1 ENGINEERING DESIGN Engineering design is not just about science & technology that goes into making, building

or creating something new. It is a multi-disciplinary process which has aspects from such diverse disciplines as engineering economy, decision making, optimization, planning, safety, & ergonomics. Good design is not just technical application of science but extends well beyond it to reliability & safety, cost & utility, maintainability, environmental impact & a host of other factors some of which may be legislated, some stipulated by the user. Design is creation & creation is always in response to a need of society. Creation can be the manufacture of something new that did not exist before; it could also be a rearrangement of existing parts in a new way. Design is a science & also an art; science can be learnt in the classroom but art can only be learnt by doing. Design activities include both analysis & synthesis. Analysis involves separation into parts, simplification, modeling & simulation. Synthesis involves assembling the parts into a workable whole. CREATIVITY IN DESIGN The design process is a formalized, structured process. Systematizing design is meant to manage the total process of creation & not to hamper creativity of people involved in the design process. Unleashing the maximum degree of creativity tempered with engineering judgment is an important goal of every design process. Existing design methods formalize design procedures, they also externalize design thinking. Formalization helps (a) prevent overlooked factors (b) reduce occurrence of errors (c) create a record of the process which later helps designer to communicate with user, client or external agents (d) encourages a wider search for effective solutions. Externalization seeks to record the thoughts of the designer in charts, diagrams & other media. Conventional design is unstructured, informal & internal; design methodology is far more likely to result in creative solutions. Research has found that creativity is the ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas & concepts into meaningful & useful forms & that this ability can be cultivated & enhanced with study & practice. Creative ideas dont just flash into our minds spontaneously. Research shows that creative ideas occur by a slow, deliberate process that starts with a vague perception of some idea which takes shape as details of its connection with existing concepts or things get filled in. The new idea may be nurtured by the original thinker or by several others who become responsive & sensitive to it. Even Einstein has said that he was no more endowed than the average person but he claimed an extraordinary persistence in staying with the problem & thinking about it. Research evidence suggests that creative thinking can be enhanced in the following ways: 1. Develop a creative attitude which means that we have self-confidence & belief that a solution will emerge. 2. Unlock your imagination, sharpen your powers of observation, kindle your imagination, have enquiring mind. 3. Be persistent. Edison made the famous comment invention is 95% perspiration & 5% inspiration.

2 4. Develop an open mind. Be receptive to ideas from any & all sources. Brilliant solutions may come from an un-intellectual person or even a person who is unrelated to the problem. 5. Suspend your judgment. Nothing inhibits a creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. 6. Set problem boundaries. Defining the problem & its boundaries precisely is an important step towards its solution. Experience shows that problem definition focuses creativity. Ideas often come when you least expect them especially after a period of thinking about them. Relaxation & time away from problem also helps. Inventions are the result of creative thought; they are classified into 7 categories. 1. Simple or multiple combination: This is the most elementary form of invention in which two or more existing inventions are combined to produce a new or improved result. 2. Labor-saving concept: an existing process or mechanism is made more laborefficient or even automated. 3. Direct solution to a problem: A problem or need is identified & inventor designs a system to satisfy the need. This category is most typical of what is generally referred to as engineering problem-solving. 4. Adaptation of old principle to old problem to achieve a new result. Basically, this is a variation of category 3, except that the invention represents an improved application of existing technology. 5. Application of new principle to old problem. Advances in technology result in better solutions to old problems. 6. Application of new principle to new uses. New technology finds new uses lasers are finding new uses today even after 50 years of its invention. 7. Serendipity. This refers to the discovery or invention by accident or chance. Lucky breaks are rare but they hardly happen to someone who is not already actively pursuing a solution. Theory of Inventive Problem Solving Problem solving is a logical process. Engineer or manager or any one else, identifies a problem, its causes are analyzed, decisions are taken about the steps to be taken to solve the problem. Lastly, of course, is the follow-up. Psychologists describe the problem-solving process as 4-stage model. Stage 1 Preparation: Elements of the problem are examined & their interrelations are studied. Stage 2 Incubation: You sleep on the problem Stage 3 Inspiration: Solution or a path toward the solution suddenly emerges. Stage 4 Verification: Inspired solution is checked against the desired result. This is too simplified because we know that many problems are solved more by perspiration than inspiration. But still, there is great value in letting a problem lie fallow so as to give the preconscious mind a chance to operate. Research into workings of the human mind show that it has low data-processing capability. It can grasp or picture only up to 8 things at a time. This means that the mind needs time to understand the extent of the problem fully & be aware of all of its details; this is the reason for letting a problem lie fallow for some time. The 1st important step in problem-solving is to study a problem from many angles & in as many ways as possible for a complete understanding of it.

3 Another important step in problem-solving is the generation of diverse ideas & relations. Attitude is an important factor in problem-solving. Be willing to change direction, avoid premature commitments, include in decision-making those having a stake in the solution, obtain & respect others views of the problem. Some phases of problem-solving are better done by individuals & others by small groups ( 4). Groups are better when a broad spectrum of ideas is needed. Also, groups work faster than individuals & by sharing the burden they reduce stress on individuals. On the other hand, individuals are better for problem definition & analysis phases. Techniques in developing creativity Brainstorming is a group activity in which 4 to 8 people get together to generate ideas without inhibition or fear of criticism. All agree to no discussion, no evaluation or rejection just free flowing ideas however wild they may be. Experience shows that it is most effective when the problem is specific rather than general, limited in scope, open-ended, familiar to all participants & capable of being handled verbally. Problems having unique solution or narrow band of alternatives do not lend themselves to brainstorming. Ground rules include (a) No criticism. Analysis, evaluation, acceptance/rejection is postponed to a later session. (b) All ideas accepted by every member of group. Ideas are group property not linked to individuals. (c) Every member agrees to divulge all ideas entering their minds. No idea is too wild or unrealistic. (d) Think fast to get maximum number of ideas per unit time. It is not unusual to generate 30-50 ideas in hour. A brainstorming session is facilitated by a chair-person who poses general questions to stimulate the flow of ideas & also manages the groups interaction with respect to the agreed ground rules. Questions like these Combinations: What new ideas can arise from combining ideas? Substitutions: What else? Who else? What other place? What other time? Modification: What to add or subtract? Change colour, material, motion & shape? Elimination: Is it necessary? Reverse: What would happen if we turn it backward? Or upside down or inside out? Other uses: Is there a new way to use it? Synectics is another group activity where about 6 people apply their minds to the solution of a particular problem. Here too, the goal is to develop & combine ideas in a non-critical environment but these ideas are analogies from other systems. Analogical thinking is the ability to see parallels or connections between apparently dissimilar topics. Four types of analogies are used: Direct Analogies, Personal Analogies, Symbolic Analogies, Fantasy Analogies. Direct analogies are found in biological systems. Personal analogy is when you imagine what it would feel like to be the luggage elevator in an airport or the rotor on a helicopter. Symbolic analogy is when one thing is identified with another poetically or metaphorically etc like a tree of decisions or mouth of a river. Fantasy analogy could be science fiction or fairy-tale imagination of nonexistent things.

4 This method needs people of widely different professions so that their analogies might be just as different. Usually half the group is made up of outsiders & the other half from within the organization. This method has been widely used in new product development. It is not effective in problem identification or matching solutions to a situation. THE DESIGN PROCESS The professional practice of engineering is largely concerned with design. Design, being as much an art as a science, many designers have outlined a planned, structured, modular approach for a successful, workable design. One of the earliest models of design came from Asimow who viewed design as a sequential process in which each subprocess follows the basic module shown below.
General Informat ion Desig

Specific Informat ion

n Operati

Outcom e

NO YES This may look simple but it says a lot about the total design process. 1. Total design project can be analyzed into a sequence of sub-processes, each with its own design objective. 2. Design sub-process is repeated till its outcome successfully satisfies evaluation criteria set for design objective. Asimows model of the design process highlights two aspects of design: (a) Iterative nature of design: it underlines the fact that design is a repetitive process, improving with each repetition. (b) Design objectives cannot always be maximized; often they have to be optimized ie the best that can be achieved within the constraints of the system. In the real world many trade-offs must be made between technical & nontechnical constraints. Percy Hill compares the design method with the scientific method.
Scientific Method Design Method

Evalua tion

Go to next stage

You must be able to comment on the similarity of the two methods. knowledge
Scientific Curiosity Hypothes is Logical Analysis Proof

Existing

State of the Art Identificatio n of needs Conceptualization Feasibility Analysis Productio

Engineering Design Notes - Document Transcript

1. Engineering Design Notes Engineering Design is a decision making process (often iterative or recursive) in which the sciences are applied to modify/create something to meet predefined objectives (specifications). Basic stages of the design process include establishment of objectives and criteria, analysis, synthesis, definition of actual manufacturing techniques and routes as well as the modes of usage, maintenance and disposal. Design is problem solving. One possible route to follow in the design process is for example: 1. Establish the need (realise there is a problem to be solved) 2. Plan how to solve the problem (consult others, e.g. by means of brain-storming) 3. Understand the problem by developing requirements and uncovering existing solutions to similar problems 4. Generate alternative solutions 5. Evaluate the alternatives by comparing them to the design requirements and to each other 6. Decide on acceptable solutions and produce the conceptual design 7. Communicate the results, e.g. produce layout drawings, detailed design drawings and material selection 8. Produce the final technical documentation including the time schedule and costing 9. Manufacture and test prototype 10. Full scale manufacture 11. Sale and follow up the customers satisfaction. The following figures summarise some concepts related to design process: 1 2. Some aspects of the design approach can be outlined as follows: Sustainability: Ideally design should anticipate (minimise) deterioration (e.g. abrasion, corrosion) of each component to prevent the need for any further maintenance, by design-out and other actions. 2 3. Safety aspects: Testing workplace isolation procedures, including safety permits and the isolation tagging system, are essential in a hazardous area and must be incorporated into the planning for testing the design prototypes. Standard job procedures, including methods, spares used, tools, and safety procedures, should be mandatory. All prototype tests should be preceded by a discussion of safety procedures and requirements. Proposed modifications should also have been through a hazard and operability check before they are actioned. All contract labour engaged in the design should be subject to job quality checks and should go through a safety induction programme appropriate to the specific equipment. All spare parts, whether new or reconditioned, should be subjected to a quality assurance programme. Useful strategic questions to be asked during the design process: WHAT: Why is it done at all? / Why is it necessary? / Why not eliminate it? WHERE: Why is it done there? / Why not change the place? / Why not change the sequence? / Why not combine? WHO: Why does the person do it? / Why not change the person? / Why not change the sequence? / Why not combine? HOW: Why is it done this way? / Why not do it a different way? / Why not improve it? / Why not make it easier? Components of the final product quality that should be aimed at are presented below: Since any design is an experiment, it is sensible to use the design technique termed probabilistic design, especially if we our design project involves consumption of significant resources. (See also: http://www.grassmannalgebra.info/probabilisticdesign ). 3

Adaptive design is the engineering of a physical system to self-adapt in response to changing environments. Adaptive design should be contrasted with the more commonly applied static design. A system with static design will typically not be equipped for self-modification and is engineered to deal with a small range of environmental change, without significantly changing state throughout its lifetime. A system with adaptive design, on the other hand, will be equipped to self-modify into any of a flexible set of systemstates in order to navigate, function and succeed in different environments. Currently, genuinely adaptive systems are quite primitive and rare. One of the most difficult and most important engineering tasks in the current millennium will be to develop and discover methodologies for the design of adaptive systems. Such systems could revolutionize the world in which we live. Conceptually, such systems are not difficult to envision: robots able to traverse any terrestrial terrain, selfrepairing asphalt, adaptive vehicles that are self-directed and provide close to perfect safety mechanisms, etc. While such systems are conceptually bountiful, the methodology for designing non-rigid adaptive systems is still in its infancy. Adaptive design is significantly more sophisticated and difficult than static design, but nature has given us numerous models of real-world adaptive systems to learn from. The science of discovering and imitating natural adaptive systems is called biomimicry

Creativity and Innovation in Engineering What is creativity? Definitions: The use of imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of artistic work. Wikipedia: Creativity (or creativeness) is a mental process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new associations between existing ideas or concepts. A Creative Thought on Creativity True creativity and innovation consists of seeing what everyone else has not seen, thinking what no one else has thought, and doing what no one else has dared. Creativity = ideas Innovation = ideas + action Creativity has been associated with right or forehead brain activity or even specifically with lateral thinking. Characteristics of vertical and lateral thinking Vertical or convergent Lateral or divergent thinking thinking Only one correct solution Many possible solutions (selective) (generative) Analytical process Nonjudgmental (judgmental) Movement is made in a Movement is made in a more sequential, rule-based manner random pattern If a positive decision cannot be If a positive decision cannot be made at a step, progress stops made at a step, thinking jumps Follows only most likely Follows all paths decision path Deals only with reality as Can create own reality science knows it today (fantasy) Classifications and labels are Reclassifies objects to rigid generate ideas To be studied from the perspectives of behavioural psychology, social psychology, psychometrics, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, philosophy, history, economics, design research, business, and management, among others. Creativity and Innovation Creativity is typically used to refer to the act of producing new ideas, approaches or actions, while innovation is the process of both generating and applying such creative ideas in some specific context.

7 In the context of an organization, therefore, the term innovation is often used to refer to the entire process by which an organization generates creative new ideas and converts them into novel, useful and viable commercial products, services, and business practices, while the term creativity is reserved to apply specifically to the generation of novel ideas by individuals or groups, as a necessary step within the innovation process. Creative Process Graham Wallas & Richard Smith, in their work Art of Thought, published in 1926, presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages: (1) Preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions), (2) Incubation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening), (3) Intimation (the creative person gets a 'feeling' that a solution is on its way), (4) Illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing into conscious awareness); and (5) Verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied). Creativity methods Sensitivity the ability to recognize that a problem exists Fluency the ability to produce a large number of alternative solutions to a problem Flexibility the ability to develop a wide range of approaches to a problem Originality the ability to produce original solutions to a problem Steps to Personal Creativity 1. Accept that you can be creative 2. Question traditional assumptions 3. Expand your problem-solving styles 4. Employ creativity techniques 5. Practice thinking in new ways 6. Learn when your creative thinking is best (1) Everyone can be creative in some ways. (2) Ask why something is done the way it is; look for a different way, e.g., why are
ketchup and mayonnaise in breakable jars? Put them in squeezable plastic.

(3) If you rely heavily on rational thinking, try to develop intuitive skills and vice versa; use
both. (4) There are many hundreds of creativity techniques, including brainstorming, dreaming, imagining, etc. (5) If you tend to think in words, try to use pictures. Use analogies or liken things to other things. (6) Although fully awake you might be very rational, when youre tired or fed up you might be more willing to try new ideas; there may be times of the day when you are more creative.

Group creativity Brainstorming Are N minds better than one?

8 Often not Groups often come up with a smaller number of possible solutions than the individuals would alone One persons output interferes with other peoples memories Growing conformity within a group Sherif studies of the autokinetic effect

Stimulants to Work Creativity* 1) FREEDOM in deciding work to do or how to do it 2) CHALLENGE to work hard on important projects 3) RESOURCES needed to do the work 4) ENCOURAGEMENT from a supervisor who is a good work model, sets appropriate goals, supports and has confidence in the work group 5) WORK GROUP SUPPORTS such as diverse skills, people who communicate well, are open to new ideas, constructively challenge one anothers work, trust and help each other, and feel committed to their work 6) ORGANIZATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT in a culture that supports creativity and communicates a shared vision of organization MENTAL BLOCKS Perceptual blocks Stereotyping: Thinking conventionally or in a formulaic way. Not thinking out of the box. Information overload: you become so overloaded with minute details that you are unable to sort out the critical aspects of the problem. Limiting the problem unnecessarily: Broad statements of the problem help keep the mind open to a wider range of ideas. Emotional blocks Obstacles that reduce the freedom with which one can explore and manipulate ideas: Fear of risk taking: This is inbred in us by the educational process. Unease with chaos: people, & many engineers in particular, are uncomfortable with highly unstructured situations. Adopting a judgmental attitude: we often approach problem solving with a negative attitude & jump too quickly to judgment Unable or unwilling to incubate: in our busy lives, we dont take the time to let ideas lie dormant so that they can incubate properly. Cultural blocks People acquire a set of thought patterns from living in a culture Environmental blocks The environment in which one works can have a strong influence on creativity. If the workplace is noisy, hot or subject to frequent distractions, creativity will suffer. The attitude in the organization also contributes to this environment Intellectual blocks Lacking the necessary information base or the necessary intellectual skills can be a barrier to creativity. POSITIVE STEPS TO ENHANCE CREATIVITY Develop a creative attitude : Be self confident

9 Unlock your imagination: Why? , what if? Questions help to unlock. Be persistent : Invention is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration Develop an open mind : Being receptive to ideas from any and all sources Suspend your judgment : Forbearance required Set problem boundaries : Avoid limitless thinking Mind map A mind map is created on a large sheet of paper. The problem is drawn at the centre. The factors, ideas or concepts related to the problem are written by circles surrounding the central problem and connected to that. This gives the complete idea of the factors that are connected with the problem,inoder to get a solution.

Mindmap Steps Prepare Generate map Associate freely Review Incubate take a break! Re-organize New map in clockwise sequence Act Uses of Mindmaps Planning Brainstorming Group thinking Documenting Note taking

10 Resources Types of analogies used Direct analogies: most of these are found in biological systems Personal analogies ( empathy- role playing): the designer imagines what it would be like to use ones body to produce the effect that is being sought, e.g., what it would feel like to be a helicopter rotor? Symbolic analogies: these are poetic metaphors and similes in which one thing is identified with aspects of another, e. g., the mouth of a river, a tree of decisions. Fantasy analogies: here we let our imagination run wild and wish for things that dont exist in the real world. Guidelines for customer survey form Questions for the customer survey generally belong to the following categories:1. Attitude based questions how the customer feels or thinks about something 2. Knowledge based questions generally connected with the functions, strength requirements, 3. Behavior based questions operational features, environmental suitability, convenience, compactness, maintenance etc. 4. Aesthetics based questions - appearance, color etc.

11 Dieter views design process as a 5-step sequential process which is iterative in nature (1) Problem Definition (2) Information Gathering (3) Generation of alternative solutions (4) Evaluation of alternatives (5) Communication of design. In practice some of the steps may be performed in parallel. Problem Definition: Importance of this step is often overlooked. Design team tries to understand clients needs completely & formulates problem in detail as a written document called Problem Statement. Clarity, precision & common understanding of goals & objectives is the obvious benefits of this exercise. Problem statement includes constraints, commercially available solutions & modifications they may require, creation of new technology & definition of technical terms. Implemented solution will be only as good as the statement of the problem. Information Gathering: An effective problem statement helps to know what information is relevant. Gathering pertinent information could be a challenging task & sifting through the mountain of information an even more formidable one. Sources: internet, trade journals, technical reports of R & D companies, catalogs of suppliers & vendors. Simple e-mail/phone call to a contact in govt/industry, academics/research or a known expert might solve all our information needs. Generation of Alternative Solutions Vital step for an effective or successful design. Organizations use many methods like brainstorming & synectics to stimulate creativity in generating possible solutions which satisfy the problem statement. Prior experience & effective group functioning add a lot of value to this stage of the process. Evaluation of Alternatives The following information - performance requirements, service needs, cost estimates, quality specifications, risk factors, regulatory constraints & compliance with environmental laws etc will dictate the engineering criteria against which the design will be tested & rated. Full-size, prototype testing, experimental model testing, computer simulation, limited time-trials are some of the standard methods of testing designs. Designs are subject to 2 kinds of checks mathematical checks, engineeringsense checks. Mathematical checks ensure that analytical & quantitative basis of design are error-free. Engineering-sense checks have to do with whether the answers feel right. It has to do with judging whether certain key parameters are in the right range & testing their sensitivities. Time, cost & robustness of design are important considerations for management to approve the design. Communicating the results Communicating with the client, consumer or sponsor is an ongoing activity. After completing the project, the designer prepares a design report which includes detailed engineering drawings, computer programs, & maintenance schedules. Working models & prototypes are included in the so-called deliverables. In the real world, designers spend roughly 60% of their time in discussions with clients & only 40% of their time at the drawing table so-to-speak.

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Morris Asimow developed total design process as a sequence of 7 main processes each with its own sub-processes. His morphology of design with its 7 modules is relevant even today for new-product design. QFD Quality Function Deployment 1. Conceptual design PDS Product Design Specifications Define Problem Benchmarking, QFD, PDS,
Project Planning Gather Information: Internet, Patents, Trade Journals etc engineering Generate Alternatives: Stimulate creativity

First 3 modules take place in department or design department. modules constitute primary

These design.
2. Embodiment Design Product Architecture: Analysis/Synthesis of component systems Configuration Design: Analysis of parts, their material & size Parametric Design: Are parts robust? What are 3. Detail Design Detailed drawings & specifications for every part Models & prototypes

4. Planning for Manufacture

Planning for Product Retirement

Planning for Use

Planning for Distribution

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His approach highlights 4 aspects of design design is an iterative process design objectives are optimized (not maximized) because of constraints like time, money & regulatory laws design is multi-disciplinary; includes non-engineering activities like economics, marketing, planning, logistics design must consider the useful life of the product, its retirement, modification, disposal & replacement