CHAPTER 11 STEADY WAVES IN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 11.

1 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES

The gure below shows an oblique shock wave produced when a supersonic ow is deected by an angle . We can think of the deection as caused by a planar ramp at this angle although it could be generated by the blockage produced by a solid body placed some distance away in the ow. In general, a 3-D shock wave will be curved, and will separate two regions of non-uniform ow. However, at each point along the shock, the change in ow properties takes place in a very thin region, much thinner than the radius of curvature of the shock. If we consider a small neighborhood of the point in question then within the small neighborhood the shock may be regarded as locally planar to any required level of accuracy and the ows on either side can be regarded as uniform. With the proper orientation of axes the ow is locally two-dimensional. Therefore it is quite general to consider a straight oblique shock wave in a uniform parallel stream in twodimensions as shown below.
1, P 1, T 1, M 1 control volume v2 v1 U1 u1 U2 2, P 2, T 2, M 2 u2

Figure 11.1 Flow geometry near a plane oblique shock wave.

Balancing mass, two components of momentum and energy across the indicated control volume leads to the following oblique shock jump conditions.

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Oblique shock waves

1 u1 = 2 u2
P1 + 1 u1 = P2 + 2 u2
2 2 . (11.1)

1 u1 v1 = 2 u2 v2 2 2 1 2 1 2 h 1 + -- ( u 1 + v 1 ) = h 2 + -- ( u 2 + v 2 ) 2 2

Since u is constant, v 1 = v 2 and the jump conditions become,

1 u1 = 2 u2
P1 + 1 u1 = P2 + 2 u2 v1 = v2 1 2 1 2 h 1 + -- u 1 = h 2 + -- u 2 2 2 When the ideal gas law P = RT is included, the system of equations (11.2) closes allowing all the properties of the shock to be determined. Note that, with the exception of the additional equation, v 1 = v 2 , the system is identical to the normal shock jump conditions. The oblique shock acts like a normal shock to the ow perpendicular to it. Therefore almost all of the normal shock relations can be converted to oblique shock relations with the substitution M 1 M 1 Sin M 2 M 2 Sin ( ) Recall the Rankine-Hugoniot relation, P2 P2 ----- + 1 + ----- 1 2 P1 P1 ----- = ------------------------------------------------------ , 1 P2 P2 ----- + 1 ----- 1 P1 P1
. (11.3) . (11.2) 2 2

(11.4)

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11.2

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Oblique shock waves

plotted below.
10

2 1
8

= 1.2 +1 -----------1 = 1.4

= 1.66

20

40

60

80

P 2 P 1 100

Figure 11.2 Plot of the Hugoniot relation (11.4)

This shows the close relationship between the pressure rise across the wave (oblique or normal) and the associated density rise. The jump conditions for oblique shocks lead to a modied form of the very useful Prandtl relation,
2 1 2 u 1 u 2 = a* ------------ v 1 + 1 2 * (11.5)

where a* = RT . From the conservation of total enthalpy, for a calorically perfect gas in steady adiabatic ow,
2 1 2 1 2 +1 a C p T t = C p T + -- U = ----------- + -- U = ------------------- a* . - 2 2( 1) 1 2 2 (11.6)

The Prandtl relation is extremely useful for easily deriving all the various normal and oblique shock relations. The oblique shock relations generated using (11.3) are the following.

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Oblique shock waves

P2 2 M 1 Sin ( 1 ) ----- = ----------------------------------------------------P1 ( + 1)

2 ( + 1 )M 1 Sin u1 ----- = ---- = --------------------------------------------------2 2 1 u2 ( 1 )M 1 Sin + 2

T2 ( 2 M 1 Sin ( 1 ) ) ( ( 1 )M 1 Sin + 2 ) ----- = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 2 2 T1 ( + 1 ) M Sin
1 2 2 M 2 Sin ( 2 2 2 2

(11.7)

( 1 )M 1 Sin + 2 ) = ----------------------------------------------------2 2 2 M 1 Sin ( 1 )

The stagnation pressure ratio across the shock is,

1 --------------------2 2 ( + 1 )M Sin 1 P t2 1 +1 1 ------- = -------------------------------------------------- . ---------------------------------------------------- 2 2 2 2 P t1 2 M Sin ( 1 ) ( 1 )M 1 Sin + 2 1

(11.8)

Note that (11.8) can also be generated by the substitution (11.3).

11.1.1 EXCEPTIONAL RELATIONS

One all new relation that has no normal shock counterpart is the equation for the absolute velocity change across the shock. U 2 ------ U 1
2

( M 1 Sin 1 ) ( M 1 Sin + 1 ) = 1 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- . 2 4 2 ( + 1 ) M 1 Sin

(11.9)

Exceptions to the substitution rule (11.3) are the relations involving the static and stagnation pressure P t2 P 1 and P t1 P 2 across the wave. The reason for this is as follows. Consider P t2 P t2 P t1 P t2 1 2 1 ------- ------- = ------- 1 + ----------- M 1 - ------- = P t1 P 1 P t1 2 P1 Similarly
-----------

(11.10)

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11.4

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Oblique shock waves

----------P t1 P t1 P t2 P t1 1 2 1 - ------- = ------- ------- = ------- 1 + ----------- M 2 2 P t2 P 2 P t2 P2

(11.11)

The stagnation to static pressure ratio in each region depends on the full Mach number, not just the Mach number perpendicular to the shock wave.
11.1.2 FLOW DEFLECTION VERSUS SHOCK ANGLE

The most basic question connected with oblique shocks is: Given the free stream Mach number, M 1 , and ow deection, , what is the shock angle, ? The normal velocity ratio is u2 v1 u2 ( 1 )M 1 Sin + 2 ----- = -------------------------------------------------- = ----- ----- . 2 2 v2 u1 u1 ( + 1 )M 1 Sin From the velocity triangles in Figure 11.1, u1 Tan = ----- ; v1 Now ( 1 )M 2 Sin 2 + 2 1 Tan ( ) = Tan -------------------------------------------------- . 2 2 ( + 1 )M 1 Sin An alternative form of this relation is Cot ( M 1 Sin 1 ) Tan = ------------------------------------------------------------------- . 2 2 +1 2 1 + ------------ M 1 M 1 Sin 2
2 2 2 2

(11.12)

u2 Tan ( ) = ----- . v2

(11.13)

(11.14)

(11.15)

The shock-angle-deection-angle relation (11.15) is plotted in Figure 11.3 for several values of the Mach number.

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Oblique shock waves

0.8

= 1.4
0.6

M1 M1 = 5 M1 = 3

0.4

weak solution

strong solution

M1 = 2

c b
0.2

M 1 = 1.5

d
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

a
2

Sin = 1 M 1

Figure 11.3 Flow deection versus shock angle for oblique shocks.

Corresponding points in the supersonic ow past a circular cylinder sketched below are indicated on the M 1 = 1.5 contour.

d
M>1

max

c b a
M<1

M1=1.5

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Weak oblique waves

At point a the ow is perpendicular to the shock wave and the properties of the ow are governed by the normal shock relations. In moving from point a to b . the shock weakens and the deection of the ow behind the shock increases until a point of maximum ow deection is reached at b . The ow solution between a and b is referred to as the strong solution in Figure 11.3. Notice that the Mach number behind the shock is subsonic up to point c where the Mach number just downstream of the shock is one. Between c and d the ow corresponds to the weak solutions indicated in Figure 11.3. If one continued along the shock to very large distances from the sphere the shock will have a more and more oblique angle eventually reaching the Mach angle = Sin ( 1 M 1 ) corresponding to an innitesimally small disturbance. Note that as the freestream Mach number becomes large, the shock angle becomes independent of the Mach number. Cos Sin lim ( Tan ) = --------------------------------------- . M1 + 1 Sin 2 ----------- 2
(11.16) 1

11.2 WEAK OBLIQUE WAVES

In this section we will develop the differential equations that govern weak waves generated by a small disturbance. The theory will be based on innitesimal changes in the ow and for this reason it is convenient to drop the subscript 1 on the ow variables upstream of the wave. The sketch below depicts the case where the ow deection is very small d 1 . Note that M is not close to one.
M+dM U+dU d

M U

Figure 11.4 Small deection in supersonic ow

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Weak oblique waves

In terms of Figure 11.3 we are looking at the behavior of weak solutions close to the horizontal axis of the gure. For a weak disturbance, the shock angle is very close to the Mach angle Sin = 1 M . Let 1 Sin = ---- + M and make the approximation M Sin 1 + 2M . Using (11.18) we can also develop the approximation Cot ( M 1 )
2 1 2 3 M 1 ---------------- . 2 M 1 (11.19) 2 2 (11.18) (11.17)

Using (11.18) and (11.19) the ( , ) relation (11.15) can be expanded to yield 4 (M 1) Tan ( d ) d ------------ ------------------------------ . +1 M The velocity change across the shock (11.9) is expanded as U2 U1 -------------------- + 1 U1
2 2 12 (11.20)

1 1 M 2 ---- + 1 M 2 ---- + + 1 M M = 1 4 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- . 2 2 4 1 ( + 1 ) M ---- + M

(11.21)

Retaining only terms of order the fractional velocity change due to the small deection is dU + 1 ------U
2

8 = 1 ----------------------- . ( + 1 )M

(11.22)

Equation (11.22) is approximated as 4 dU ------- = ----------------------- . ( + 1 )M U

(11.23)

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Weak oblique waves

Write (11.23) in terms of the deection angle 4 +1 M 4 dU ------- = ----------------------- = ----------------------- ------------ ------------------------------ d 12 ( + 1 )M ( + 1 )M 4 U 2 (M 1) or 1 dU ------- = ------------------------------ d 12 U 2 (M 1) where d is measured in radians. Other small deection relations are
(11.25) (11.24)

M dP ------ = ------------------------------ d 12 P 2 (M 1)
M d ----- = ------------------------------ d 12 2 (M 1) ( 1 )M dT ------ = ------------------------------ d 12 T 2 (M 1) and
3 dP t 3 2 2 3 2 16 M ds -------- = ----------------------- ( M Sin 1 ) = ----------------------- = ---2 2 R Pt 3( + 1) 3( + 1) (11.27) 2 2 (11.26)

or
6 dP t 3 ( + 1 )M ds -------- = ------------------------------------- ( d ) = ---- . 32 R Pt 2 12 ( M 1 ) (11.28)

Note that the entropy change across a weak oblique shock wave is extremely small; the wave is nearly isentropic. The Mach number is determined from, ( 1 )M 2 dT dM dU ---------- = ---------- ------ = ------------------------------ d ------------------------------ d 12 12 2 2 T 2 2 M U (M 1) (M 1)
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(11.29)

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Weak oblique waves

or 1 + 1 M ----------2 2 dM ---------- = 2 ----------------------------------------- d . 12 2 2 M (M 1)

2

(11.30)

Eliminate d between (11.25) and (11.30)to get an integrable equation relating velocity and Mach number changes. 1 dM dU ---------- = ----------------------------------------- ---------2 2 2 1 + 1 M M U ---------- 2
2 2 (11.31)

The weak oblique shock relations (11.26) are, in terms of the velocity

M dU dP ------ = ---------- ---------2 U2 P

( 1 )M dU dT ------ = ------------------------ ---------2 2 T U

2 2

(11.32)

d = ( M 2 ) ( dU U ) These last relations are precisely the same ones we developed for one dimensional ow with area change in the absence of wall friction and heat transfer in chapter 9. From that development we had, 1 M dU dA ---------------- ---------- = -----2 2 A U 1M dM dA --------------------------------------------- ---------- = -----A 1 2 M 2 2 1 + ----------- M 2 If we eliminate dA A between these two relations, the result is,
2 2 (11.33) 2 2

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11.10

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The Prandtl-Meyer expansion

1 dM dU ---------- = ----------------------------------------- ---------- , 2 1 2 M 2 1 + ----------- M U 2 which we just derived in the context of weak oblique shocks.

(11.34)

11.3 THE PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION

The upshot of all this is that 2 dU ---------- = ------------------------------ d 12 2 2 U (M 1)
2 (11.35)

is actually a general relationship valid for steady, isentropic ow. In particular it can be applied to negative values of d . Consider ow over a corner

M1

M2

Figure 11.5 Supersonic ow over a corner

Express the angle in terms of the Mach number. (M 1) dM d = --------------------------------------------- ---------- . 1 2 M 2 2 1 + ----------- M 2 Now integrate the angle between the initial and nal Mach numbers.
2 12 2 (11.36)

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The Prandtl-Meyer expansion

(M 1) dM d = --------------------------------------------- ---------- . 1 2 M 2 0 M 1 2 1 + ----------- M 2

M2

12

(11.37)

Let be the angle change beginning at the reference mach number M 1 = 1 . The integral (11.37) is,
12 12 +1 12 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 ( M ) = ------------ Tan ------------ ( M 1 ) Tan ( M 1 ) . (11.38) + 1 1

This expression provides a unique relationship between the local Mach number and the angle required to accelerate the ow to that Mach number beginning at Mach one. The straight lines in Figure 11.5 are called characteristics and represent particular values of the ow deection. According to (11.38) the Mach number is the same at every point on a given characteristic. This ow is called a Prandtl-Meyer expansion and (11.38) is called the Prandtl-Meyer function, plotted below for several values of .

( M )

= 1.2

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

= 1.4 = 1.66

10

15

20

M Note that for a given there is a limiting angle at M .

2

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11.12

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The Prandtl-Meyer expansion

+1 12 max = -- ------------ 1 2 1

(11.39)

For = 1.4 , max = 1.45 -- . The expansion angle can be greater than 90 2
If the deection is larger than this angle there will be a vacuum between max and the wall.
11.3.1 EXAMPLE - SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER A BUMP

Air ows past a symmetric 2-D bump at a Mach number of 3. The aspect ratio of the bump is a b = M1 = 3 3. 2 3

b 2a

Determine the drag coefcient of the bump assuming zero wall friction, Drag Force per unit span C d = -----------------------------------------------------------2 1 -- 1 U 1 b 2 Solution The ramp angle is 30 producing a 52 oblique shock with pressure ratio, P 2 P 1 = 6.356 and downstream Mach number and Prandtl-Meyer function M 2 = 1.406 ; = 9.16 . The expansion angle is 60 producing a Mach number, M 3 = 4.268 ;
(11.41) (11.40)

= 69.16 .

(11.42)

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Problems

The stagnation pressure is constant through the expansion wave and so the pressure ratio over the downstream face is
---------- 1 + 1 M 2 1 ----------3.5 2 P3 2 1 + 0.2 ( 1.406 ) 2 1.395 3.5 ----- = ------------------------------------ = --------------------------------------- = ------------ = 0.0149 (11.43) 4.643 P2 1 + 1 M2 1 + 0.2 ( 4.268 ) 2 ----------- 3 2

and P3 P2 P3 - ----- = ----- ----- = ( 0.0149 ) ( 6.356 ) = 0.0945 P2 P1 P1 The drag coefcient becomes, P 2 2bSin ( 30 ) P 3 2bSin ( 30 ) 6.356 0.0945 C d = ------------------------------------------------------------------------ = ----------------------------------- = 0.994 2 1.4 -- M 1 P 1 b ------ ( 9 ) 2 2
(11.44)

11.4 PROBLEMS
Problem 1 - Use the oblique shock jump conditions (11.2) to derive the oblique shock Prandtl relation (11.5). Problem 2 - Consider the supersonic ow past a bump discussed in the example above. Carefully sketch the ow putting in the shock waves as well as the leading and trailing characteristics of the expansion. Problem 3 - Consider a streamline in compressible ow past a 2-D ramp with a very small ramp angle. M1 H2 d

H1

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Problems

Determine the ratio of the heights of the streamline above the wall before and after the oblique shock in terms of 1 and , ie, nd the unknown coefcient in, H2 ------ = 1 + ( ??? )d . H1 Pay careful attention to signs. Problem 4 - Consider a body in subsonic ow. As the freestream Mach number is increased there is a critical value, M c , such that there is a point somewhere along the body where the ow speed outside the boundary layer reaches the speed of sound. Figure 223 (below) from VanDykes book illustrates this phenomena for ow over a projectile.
(11.45)

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Problems

In this gure the critical Mach number is somewhere between 0.840 and 0.885 as evidenced by the weak shocks that appear toward the back of the projectile in the middle picture. The local pressure in the neighborhood of the body is expressed in terms of the pressure coefcient.
2 1 C P = ( P P ) -- U (11.46) 2 Show that the value of the pressure coefcient at the point where sonic speed occurs is, 2 ----------2 + ( 1 )M c 1 2 1 -- M c C Pc = -------------------------------------- 2 +1

(11.47)

State any assumptions needed to solve the problem. Problem 5 - Consider frictionless (no wall friction) supersonic ow over a at plate of chord C at a small angle of attack as shown below.
C

M1>1

The circulation about the plate is dened as

Uds

(11.48)

where the integration is along any contour surrounding the plate. 1) Show that, to a good approximation, the circulation is given by 2U 1 C = ------------------------------ 12 2 (M1 1)
(11.49)

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Problems

where the integration is clockwise around the plate. 2) Show that, to a good approximation, Lift per unit span = 1 U 1 Problem 6 - Consider frictionless (no wall friction) ow of air at at plate of chord C at 5 angle of attack as shown below. M=2
C =5

= 2 over a

Evaluate the drag coefcient of the plate. Compare with the value obtained using a weak wave approximation. Problem 7 - Consider frictionless (no wall friction) supersonic ow of Air over a at plate of chord C at an angle of attack of 15 degrees as shown below.
C

M1=2
= 15

Determine the lift coefcient

2 1 C L = L -- U C 2

where L is the lift force per unit span.

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Problems

Problem 8 - The gure below shows a symmetrical, diamond shaped airfoil at a 5 angle of attack in a supersonic ow of air.
M=3

25 5
C

Determine the lift and drag coefcients of the airfoil. Lift per unit span C L = ---------------------------------------- ; 2 1 -- U C 2 Drag per unit span C D = --------------------------------------------2 1 -- U C 2
(11.50)

What happens to the ow over the airfoil if the freestream Mach number is decreased to 1.5? Compare your result with the lift and drag of a thin at plate at 5 angle of attack and freestream Mach number of 3. Problem 9 - The gure below shows supersonic ow of Air over a 30 wedge followed by a 10 wedge. The free stream Mach number is 3.

M1 = 3

M3 M2 30 10

1) Determine M 2 , M 3 and the included angle of the expansion fan, .

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Problems

2) Suppose the ow was turned through a single 10 wedge instead of the combination shown above. Would the stagnation pressure after the turn be higher or lower than in the case shown? Why? Problem 10 - The photo below (page 137 in Van Dyke) shows a smooth compression of a supersonic ow of Air by a concave surface. The freestream Mach number is 1.96. The weak oblique shock at the nose produces a Mach number of 1.932 at station 1. From station 1 to station 2 the ow is turned 20 degrees.

2 1

1) Determine the Mach number at station 2 2) Determine the pressure ratio P 2 P 1 . 3) State any assumptions used. Problem 11 - Supersonic ow of Air in a wind tunnel at a Mach number of three produces an oblique shock off a ramp at an angle of 16 degrees. The shock reects off the upper surface of the wind tunnel as shown below.
1 3

M1 = 3

16

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Problems

1) Determine the Mach number in region 2 2) Determine the Mach number in region 3 3) Describe qualitatively how P t and T t vary between regions 1, 2 and 3. 4) Suppose the channel height is 10 cm . Precisely locate the shock reections on the upper and lower walls. 5) Suppose the walls were lengthened. At roughly what point would the Mach number tend to one? Problem 12 - The gure below shows supersonic ow of air turned through an angle of 30 . The free stream Mach number is 3.
(a) M1 = 3 M2 (b) M3 M1 = 3 M2 30 15 15

In case (a) the turning is accomplished by a single 30 wedge whereas in case (b) the turning is accomplished by two 15 degree wedges in tandem. Determine the stagnation pressure change in each case, P t2 P t1 and P t3 P t1
(a) (b)

and comment on the relative merit of one design over the other.

Problem 13 - The gure below shows the ow of Helium from a supersonic overexpanded round jet. If we restrict our attention to a small region near the intersection of the rst two oblique shocks and the so-called Mach disc as shown in the blow-up, then we can use oblique shock theory to determine the ow properties near the shock intersection (despite the generally non-uniform nature of the rest of the ow). The shock angles with respect to the horizontal measured from the image are as shown.

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11.20

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Problems

1 3

2 4

37

40

1) Determine the jet exit Mach number. Hint, you will need to select a Mach number that balances the pressures in regions 2 and 4 with a dividing streamline that is very nearly horizontal as shown in the picture. 2) Determine the Mach number in region 2. 3) Determine the ow angles and Mach numbers in regions 3 and 4. 4) Determine P 2 P 1 and P 4 P 1 . How well do the static pressures match across the dividing streamline (dashed line) between regions 2 and 4? Problem 14 - The gure below shows the reection of an expansion wave from the upper wall of a 2-D, adiabatic, inviscid channel ow. The gas is Helium at an incoming Mach number, M 1 = 1.5 and the deection angle is 20 . The ow is turned to horizontal
h M1 M2 M3 H

by the lower wall which is designed to follow a streamline producing no reected wave. Determine M 2 , M 3 and H h .

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Problems

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11.22

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