gave rise to several classroom strategies such as story mapping, story grids and story structure charts. In the 80s and 90s attention turned to the structure of non-fiction texts.
Mandler, J. M. & Johnson, N. S. (1977) Remembrance of Things Parsed: Story Structure and Recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111-151. Whaley, J. F. (1981) Story Grammars and Reading Instruction. The Reading Teacher, 34: 8, 762 771. Derewianka, B. (1990) Exploring How Texts Work, Newtown, New South Wales: PETA.

Narrative maps/ charts Pupils draw a map of the events in a narrative. This helps them recall and retell the story. The particular structure of a narrative can also be made explicit via story mapping and is particularly helpful when studying a Shakespeare text.
Lewis, M. (1999) Developing Pupils Narrative Writing Using Story Structures, in Goodwin, P (ed) The Literate Classroom London: Fulton: London Benton, M & Fox, G. (1985) Teaching Literature 9-14. Oxford: Oxford University Press Newman, J. M. (1989) Online, The Flexible Page. Language Arts. 66(4) 457-464

Structural organisers Recognising the structure of non-fiction texts and then mapping the content onto various structural organiser grids e.g. point/ evidence grid, cause /effect grid, argument/counterargument list.
Wray, D. & Lewis, M. (1997) Extending Literacy: Pupils Reading and Writing Non-fiction, London & New York: Routledge.

Interpretive strategies
As many books on reading cover strategies from several of the subheadings listed under Interpretive strategies a general reference list will be found at the end of the section. There are many books and articles which could be listed and you will be able to add further references recording your own favourite resources.

Character development Imagining how a character might feel; identifying with a character, charting the development of a character over time in a longer text). There are many strategies that require pupils to make explicit their response to and knowledge of a character. These include: Feeling graphs or map showing how emotions develop throughout the story. Journal entries. Hot seating.

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English TV interviews. Compiling a list of questions to ask if you were to interview the character. (This can be combined with hot seating and the interview conducted with the character.) Drawing characters and surrounding the drawing with phrases from the text. Writing thought bubbles for characters at key moments in the text when they dont actually speak. Relationship maps between different characters with evidence from text. Relationship grid with each character listed along the top and down the side. Each cell represents a relationship to be explored. Speculating on actions and motives E.g. asking why did, what if? Character emotions register. This involves creating a 5-point emotions scale with the pupils for the possible range of reactions at certain specific points in the story (for example from mildly irritated to incandescent with rage). Pupils then rate characters on the scale.

Identifying themes/information The author's chair. Pupil takes on role of the author, answering questions about the book and justifying what they have written Draw a diagram grid flow chart etc. to show information. Draw strip cartoon/story board identifying 4/5 main points from story or information. Highlight words, phrases which link together to build a picture of character or mood, setting, or theme etc. Write a blurb for the book. Identify facts and opinion and consider how they are woven together.

Reading for multiple meanings Rank characters according to criteria e.g. most powerful to least powerful, kindest to meanest. Do different criteria give different insights?

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English The roles we play. In an outline character shape pupils record all the different roles they play in a story e.g. daughter, friend. Identify and discuss any differences or additional information to be found between text and illustrations. Retell a scene from the point of view of a minor character within it. Justify the actions of a villain. Problem solving. Stop at the point where a character faces a problem or dilemma. List alternative suggestions from the group. Consider the consequences of each suggestion. Arrive at a group decision.

Looking for / challenging a consistent point of view Genre exchange - asking pupils to transpose something from one written genre they have just read into another written genre. Criteria rating certain scenes at a crucial point- mostly likely to happen/least likely to happen, mostly likely to be true, least likely to be true. Comparison charts. Several versions of a narrative are read (e.g. different newspapers version of the same news story) and a comparative chart is completed.

Relating texts to personal experiences Say what they would have done at certain points in the story. Chose the funniest, scariest, most interesting moment from a story or information book. Justify their choice. Response journals (ongoing throughout the reading of long books). Relate to other books by same author or on same topic, read by the group or individual. Discuss similarities or differences.

Chambers, A. (1999) Tell Me: Pupils Reading and Talk, Thimble Press: Stroud Creenaune. T. & Rowles, L. (1996) Whats Your Purpose? Reading Strategies For NonFiction Texts, NSW, Australia: PETA. Hill, S. & OLoughlin. J (1995) Book Talk. Collaborative Responses to Literature, Armadale, Australia: Eleanor Curtain Publishing. Hornsby, D. & Wing Jan, L. (2001) Writing as a response to literature, in Evan, J (ed) The Writing Classroom, Fulton: London

Semantic strategies - vocabulary Harrison (2002) draws our attention to Ruddells (1994) review of research into vocabulary knowledge and comprehension and to the following key insights:

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Key Stage 3 National Strategy English 1. Vocabulary knowledge is not an all-or-nothing matter: a word is understood in stages. For example, the reader often manages in stages to a. Read and pronounce a known word b. Learn new meanings for a known word c. Learn new words for known concepts d. Learn new words for new concepts e. Clarify and enrich their understanding of known words f. Use a word in his or her own writing 2. Children learn new vocabulary better if the learning is active and social (e.g. by performing little drama skits using the new word, or drawing maps with a partner of semantically related words) 3. Children can learn new vocabulary from context, but a. they are more likely to do so if they immediately use the new word in their own writing b. they are less likely to learn vocabulary spontaneously from school text books, since these are generally too difficult c. they are less likely to learn from context if they do not read widely and regularly
Ruddell, M.R. (1994) Vocabulary knowledge and comprehension: a comprehension-process view of complex literacy relationships. In Robert B. Ruddell, Martha Rapp Ruddell and Harry Singer (Eds.) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (Fourth Edition). Newark, DE: International Reading Association (pp. 414-447).

Building banks of new words. As pupils read they mark or note on post-it notes or in vocabulary journals any new words/ words they are unsure of. After reading group discusses ways of working out the meaning (e.g. root, morphology, etc). Once a word is understood pupils note its meaning, perhaps in their own dictionary (see below). They may add a visual cue to remind them of the meaning. Word tracker/ oral thesaurus Pupils track particular groups of words/phrases (e.g. appearance words). They list these and suggest alternatives. Making dictionaries and glossaries Pupils can track words whose meanings are unclear e.g. technical words, dialect words, slang and so on. They then investigate the meanings and create book specific dictionaries or glossaries.

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