FINAL YEAR PROJECT GUIDE

by

Harry S H Gombachika PhD

UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI THE POLYTECHNIC FACULTY OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

March 2005

Table of Contents
1 Introduction...............................................................................................1 2 General Guidelines....................................................................................3 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................3 2.2 Project Guidelines...............................................................................3 2.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF REPORTS.............................................................6 2.4 Additional Information........................................................................7 3 PROJECT PROPOSAL WRITING GUIDE........................................................9 3.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................9 3.2 Structure of the Proposal..................................................................11 4 INTERIM REPORT WRITING GUIDE...........................................................19 4.1 Introduction......................................................................................19 4.2 Structure of Interim Report...............................................................19 5 ORAL PRESENTATION..............................................................................23 5.1 Introduction......................................................................................23 5.2 Preparing your Talk...........................................................................23 5.3 Delivering Your Presentation............................................................26 5.4 Making Effective Visual-Aids.............................................................29 6 FORMAT OF FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT..............................................31 6.1 Introduction......................................................................................31

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6.2 Preliminary Pages.............................................................................32 6.3 Main Text..........................................................................................33 6.4 References........................................................................................36 6.5 Appendices.......................................................................................36 7 REFERENCE GUIDE AUTHOR-DATE STYLE...............................................39 7.1 Introduction......................................................................................39 7.2 Principles of Citation.........................................................................39 7.3 Principles of Author-Date Style Referencing.....................................43 8 Bibliography............................................................................................57 9 APPENDIX................................................................................................58 9.1 Format of the Project Cover Page.....................................................58

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1 Introduction
During the final year of their studies in the department of Electrical Engineering at the Malawi Polytechnic, a constituent college of University of Malawi, students are required to carry out an independent study in a form of individual project in partial fulfilment of their BSc degree programme. Students must pass project in order to be awarded the degree. The aim of the project is to enable the student gain experience in dealing with open-ended problems of engineering design. Specifically, the project aims at achieving the following learning outcomes: (a) Students should be able to prepare a reasonable project proposal that may even attract funding; (b) Students should be able to manage a project by keeping records and monitoring their progress; (c) Students should be able to design and run experiments, surveys, and simulations as methods in used to find solutions to engineering problems; (d) Students should be able to analyse results of experiments, survey, and simulation and intelligently discuss the results of the analysis; and (e) Students should be able to communication results of their project both written and orally. At BSC level, we do not expect the students to come up with novel innovations; however, we expect students to use information available in literature to solve engineering problems. The purpose of this document is to guide students in the department of Electrical Engineering carry out a successful project. Since the material

used in this document has been compiled from various sources spanning several disciplines, the document could be used by other final year students at the Malawi Polytechnic. The remainder of the document is arranged as follows: In chapter 2, we present specific guidelines for the conduct of final year project in the department of Electrical Engineering. General guidelines for preparing a proposal are presented in chapter 3, while in chapter 4, we present general guidelines for preparing an interim report. We describe how results of the project are communicated orally and through written report in chapters 5 and 6, respectively. In chapter 7, we present guidelines for citing references and listing reference material based on Harvard style. Finally, in chapter 8, we conclude the document.

2 General Guidelines
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter we present guidelines governing the conduct of final year projects in the department of Electrical Engineering. It covers project proposal, daily logbook, interim report, oral presentation, and demonstrations. In addition, we specific the layout of reports produced in the course of the project.

2.2 Project Guidelines

2.2.1 Project Proposal
The student should submit two copies of a comprehensive proposal one to the Supervisor, one to the Coordinator, which forms the basis for project implementation, monitoring, and control. The proposal will be assessed by the supervisor and contributes 20% towards the final grade. The proposal should contain the following: o Statement of the problem and objectives; o Results of literature review; o Approach to the problem; o Outline of the designs of hardware, software or surveys; and o Resources required: equipment, materials, schedule, and budget. The project proposal should be submitted by the Friday of the sixth week of the first semester.

2.2.2 Daily Logbook

The student should have a paged logbook (not loose sheets) that will be used to record anything important to the project. The logbook forms the basis for assessing the conduct of the project and acts as memoirs of what has been taking place. The following should be recorded in the logbook: Weekly summaries highlighting what was planned and achieved; Note of meeting highlighting resolutions made; Plans and actions; Design details at every stage of the development; and Experimental data and analysis, observations, and remarks.

The logbook should be reviewed, signed and dated by the supervisor at least once a fortnight. Furthermore, it will be submitted to the supervisor for assessment at the end of the first and second semesters contributing 10 % distributed as follows: 5 % first semester and 5 % second semester.

2.2.3 Interim Report

At the end of the first semester, each student will be required to submit two copies of an interim report: one copy to the supervisor and one copy to the coordinator. The interim report forms a basis for reviewing progress against declared objectives. Therefore, the interim report may contain the following: Summary of the planned activities to date; What has been achieved to date; Presentations of preliminary results, analysis and early conclusions; and

Changes to the programme and how such changes will affect the overall project coupled with remedial strategies.

The interim report is due on the last day of classes in the first semester. The interim report will be assessed by the supervisor and contributes 15% towards the final grade.

2.2.4 Oral Presentation

Each student is expected to communicate the results of his project orally during a presentation session. Normally, presentation sessions will be scheduled during the week of grace possibly on Thursday and Friday. It is the responsibility of each student to make sure that he/she has prepared presentation materials. Wherever possible the department may provide overheard projector and/or LCD projector. Oral presentation will be assessed by a panel of academic members of staff and contributes 15 % towards final grade.

2.2.5 Project Report

Each student will be required to submit two copies of their project report: one copy to the supervisor and one copy to the coordinator. At BSC level, a 30-50 pages (excluding appendix if any) report will be adequate. The report is due on the last day of classes in the second semester. It will be assessed by the supervisor and a second assessor, and will contribute 30 % towards the final grade.

2.2.6 Demonstration
The department plans to have an open day, when each student will be required to set-up posters or demonstrations of their projects to students, staff, and industrialists. Demonstrations will be scheduled during the last week of classes in the second semester and will be assessed by a

panel consisting of academics, students, and industrialists. This will contribute 10 % towards the final grade of the course.

2.2.7 Assessment summary

The final grade will be based on the activities summarises in Table 2-1. Table 2-1: Summary of activities Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 Project proposal Conduct of the project Interim report Oral presentation Final year project Demonstration Total Maximum grade (%) 20 10 15 15 30 10 100

2.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF REPORTS

Reports required in this course shall follow the following general specifications: (a) Language of Report: Report must be written in consistent style of English. (b) Typeface and Font Size: Times New Roman typeface shall be used throughout the report. Font size of 12-point should be used for the main body of the text, which should not be italic. A laser or other high quality printer is recommended for producing the final report.

(c)

Paper: High quality 80gm A4 size paper shall be used. The paper should be white and 'non-erasable.

(d) Corrections: Corrections of typographical errors, or changes in the text, figures or tables, must be made as cleanly and invisibly as possible. Correction fluid shall not be used. Corrections should be made on the original before recopying or reprinting the problem page. (e) Margins and Spacing: The margin on the document must measure according to the following specifications: Top: 20mm, Bottom: 30mm, Left : 30mm, and Right : 20mm. Furthermore, text should be typed, one and half-spaced, on one side of the paper only. For captions of figures and tables, single spacing can be used. (f) Pagination: Page numbers are to be placed at least 15 mm from the edge of the page at the bottom centre of the page. In addition, every page except the title page must be numbered. Title page is 'i' but is not numbered. Preliminary pages are to be numbered in lower case Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv etc). On the other hand, the main text pages are to be numbered in Arabic numerals and all pages must be numbered consecutively and continuously. (g) Illustration Material: when photographs are to be included in the report, they shall be scanned. Pages with colour photographs should be copied on a colour photocopier.

2.4 Additional Information

1. Due dates must be treated very seriously. Late submission will attract deduction of marks: Normally 1% will be deducted from the total marks earned for each working day the report is delayed. It is the responsibility of the student to make sure that the required submissions are handed to the supervisor or coordinator on time.

2. Projects are students work and supervisors are there to guide and not to conduct the study for the students. Moreover, since these are open- ended problems, there are no unique solutions and the supervisor may not even have a solution. Based on this understanding, it falls upon the students to take initiative to arrange result-oriented meetings with their supervisors. Placing the blame on the supervisor, department or college for failing to conduct, and/or finish a project will not be accepted. IT IS THE STUDENTS SHOW. 3. Finally, the project is planned to run within the scheduled duration: thus during first and second semesters of the final year. Requests to the department to conduct the project beyond the scheduled period or during the holiday will not the entertained. However under very exceptional cases, a student may be allowed to conduct his/her project studies during holidays or beyond the scheduled period. In such exceptional cases, the student will be required to meet the expenses for such provision.

3 PROJECT PROPOSAL WRITING GUIDE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A proposal is a document that defines the exact nature of the matter to be investigated, presents a detailed account of the methods to be employed, and contains material supporting the importance of the topic selected and the appropriateness of the research methods or techniques to be employed. In other words, a proposal seeks to answer the following question: (a) what is the research problem? (b) how do you intend to solve the problem? (c) why should you address this problem and why do you plan to solve this problem using this approach?. Usually, a proposal may function in at least three ways: as a means of communication, as a plan, and as a contract. Thus, the proposal serves to communicate the students research or project plans to those who provide advice and give consent. It is the primary resource on which review, consultation, and more importantly, approval for implementation of the project are based. The proposal serves as a plan for action. Notably, the plan with its supporting arguments and explanations is the basis on which the final project report is judged. Finally, a completed proposal, approved for execution constitutes a bond of agreement between the student and the advisors. The approved proposal describes a study that, if conducted competently and completely, should provide the basis for a report that would meet all standards for acceptability. A good project proposal requires a good topic a unique, interesting, important, and well-defined problem/task for which you can suggest a sound and viable research approach that is likely to lead to a tangible solution. An interesting question is how to find a research topic. There are a few guidelines for formulating a good research topic.

Firstly, a good topic must be: In an area where research is needed and interesting; Achievable in a reasonable amount of time; Acceptable to your project advisor; Feasible with respect to availability of resources; Within the realm of student capabilities and interest; and A substantial learning experience for the student;

Secondly, you need to identify a topic within an area of your interests. Ideally, in the process of completing required courses, you will identify an area of particular interest. Other possible ways of selecting a topic are attending seminars and talking to people with similar research interests. In some cases, the topic is "assigned" by an advisor or a supervisor. In most instances, the selection of the topic is an iterative activity involving both student and supervisor. Generally, the initial topic is poorly defined, too general, and too large in scope. It usually requires several iterations before the topic is refined and a good proposal is developed. The systematic management approach begins by examining several possibilities, putting these into a topic analysis format, consulting with the supervisor, and selecting one of the topics to pursue in more detail. The selected topic is expanded into a proposal. The initial proposal is clarified, expanded, reduced, and refined, until it is sufficiently explicit so that the supervisor agrees that it is acceptable for your BSc project. The remainder of this chapter discusses the general structure of a project proposal.

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3.2 Structure of the Proposal

In general there are six basic elements of a proposal: Summary/abstract, introduction, project description, timeline and milestones, budget, and reference/bibliography.

3.2.1 Abstract
An abstract is a short, information-packed summary of the proposal. In one or two paragraphs, you state the purpose of the proposal, the essentials of the project and the total expense of the budget. This should not exceed one page. A reader should finish the summary knowing the basic information. Only an interested reader needs to read more. The summary is written after the rest of the proposal is finished. 3.2.1.1 Purpose

The purpose can be described in a number of ways. Here are two: (a) State the problem or need you are prepared to address. Many proposals are responding to problems that need to be solved. For example, a part of a product wears out too soon. How can we make the product work better? (b) Explain the goal of the proposal. Sometimes a proposal is to develop a new product or idea. In this case, you are not solving a problem. Still you need to explain why you want to develop the proposal. No matter how you describe the purpose, you need to clearly and simply explain what the proposal is for. The summary needs to be aimed at a general audience; therefore, this is not the place for technical detail. 3.2.1.2 Essentials of a Project

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At the proposal stage, students will rarely have a fully worked out solution. That is expected for research-based projects. However, many proposals in industry will be able to present a full solution because the proposal is to implement previously developed technology. Regardless, the summary needs to include a brief statement of what you think you will do. In one or two sentences state at least one of these: What will take place; What are the benefits of the project; and How and where it will operate. Funding and Time Requirements

3.2.1.3

State the bottom line in terms of financial requirements. If an explanation of the figure is required, make that as concisely as possible. In addition, you will need to state how long the proposed project will run and stating the proposed start and finish dates wherever it is possible.

3.2.2 Introduction
One major problem students have is confusing abstract with Introductions. NEVER assume that the reader of the introduction has already read the abstract/summary. The summary just repeats what in the proposal. The introduction you may state the purpose (make it clear that you are proposing something). Define the opportunity or problem. Usually, you need to begin by explaining the situation: what circumstances led to the proposal (For example; an industrial sponsor's problem, or a complain from consumers of a product)? When preparing an introduction, therefore, it is necessary to consider the following: What facts best support the project; Determine whether it is reasonable to portray the need as acute; How your project relates to similar projects that preceded it; and

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Avoid circular reasoning.

According to Booth et al. (1995), generally, introductions follow a shared rhetoric pattern as follows: (a) A sketch of context through which the problem will be understood; (b) A statement of the problem and the consequence of not solving the problem; and (c) A statement of a response to the problem.

Thus the structure of a typical introduction look likes this: contextproblemresponse Finally, the introduction section or chapter concludes by giving a brief overview of the contents of the whole proposal. This guides the reader by pointing where they have to find particular issues.

3.2.3 The Project Description

In this section you state explicitly what you propose to do. In some cases you may include the scope of the project, explaining what you will not be doing to limit the tasks. In addition, you will explain your approach to the problem in detail, each time justifying why you have decided to follow that approach. Some of the following questions might be useful: What are the technical specifications for the proposed piece of work? How will current research, such as recent articles on the subject or other projects of a similar kind, be used to help solve the problem? How does your work fit into a larger project or into the current thought process? Included in your project description, you should have four subsections: objectives, literature review, methodology/methods, and evaluation. 3.2.3.1 OBJECTIVES

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The objectives can be categorised into general and specific objectives. Generally, your objectives must be SMART, thus, Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-based. For example
In this project we propose to study closed-loop TPC schemes for S-UMTS. The overall aim is to develop closed-loop TPC schemes that take into account the effects of TPC command delays due to propagation. Accordingly, the specific objectives of the study are as follows: (a) To develop an analytical model for the dynamic behaviour of the closed--loop TPC process that captures the effects of TPC command delays and facilitates a clear understanding of the relationships among various system parameters; (b) to investigate the performance of tracking algorithms applied to predictive closed-loop TPC scheme so we can select an appropriate tracking algorithm and consequently optimise for the S-UMTS; (c) to investigate adaptive techniques that exploit either our knowledge on the evolution of the channel slow-fading process or the information contained in the received TPC commands in order to improve upon the performance of the closed-loop TPC schemes based on the standard algorithms; and (d) to evaluate the link-capacity of the power--controlled S-UMTS in order to investigate the impact of imperfect TPC on outage probability and link-capacity so as to establish capacity gains that can be realised through various TPC schemes.

We observe that each objective specifies what ought to be achieved (For example impact of imperfect TPC on outage probability and link capacity) and its rationale (to establish capacity gains realised through various TPC schemes). Over the years, I have found out that students confuse between the objectives of the product the students intend to develop and the objectives of the project. Note that the project objectives refer to what you will achieve by carrying out the tasks of the project.. Objectives can come in several varieties:

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Behavioural: A human action is anticipated. For example:

Communication system designers will be able to establish gains in linkcapacity and outage probability realised through various TPC schemes.

Performance: A specific time frame, within which behaviour will occur, at an expected proficiency level, is expected. For example:
Software developers will be able to compare the performance trade off of each algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application. This efficiency will cut the time for testing new applications by 40%.

Process: The manner in which something occurs is an end in itself. Product: A tangible item results. For example
To develop an analytical model for the dynamic behaviour of the closedloop TPC process that captures the effects of TPC command delays and facilitates a clear understanding of the relationships among various system parameters;

3.2.3.2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Successful projects or research activities build on what others have contributed to the block of knowledge in the area of study. This section, therefore, discusses the theoretical aspects leading to the implementation of the project. Typically, this involves the historical background of the theories published in the research literature and the questions or ambiguities arose in these theoretical works. Citations for the sources of information should be given in the standard bibliographic formats (using author-date style). Explore this background to prepare the readers to read the main body of the report. It should contain sufficient materials to enable the readers to understand why the set of data are collected, and what are the salient features to observe in the graph, charts, and tables presented in the later sections. Avoid reporting any irrelevant issue.

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Literature reviews come at different levels. At low level, students simply narrate what other people have done. This falls short of what can be considered as literature review. A true literature review must identify the following: (a) problem tackled, (b) authors point of view (c) contribution of the paper to knowledge, and (d) limitations of the paper. The limitations of the paper point at gaps in knowledge that may offer opportunities for further research. For example:
Gunnarsson et al. (2001) proposed a dynamic model for the power control scheme taking into account the effects of delays [problem] using describing function method [point of view]. Conceptually, in describing function approach the nonlinearity is replaced by a complex function approximating the gain and phase-shift of the nonlinearity. Accordingly, the hysteresis effects of delays were modelled as a triangular oscillation waveform with deterministic amplitude; and consequently, the model was used to design a time delay compensator [contribution]. The model was based on the assumption that he power updates were stepwise, and that there were no external disturbances [limitation]. However, in practice, the power control system is subjected to significant external disturbance due to channel fading and MAI plus noise.

Depending on the length and complexity of the proposal, the introduction and the theoretical background may be combined into one introductory section/chapter. Warning: Do not copy any sentence from the sources of information. 3.2.3.3 METHODOLOGY/METHODS

This section describes how you are going to investigate the question and what you are going to do in details with rationale. This means that the student should do the following: Describe the specific activities that will take place to achieve each objective, that is, what will occur from the time the project begins until it is completed. Enable the reader to visualize the implementation of the project. Match the previously stated objectives with tasks and resources.

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Provide the order and timing for the tasks. Defend your chosen methods, especially if they are new or unorthodox. Evaluation

3.2.3.4

Building evaluation into a project is an important part of engineering design or any project. The question is how will you evaluate whether the project is successful or not? How will you measure whether the project meets its goal? By including a mechanism for evaluation in your proposal, you indicate that achieving objective is a serious goal. You also provide the best means for others to learn from your experience. Two types of Formal Evaluation are common: (a) Measuring the product (e.g. test a computer program's performance under various conditions for versatility, accuracy, speed, etc.). (b) Analysing the process (e.g. analyse the milestones such as the ability of a prototype to integrate with other components of a project). Either or both might be appropriate.

3.2.4 Timetable and Milestones

Timetable shows when the project starts and how long each task is going to take. It is normally presented using a Gantt chart. In addition, it may include milestones marking the end of one stage and the beginning of another. Milestones are markers for progress, mainly in a form of keydates for which you need a certain group of activities to complete.

3.2.5 Budget and Resources

Present what you will require and how much its going to cost. It may consist of the following: (a) Proposed budget summary;

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(b) Details of the budget categories, which may include personnel, consultants, equipment, software, travel, training, stationery, communications, publishing, etc. The budget should also be time-based to facilitate proper cash flow management.

3.2.6 References
This section lists what sources were consulted and used in the proposal. There is a tendency for some students just to list down resources that they have not even referred to in the main text. We are saying that this section should list only those materials that have been referred to in the main text. Although there are many styles, we suggest that you use the Harvard style, which is a form of author-date style for consistence and easy of use.

3.2.7 Appendix
This section is optional and contains any other materials that is not that important but may just be additional information.

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4 INTERIM REPORT WRITING GUIDE

4.1 Introduction
Interim/ progress reports are common in engineering and other projects. As the name suggests, they document ongoing projects. They might be one-page memos or long, formal documents. Such a report is aimed at whoever assigned the project. Its goal is to enable the manager or sponsor of a project to make informed decisions about the future of the project. Usually, progress reports are stressful. The sponsor wants a job done quickly and cheaply; the engineer needs to ensure accuracy and quality. A sponsor might cancel even a quality job if it is seriously behind schedule or over-budget. As the engineer, you need to please the sponsor and do the job well. Yet, any project of any size or significance is bound to encounter snags: additional requirements, miscommunications problems, delays, or unexpected expenses. A progress report must account for those snags as well. Similarly, a final year project follows the same trend: the project supervisor would like to know whether the student is making steady progress in his/her work. The student would like to ensure that he/she produces research work that will earn more marks. Therefore, interim report is part of a successful project and the main purpose of this chapter is to describe the structure of an interim report.

4.2 Structure of Interim Report

The original proposal for a project determines the structure of an interim report. It is therefore necessary to make use of original milestones or the timeline when producing an interim report. With this in mind, the simplest structure is as follows: 1. 2. Introduction; Work Completed;

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3. 4.

Work Scheduled; and Problems.

However, a more comprehensive list of components will give you a clearer structure, even if you return to the simpler structure for the report itself.

4.2.1 Introduction
As always, firstly, you should indicate the purpose of the interim report and its intended audience. In addition, you should clearly define the time period covered in the report. Then, you should explain the project's objectives and summarize the major issues. Sometimes the summary can be a separate section from the introduction

4.2.2 Project Description

In very short reports, the introduction might contain this section, but if it is under its own heading, readers who are familiar with the project can skip it. Someone unfamiliar with the project, however, needs summarized details such as purpose and scope of the project, start and completion dates, and names of parties involved. Often this section can be adapted from a proposal or borrowed from a previous progress report.

4.2.3 Progress Summary

This is the substance of the report (so "summary" may be a misnomer). You want to discuss work done, work in progress, and work to be done. You might just use these as subheadings to structure of the section. This would be a project-tasks approach. Other approaches are timeperiods or a combined approach. Project-tasks approach: Focuses on the tasks. Defined milestones can logically organize your discussion into this kind of structure. Furthermore, if you are working on a number of semi-independent tasks at the same time, the project-task approach will work well.

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Time-periods approach: Focuses on time: the previous period, the current period, and the future. If a timeline (or deadline) is more important than milestones, then use time-periods approach. Furthermore, you use this approach for projects with a simple linear structure. Combined approach: The two above approaches could be combined if, for example, under previous work, you break down what you have done by individual tasks. Or, under the tasks, you focus on what part is complete, what part is in progress, and what part is yet to come. Your project (and sometimes your supervisor ) will determine which of these three you use. If the problems encountered or changes required are time-related, then use the time-periods approach to your advantage; likewise, if the problems or changes relate to specific tasks then use the project-tasks approach. Another item that may be included here is a summary of financial data. This last item could be contained in a table or appendix, or an independent section.

4.2.4 Problems Encountered

As noted earlier on, snags are expected. The problem is that some students tend to camouflage such snags. My advice is that you should not hide such snags, instead you should explain what they are and how they might affect key areas of the project (such as timing, price or quality). If the problem occurred in the past, you can explain how you overcame it. This is least serious; in fact, you look good. If the problem is in front of you (now or in the future), explain how you hope to overcome it, if you can.

4.2.5 Changes in Requirements

Here, you record the changes to the project: milestones added, new requirements, or schedule changes (good or bad). Even if these changes have not affected the ultimate goal of the project, you need to tell the supervisor how the problems have been accommodated.

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If changes are a direct result of problems encountered, sections 4.2.4 and 4.2.5 may be combined. This would lead to a modified organization: first problem and the change it required, then the next problem and change, and so on.

4.2.6 Overall Assessment of the Project

Since a progress report is not about a finished work, the conclusion needs only give your professional opinion on how the project is going. Being unrealistically optimistic is as inappropriate as being unduly negative. Beware of promising early completion: a single setback can gobble up much time. Likewise, don't overreact if you are behind schedule. You may also gain time along the way. Far more significant for the student is to explain anything that may change the expected quality of the final product. Keeping in mind your purpose can help you focus here: your goal is to enable the supervisor to make informed decisions. A long progress report will include all the apparatus of formal reports: title page, table of contents, abstract, appendices, references. The bachelor degree project study requires that you submit a formal interim report (20 5 pages is adequate).

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5 ORAL PRESENTATION
5.1 Introduction
This section provides an overview of how to make a technical presentation, and covers three main aspects of making a technical presentation: preparing your talk, presenting your talk, and supporting your talk with visual-aids. We are aware that some of the issues presented in this section were covered in other courses during your stay at the Malawi Polytechnic. Obviously, there may be some differences. Our aim is simply to complement such courses.

5.2 Preparing your Talk

Preparation is the most important part of a talk. If you haven't done it, you do not have a chance of making a good oral presentation. Having said that it does not mean that you cannot make an oral presentation. There some points you have to consider so that even a novice should be able to make a good oral presentation. Here are a number of crucial points to consider:

5.2.1 Audience
Connecting with your audience is the major task of your first minute or so of your talk. To do this, you need to do one of the following: Present your topic as an interesting problem or question that needs to be resolved; Ask your audience a thought provoking question that your presentation will answer; or Offer a brief story or anecdote that leads into your topic.

Therefore, before you making a presentation, you should carefully consider who will be your audience, and ask the following questions:

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What do they know? What will interest them?

Answers to these questions will help you create a profile of your audience so that the talk can be tailored to the specific group of people. In the final year projects presentation, probably the audience constitutes your fellow classmates and members of academic staff.

5.2.2 Time and Focus

It is also necessary to know how long do you have and fit your presentation into that time. It is easy to run overtime. The only way to stay in time is to be ruthlessly selective: What is essential to include? In other words you should focus on the most important issues raised in your project. Some believe that if your talk is focused, you should be able to state the gist of your research work in one sentence. If this is true, then there is no excuse in running out of time before the audience gets the gist of your presentation. You should think of the talk as a kind of verbal abstract: you want to give a clear picture of the project, but you won't be able to go into much technical detail. What is the central point you want to make? Make it early, clearly and often.

5.2.3 Organization
Many students are unfamiliar with how to organize a talk. Talks differ from papers or reports because they need to be more repetitive. The old advice goes like this:

"Tell 'em what you're going to tell 'em, then tell 'em, and then tell 'em what you told 'em."

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By the words what you're going to tell 'em mean that, first, you need to provide a clear introduction, which prepares the audience for a central section, and is concluded by some kind of summary. The introduction needs to accomplish three things:
(a) (b) (c)

Prompt interest; Provide an overview of the whole talk; and Make the purpose of the talk (and project) clear.

Here is an example of an opening moment of a talk that accomplishes all three tasks reasonably well. Note that this opening clearly let's the listener know what they should know by the end. "If you have ever had an ultrasound, perhaps because The first sentence you were pregnant or had appendicitis, you will have prompts interest. noticed that reading an ultrasound image is a lot like The third establishes the purpose. watching a black and white TV without cable: the image is grey and buried in falling snow. No wonder it requires an expert to read them. Our design project is to develop a prototype for part of an ultrasound -imaging device The part is called a transducer. I will explain the role of this small but important part, and then explain how our project will contribute to improving current ultrasound technology." The words telling 'em make the body of the talk and clearly involves more than just having a lot to say on a topic. Here are two key strategies: Follow the order set out by the Intro:The midsection of the sample talk above needs to develop the points made in the opening, in order: (a) role of the part, and then (b) contribution to ultrasound. That way, the audience can follow easily.

The last sentence that plays a significant role in the quality of the image. provides an overview of the talk.

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Provide clear "road signs" Road signs are phrases that signal the transitions from one point to another in the talk. You should not underestimate their importance. Here are a few samples:
My second point ... Finally ... An interesting side note is ... In conclusion... Now that you understand how the transducer works, ...

These cues help the listener understand where you are in the talk and how much longer they have to pay attention. If the listener's mind has wandered, these cues also provide ways to refocus. Such devices ensure that your audience clearly understands what you expect them to know and think by the end of your talk. Finally, the words telling em what you told em conclude the talk. This should provide a concise "take away" message. It should be a concise message that, hopefully, is memorable.

5.2.4 Practice
Our advice is that you should not attempt to memorise the presentation material because under the pressure of presentation you're liable to forget and then you become stuck. Instead, you should know your presentation. If you understand your material and your organisation, you are much less likely to get stuck or tongue-tied. The best way to know is practice, practice, practice. Give yourself an audience if you can -- friends, and ask them to critique your delivery.

5.3 Delivering Your Presentation

Delivering your talk is obviously the moment that counts. Here are three key aspects to consider:

5.3.1 Space

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Firstly, you should know the room from the front. I can assure you that the front of the class feels different from the seats you are normally used to. Secondly, you should know the resources and familiarise yourself with the equipment you intend to use well in advance. Do you have an overhead? a microphone? It is advisable to know their operations well in advance and prepare a back-plan. Moreover, the presentation on its own is a burden; you do not want to compound matters just because you cannot figure out where the overhead projector switch is.

5.3.2 Physical Presence

The audience wants to know you are confident. It will enable them to trust your information. How will you convey that confidence? You can begin by following the usual common practices: Dont fidget; Look at your audience (not at your overhead slide); Dont hold papers that rustle or pens that click, or the change in your pocket that clinks; Dont read your talk.

More important, however, is that you should become comfortable with your own gesture style. Nervousness and discomfort have a strange way of revealing themselves. You may not be aware of such discomfort, however, the audience will notice. Getting comfortable involves taking to heart a couple of key points: (a) It's not about you. You are not the focus of the presentation, your topic is. Therefore, you should make sure that your topic remains the focus, by helping people concentrate on the subject not on you. (b) Decide how much you would like to move. Neither moving nor standing still is wrong. Use either to make yourself comfortable.

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(c)

Find somewhere to put your hands. Nervous hands tend to go places you'd rather they didn't; for example up your nose, into your ear, through your hair. Think of your hands as God-given laser pointers. Use them to stress key ideas or depict a key shape. Practice these before the talk so that you know where your hands are going to go.

(d) Find focus points. Pinpoint safe places, or safe faces. These will probably not be your friends (they're liable to make you laugh), or the gorgeous hunk or babe you've been trying to impress for three years (he/she is liable to make you forget everything just as they did the last time you asked them out). Look for neutral faces positioned around the room. That way as you're making eye contact, you'll know you can look without being thrown off your talk.

5.3.3 Vocal Presence

Obviously, a wide variety of vocal style is possible. As with physical style, the important thing is your comfort. Being comfortable means you can sound natural, and calm (even if you're not). Unfortunately, sounding natural is hard in a large room where you have to shout to be heard. There are tricks, of course, but these require training and practice. Here, let me just offer a few pointers: Speakers with accents need to slow down (so do most others). Nonnative speakers of English often speak English faster than slowmouthed native speakers: usually because of the fallacy that speaking English fast means that you are good at English. Slowing down helps the audience to comprehend your talk. Having said that, you do not have to be boring slow. Choose vocal emphasis to avoid monotone. Loud/soft, high/low, fast/slow are used in English to gain emphasis and variety. For

28

example, words such as "finally" or "now" are often delivered loudly or slowly to help the listener register a change. Practice to avoid um, ah, like. These words occur most at transitions from one idea to another, so the better you know your talk, the better you can control verbal tics. Practice important words to avoid embarrassment. Some students have difficulties distinguishing "l" and "r" and making dual vowel sounds so the phrase "virtual reality" is a killer with its strings of "r" "l" and "u-a" and "ee-a." So, if this is your thesis topic, practice.

5.4 Making Effective Visual-Aids

Visual aids might overpower a talk and draw attention to themselves. This will make your talk fail. Good visual aids complement a talk. They provide key text points that you will elaborate (never whole chunks that you read), or they contain a simplified graphic to give a visual image for a key concept. Effective visual aids have the following: (a) A Clear Concise Message: This means you have to limit what goes on the slide. We suggest six lines of text maximum on each slide and do not include complicated flow charts. Place on each slide only the material you intend to refer during presentation. (b) Horizontal Format and Consistent Border: Actually, most overheads and screens are virtually square; so don't try to cram to the edges of a horizontal slide. (c) Good Brightness and Contrast: Black on white always works well. Limiting colours used on a slide, say perhaps three, can also be effective. (d) Letters at Least 20 pt. font for both text and diagrams. (e) Clear, Simple Font: Arial or Helvetica are better than Times because they have letters all of equal width.

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(f)

Provide 1-2 Minutes per slide: Most students try to deal overheads like they're dealing cards at a casino. Don't. Your audience needs time to absorb a slide, therefore as a guide allow 1-2 minutes per slide. This means that you need to prepare at most 12 slides for a 20-minutes talk.

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6 FORMAT OF FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

6.1 Introduction
A final year project report or thesis l normally has three sections: the preliminary pages or the front matter, the main text or the body matter, and the reference material or back matter. The preliminary pages include: Title page Dedication (optional) Acknowledgements Abstract Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures, Illustration, etc

The MAIN TEXT should normally be divided into chapters such as: Introduction Theoretical Background or Review of Literature Method of Investigation or Details of the Design Presentation of Data/Results Discussions on Findings Conclusions and Recommendations

The REFERENCE MATERIAL may consist of: References Glossary Appendices

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6.2 Preliminary Pages

6.2.1 Title Page
The form and contents of the title page must follow the format of the example given in Appendix . The title shall be capitalised. The title page is counted as page 'i', however, the number is not printed.

6.2.2 Acknowledgements
This is a brief acknowledgement of assistance given to the writer in researching and writing the report. Its page is numbered with a consecutive lower-case Roman numeral.

6.2.3 Abstract
An abstract is the summary of the report, which contains the statement of what was done, how it was done, the results and the conclusion drawn. It is usually written last after the main body of the documentation is completed. It should be short and concise, containing only the most critical information meant for the readers who have limited time to read the full report. It is normally limited to 300 words. Very often, technical professionals only read the abstract and will continue reading the entire report only if the abstract attracts their interest. This means that an abstract must arouse interest in the reader urging him to go through the remainder of the report.

6.2.4 Table of Contents and Lists of Figures/Tables

A table of contents (TOC) shows readers the starting page number of each major section and subsection in the report. The topics to be covered in the report must be carefully selected and organised. The flow of the topics to be presented is very important in order to guide a relatively novice reader in understanding the whole report. To an experienced reader, the TOC gives a quicker way of finding the interested information.

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With the similar purpose as the TOC, the lists of figures and tables enable readers to find the illustrations, diagrams, charts, and tables in the report. Figures/tables must be numbered consecutively in order of appearance.

6.3 Main Text

6.3.1 Introduction
An introduction is necessary to give an overview of the overall topic and the purpose of the report. The motivation for the initialisation of the project can be included. Its content should be general enough to guide the reader gracefully into the subject materials. As stated earlier on, in the introduction you may state the purpose (make it clear that you are proposing something). Define the opportunity or problem. Usually, you need to begin by explaining the situation: what circumstances led to the proposal (e.g. an industrial sponsor's problem)? Consider the following: Decide what facts best support the project; Determine whether it is reasonable to portray the need as acute; Explain how your project relates to similar projects that preceded it; and Avoid circular reasoning.

Generally, introductions follow a shared rhetoric pattern as follows: (d) A sketch of context through which the problem will be understood; (e) A statement of the problem and the consequence of not solving the problem; and (f) A statement of a response to the problem.

Finally, the introduction section or chapter concludes by giving a brief overview of the contents of the whole proposal. This guides the reader by pointing where they have to find particular issues.

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6.3.2 Theoretical Background or Review of Literature

This section discusses the theoretical aspects leading to the implementation of the project. Typically, this involves the historical background of the theories published in the research literature and the questions or ambiguities arose in these theoretical works. Citations for the sources of information should be given in the standard bibliographic formats (using author-date style). Explore this background to prepare the readers to read the main body of the report. It should contain sufficient materials to enable the readers to understand why the set of data are collected, and what are the salient features to observe in the graph, charts, and tables presented in the later sections. Avoid reporting any irrelevant issue. Literature reviews come at different levels. At low level, students simply narrate what other people have done. This falls short of what can be considered as literature review. A true literature review must identify the following: (a) problem tackled, (b) authors point of view (c) contribution of the paper to knowledge, and (d) limitations of the paper. The limitations of the paper point at gaps in knowledge that may offer opportunities for further research. For example:
Gunnarsson et al. (2001) proposed a dynamic model for the power control scheme taking into account the effects of delays [problem] using describing function method [point of view]. Conceptually, in describing function approach the nonlinearity is replaced by a complex function approximating the gain and phase-shift of the nonlinearity. Accordingly, the hysteresis effects of delays were modelled as a triangular oscillation waveform with deterministic amplitude; and consequently, the model was used to design a time delay compensator [contribution]. The model was based on the assumption that he power updates were stepwise, and that there were no external disturbances [limitation]. However, in practice, the power control system is subjected to significant external disturbance due to channel fading and MAI plus noise.

Depending on the length and complexity of the report, the introduction and the theoretical background may be combined into one introductory section/chapter.

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Warning: Do not copy any sentence from the sources of information.

6.3.3 Method of Investigation or Details of the Design

The project may be in one of the following nature: (a) Experimental Research; (b) Design synthesis of hardware/software; and (c) Development and application of theory.

Depending on the nature of the project, the approach can be described in one or more chapters. For experimental research, explanations shall be given with regard to the equipment used to conduct the experiment, the function of each apparatus, how the configuration works to perform a particular measurement, sources of errors and how to minimise them, materials and ways to produce the sample. For design synthesis of hardware/software, detailed descriptions on the techniques used shall be given. For development and application of theory to solve a particular problem, the techniques used shall be explained in detail. Mathematical derivations that are too lengthy shall be given in appendices. Experiments conducted to verify the theory shall also be documented.

6.3.4 Presentation of Data/Results

The data should be organised and presented in the forms of graphs, charts, or tables in this section, without interpretative discussion. Raw data that may take up a few pages, and most probably wont interest any reader, could be placed in the appendices.

6.3.5 Discussion on Findings

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The interpretation of the data gathered can be discussed in this section. Sample calculations may be included to show the correlation between the theory and the measurement results. If there is any discrepancy between the theoretical and experimental results, an analysis or discussion should follow to explain the possible sources of the discrepancies. Discussion of results may consider the following questions: (a) What the results shows? (b) What the results mean? (c) What are the implications of the results?

The presentation of data and the discussions may also be combined into one chapter.

6.3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusion section closes the report by providing a summary to the content in the report. It indicates what is shown by the work, what is its significance, and what are the advantages and limitations of the information presented. Additional discussion shall not be added. The potential applications of the results and recommendations for future work may be included.

6.4 References
Every reference quoted or cited in the report must be included in the list of references using the Harvard style. Citation is required for statement that expresses a fact that goes beyond the common knowledge of the art.

6.5 Appendices
This section contains lengthy materials, which are not suitable to be put inside the main text, for example raw data, equipment and computer programmes.

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5. Other Instructions on Report Writing A thesis should be written according to the intended group of readers in mind. It should have a logical flow with strong explanation to convince the reader on the conclusions of the thesis. It should be well written and should provide easy understanding. Excessive technical jargon and slang should be avoided. As far as possible, statements should be supported by relevant and accurate facts, data, and numbers. The writer should be able to defend all statements by referring to a reliable research work or the research findings. Symbols or nomenclature used shall be defined. Standard symbols or acronym normally accepted in engineering field can be used. International System Unit (S.I) shall be used. If you use other units, SI equivalent unit shall be in bracket. Equations and formulae should be typed clearly, preferably using equation editor. Diagram can include graphs and figures. It can be numbered together or separately with photographs. Diagrams should be easy to understand. Every diagram should be numbered (it is good if it is numbered separately for different chapter using Arabic number) at the bottom of the diagram and should be given an informative title. Coordinate units (abscissa) should be written clearly in the graph. All the data points and lines should be clear - generally it should not be more than 2 or 3 curves in every diagram. Types of different data points must be shown in a legend. Every diagram should be referred and elaborated in the text. The gridlines should be in appropriate intervals. Tables of data or results should be numbered (it is good if it is numbered separately for different chapter using Arabic number)

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and should have titles. Both the number and the title should be centred above the table. Columns should have appropriate title. All units should be clearly identified. All tables should be referred and elaborated in the text. Columns can be numbered if the title is too complex. In this case, the elaboration should be given in the text. Additional notes should be prepared if necessary.

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7 REFERENCE GUIDE AUTHOR-DATE STYLE

7.1 Introduction
This section covers principles of citation and referencing and is limited to the Harvard style, which is a form of author-date style.

7.2 Principles of Citation

7.2.1 Structure
Citations appear in parentheses in one of two places in your text: after any fact or phrasing that you have taken from an outside source. after the name of an author you are summarizing.

As the name of this style implies, the citation includes NAME and DATE, that is, the last name of the author, and the date of publication. Sometimes the citation will also need to include the page number(s) of the original source. So a basic example looks like this:
(Author 20XX) or (Author 20XX, p.23)

Or, to put a real face on it, a book or article by Neil Postman would look like this:
(Postman 2003) or (Postman 2003, p.225)

7.2.2 Examples of Common Author-Date Citations

Work by a
Option 1: The name and the date of the source can be enclosed in parentheses either when the work is first mentioned or after

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Single author

the information drawn from the source. One influential study (Tung 1982) raised the same question. The results from studies that neglected the effects of liquid surface tension and viscosity only apply to the initial stages of droplet impact, when these forces are negligible (Tung 1982). Option 2: When a writer mentions the author's name in the main part of the sentence, the citation only needs the date. An influential study by Tung (1982) raised the same question.

More than

When a source has two authors, include both names. You may consistent. If the work has more than two authors, use the name of the first listed author, followed by "et al." which is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "et alias" ("and others"). Because it is Latin, the phrase should be italicised or underlined. Note only "al." has a period after it. A similar study endorsed photographic evidence (Chandra and Avedisian 1991), but some photographs (Akao et al. 1980) are not easily reproduced.

one author either spell out the word "and" or use the symbol "&", but be

Same author(s), same year

When an author has written two articles in the same year, you differentiate between them with "a" for the first, "b" for the second, and so forth. If your paper refers only to one of these two articles, you do not need any letters. Worthington's ground-breaking first study (1877a) was soon followed by a second (1877b).

Personal interview

Sometimes your sources will not be published documents. If you use information from a telephone conversation, for example, cite it just as you would

40

any other source.

One mid-level computer programmer estimated that she spends 25%- 30% of her time writing reports and memos for her clients (Jerz 1996).

Authors name unknown

When the author is unknown, you should use the title of the article, book, or web-page.
the worst election loss in the partys history (The Age 1968, p27).

7.2.3 Using Citations into your Writing

This section covers ways to use citations, and a caution about the position of citations in your text. Essentially you can use citations in three ways: (a) General Reference, (b) Paraphrase, and (c) Direct Quotation. General references: refer to the entirety of a study rather than a specific page or concept. This is the most common type of reference in technical writing. Paraphrase typically involves the summary of a single part of another author's work, for example:
Single-shot flash photography yields better results than fast-motion movies (Chandra and Avedisian 1991, p. 15).

Note that the writer has included the page number here because the information comes from a specific point in the original work. Chandra and Avedisian's original looked like this:
A variety of high-speed cin film and short-duration single-shot photographic techniques have been used to this end (see, for example, Worthington 1908; Savic & Boult 1955; Watchers & Westerling 1966; Toda 1974;Akao et al. 1980; Inada et al. 1983). The method which has yielded the greatest clarity is single-shot flash photography.

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The writer has determined that only the comparison between movies and stillflash pictures is important enough to repeat, and rephrased to emphasize that comparison. Even though the writer does not use the exact words, the paraphrased detail still comes from Chandra and Avedisian, who listed six different sources to defend their point. An author who uses Chandra and Avedisian's statement is ethically obligated to give them credit. Without proper documentation, the statement would at best function as mere opinion, and would be of little or no professional value; at worst, it would be plagiarism. Direct quotation is not used much in technical writing, often only when one is trying to show how stupid another writer is; however, occasionally, you might encounter something written so well, you just have to quote it. Here is a sample below:
Previous studies did not address this issue, however, because "they neglected any effects of liquid surface tension and viscosity, so that their results are applicable only to the initial stages of droplet impact, when these forces are negligible compared to their inertial effects [at the time of impact]" (Pasandideh-Fard et al. 1996, p. 650).

The writer took a piece of information directly from page 650, reproduced it word-for-word, and gave appropriate credit to the original authors. (Square brackets signify the addition of clarification material to the quoted passage.) A Word of Warning: Where you place the citation can have significant impact on meaning. These two examples mean different things, even though the words are the same:

Example 1
...some photographs (Akao et al. 1980) are not easily reproduced.

Example 2

Some photographs are not easily reproduced (Akao et al. 1980).

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The left-hand sentence means Akao et al.'s photographs are hard to reproduce, whereas the sentence on the right means that Akao et al. claimed that some other (unspecified) photos are hard to reproduce. In the first instance, the reader will assume you tried to reproduce Akao et al.'s photos, and in the second, the reader will assume that Akao at al. tried to reproduce photos. So in positioning the citation, make sure it indicates what you intend.

7.3 Principles of Author-Date Style Referencing

The second part of this section is a reference list, which lists all sources used by the writer. The sources "used" are those that get cited in the text of the report. In Harvard style, the sources are listed alphabetically by the author's last name. Authors are commonly identified by last name and initials, but you should give the author's full name if the original source provides it. If the source has more than one author, start with the last name of the first author, but list the others normally. In some cases, the author may be a company or other organization. Note the punctuation in the samples below. End each item with a period.

7.3.1 Format and Examples of Harvard Style References

7.3.1.1 Book

If an electronic book has the same structure and page numbering as the equivalent printed version, use this section to reference it as if it was that print version. Otherwise, or if you are not sure, use the Electronic Book style described in later on. Bibliography Format:

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Author(s) Year, Title, trans. Translator, Edition edn, vol. Volume, Series Title, Publisher, City. Examples:
Segovia, J., Szczepaniak, P.S. & Niedzwiedzinski, M. 2004, E-commerce and Intelligent Methods, 2nd edn, Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, PhysicaVerlag, Heidelberg. de Cervantes Saavedra, M. 2003, Don Quixote, trans. E. Grossman, HarperCollins, New York. Thorne, K.S. 1994, Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, Picador, London.

Example (book with no author):

Manual of Auditing 1981, 3rd edn, Gee, London.

In the text these would be:

(Segovia, Szczepaniak & Niedzwiedzinski 2004) and (de Cervantes Saavedra 2003) and (Thorne 1994) and (Manual of Auditing 1981)

7.3.1.2

Edited Book

Use (ed.) for one editor, (eds) for more than one editor. Bibliography Format: Editor (ed.) Year, Title, Edition edn, vol. Volume, Series Title, Publisher, City. Examples:
Luczkovich, J.J. (ed.) 1995, Ecomorphology of Fishes, Developments in Environmental Biology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Turner, S.P. & Roth, P.A. (eds) 2003, Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Blackwell, Oxford.

In the text these would be:

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(Luczkovich 1995) and (Turner & Roth 2003)

7.3.1.3

Electronic Book

If an electronic book has the same structure and page numbering as the printed version, you can cite it as if you consulted the printed version. However, if the electronic version has different page numbering, or no page numbering, or if you are not sure, then use this style. Year should be the date of creation or last update of the electronic version. Publisher and City (if known) refer to the producer or host of the electronic version and where they are based. You must include the date you viewed the web page, followed by the full URL within angle brackets. Bibliography Format: Author(s) Year, Title, trans. Translator, Edition edn, vol. Volume, Series Title, Publisher, City, viewed Date, <URL>. Examples:
Austen, J. 1998, Pride and Prejudice, University of Adelaide, viewed 10 July 2004, <http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/pghtml//mirror/pg/etext98/pandp11.txt>. Kim, A.J. 2002, Community Building on the Web, Safari Tech Books Online, Boston, Mass., viewed 3 July 2004, <http://proquest.safaribooksonline.com/0201874849>. Granqvist, C.G. 1989, Spectrally Selective Surfaces for Heating and Cooling Applications, University of Technology, Sydney, viewed 31 July 2004, <http://drr.lib.uts.edu.au/drr/public/citation?item=6404>.

In the text these would be:

(Austen 1998) and (Kim 2002) and (Granqvist 1989, p.21)

In the last example, you use "pp." if there is a range of pages eg, pp. 2122. 7.3.1.4 Chapter from Edited Book

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Use this style for a chapter within an edited book, if each chapter of the book has its own author and its own title. Note the word "in" before the Book Editor. Use (ed.) for one editor, (eds) for more than one editor. If an electronic book chapter has an equivalent printed version, reference it as if it was the print version. Otherwise, or if you are not sure, use the chapter from electronic book format below, where Year should be the date of creation or last update of the electronic version, and Publisher and City (if known) refer to the producer or host of the electronic version and where they are based. You must include the date you viewed the web page, followed by the full URL within angle brackets. Bibliography Format (print): Author(s) of Chapter Year, 'Chapter Title', in Book Editor(s) (ed.), Book Title, Edition edn, vol. Volume, Series Title, Publisher, City, pp. Pages of Chapter. Example:
Coleman, S. 2003, 'Democracy in an e-connected world', in R. Davidson (ed.), The E-Connected World: Risks and Opportunities, Canada-United Kingdom Colloquia Series, McGill Queens University Press, Montreal, pp. 125-32.

Bibliography Format (chapter in electronic book): Author(s) of Chapter Year, 'Chapter Title', in Book Editor(s) (ed.), Book Title, Edition edn, vol. Volume, Series Title, Publisher, City, viewed Date, <URL>. Example:
Smith, S. 2000 'US democracy promotion: critical questions', in M. Cox, J. Ikenberry & T. Inoguchi (eds), American Democracy Promotion, Oxford Scholarship Online, Oxford, viewed 11 August 2004, <http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/politicalscience/01992409 73/p025.html#acprof-0199240973-chapter-3>.

In the text these would be:

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(Coleman 2003) and (Smith 2000)

7.3.1.5

Conference Paper

Use this style for a single paper from conference proceedings. To reference the whole conference proceedings as one work, treat it as an Edited Book described earlier on instead. Year is the year of publication of the proceedings, which might be different from the year the conference was actually held (as in the second print example below). If you wish, add the actual day(s) month & year of the conference just before the Conference Location eg, 16-18 May 2004, Sydney. If an electronic conference paper has an equivalent printed version, reference it as if it was the print version. Otherwise, or if you are not sure, use the electronic conference paper style below, where Year should be the date of creation or last update of the electronic version, and Publisher and City (if known) refer to the producer or host of the electronic version and where they are based. You must include the date you viewed the web page, followed by the full URL within angle brackets. Bibliography Format (print): Author(s) of Paper Year, 'Title of Paper', Conference Name, vol. Volume, ed. Editor, Publisher, Conference Location, pp. Pages. Examples:
Fisse, B. 2000, 'Price exploitation and the new tax scheme', Competition Law and Regulation, ed. R. Kingsford, University of New South Wales Faculty of Law, 24-25 August 2000, Kensington, NSW, pp. 1-17. McPherson, M. 2000, 'The missing link: using interlibrary loan management software', Libraries Without Walls 3: Delivery of Library Services to Distant Users, eds P. Brophy, S. Fisher & Z. Clarke, Library Association, 10-14 September 1999, Molyvos, Lesvos, Greece, pp. 108-14.

Bibliography Format (electronic conference paper):

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Author(s) of Paper Year, 'Title of Paper', Conference Name, vol. Volume, ed. Editor, Publisher, Conference Location, viewed Date, <URL>. Example:
Jakubowicz, A. 2002, 'Race vilification and communal leadership', Beyond Tolerance: National Conference on Racism, ed. W. Jonas, Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission, 12-13 March 2002, Sydney, viewed 17 June 2002, <http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/beyond_tolerance/speeches /jakubowicz.html>.

In the text these would be:

(Fisse 2000) and (McPherson 2000) and (Jakubowicz 2002)

7.3.1.6

Journal Article: Printed; or Online with a Printed

Equivalent Use this style for printed articles; and for online journal articles if the journal also appears in print and if the online citation includes page numbers. Bibliography Format: Author(s) Year, 'Article Title', Journal Name, vol. Volume, no. Issue, pp. Pages. Example:
Seaman, C.B., Mendonca, M.G. & Young-Mi, K. 2003, 'User evaluation and evolution of a prototype management tool', IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, vol. 29, no. 9, pp. 838-51.

This is the correct style even if the article was viewed online via the IEEExplore journal database, because the citation has page numbers.
Gillespie, N.C., Lewis, R.J., Pearn, J.H., Bourke, A.T.C., Holmes, M.J., Bourke, J.B. & Shields, W.J. 1986, 'Ciguatera in Australia: occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 145, no. 1112, pp. 584-90.

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Example (journal article with no author):

'Schuth wins Leibniz prize' 2003, Materials Today, vol. 6, no. 6, p. 61.

As in the earlier example, this is the correct style even if the article was viewed online via the ScienceDirect database, for the same reason. In the text these would be:
(Seaman, Mendonca & Young-Mi 2003) and (Gillespie et al. 1986) and ('Schuth wins Leibniz prize' 2003)

Since the second article has more than 3 authors, the in text citation lists only the first author and abbreviates the rest to "et al." Note that the bibliography format lists all the authors. 7.3.1.7 Journal Article: from a Website

Use this style if the journal is online only, or for online articles with no page numbers. You must include the date you viewed the article, followed by the full URL within angle brackets. Bibliography Format: Author(s) Year, 'Article Title', Journal Name, vol. Volume, no. Issue, viewed Date, <URL>. Examples:
Strong, W.S. 1999, 'Copyright in a time of change', Journal of Electronic Publishing, vol. 4, no. 3, viewed 5 August 2004, <http://www.press.umich.edu/jep/0403/strong.html>. Clark, J., Diefenderfer, C., Hammer, S. & Hammer, T. 2003, 'Estimating the area of Virginia', Journal of Online Mathematics and its Applications, vol. 3, viewed 6 May 2004, <http://www.joma.org/vol3/modules/clark/area_of_virginia.htm>.

In the text these would be:

(Strong 1999) and (Clark et al. 2003)

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Similarly since the second article has more than 3 authors, the in text citation lists only the first author and abbreviates the rest to "et al." Note that the bibliography format lists all the authors. 7.3.1.8 Newspaper or Magazine Article: Printed; or Online with

a Printed Equivalent Use this style for printed articles; and for online articles if the newspaper or magazine also appears in print and if the online citation includes page numbers. Use Section only for sections of the newspaper or magazine that have their own page numbering. A major difference between journal articles, and newspaper or magazine articles, is that newspapers and magazines are usually issued much more frequently than journals. Thus they are usually distinguished by their issue date, rather than by volume or issue number. Bibliography Format: Reporter or Author(s) Year, 'Article Title', Newspaper or Magazine Title (Section), Issue Date, pp. Pages. Examples:
Peatling, S. & Malkin, B. 2004, 'Employers face ban on email spying', Sydney Morning Herald, 31 March, p. 17. Gutner, T. 2003, 'Fashion futures', Business Week (Fashion Industry Supplement), August, pp. 9-10.

In the text these would be:

(Peatling & Malkin 2004) and (Gutner 2003)

7.3.1.9

Newspaper or Magazine Article: from A Website

Use this style if the newspaper or magazine is online only, or for online articles with no page numbers. You must include the date you viewed the article, followed by the full URL within angle brackets.

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Bibliography Format: Reporter or Author(s) Year, 'Article Title', Newspaper or Magazine Title, Issue Date, viewed Date, <URL>. Example:
Darby A. 2004, Furious Butler quits as Governor', Sydney Morning Herald, 10 August, viewed 10 August 2004, <http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/08/09/1092022411039.html? oneclick="true">.

This is the correct style, because although the Sydney Morning Herald does have a printed version, the online article does not have page numbers, so we need to reference the article as a website. In the text this would be:
(Darby 2004)

7.3.1.10

Website or Document within a Website

Author is the person or organisation who wrote or created the document or website. Year is the year the document or website was created or last updated. Title is the "name" of the document (leave this out if it is not obvious). Producer is the person or organisation responsible for sponsoring, hosting or "publishing" the document or website. City is the location of the Producer. You must include the date you viewed the web page, followed by the full URL within angle brackets. Bibliography Format: Author Year, Title, Producer, City, viewed Date, <URL>. Examples:
Robertson, P. 2001, Astronomy in the Deep Freeze, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, viewed 1 April 2004, <http://www.science.org.au/nova/065/065key.htm>.

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Australian Electoral Commission 2002, Australia Celebrates the 100th Anniversary of Women's Right to Vote, Australian Electoral Commission, Canberra, viewed 17 March 2004, <http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/what/media_releases/2002/jun/100_anniversary. htm>. Paine, M. 1999, Your Ancestors May Be Martian, Imaginova Corp, New York, viewed 17 February 2004, <http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/rocks_fromspace_991108.ht ml>.

In the text these would be:

(Robertson 2001) and (Australian Electoral Commission 2004) and (Paine 1999)

7.3.1.11

Thesis

Bibliography Format: Author Year, 'Title', Thesis Type, University, City. Examples:
Wallace, J.W. 2002, 'Modeling Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Electrically Large Structures', PhD thesis, Brigham Young University, Ann Arbor, Mich. Kirk, J. 2002, 'Theorising Information Use: Managers and Their Work', PhD thesis, University of Technology, Sydney.

In the text these would be: (Wallace 2002) and (Kirk 2002) 7.3.1.12 Report

Usually used for in-house publications, reports usually have very focused subject matter like journal articles and may be only a few pages in length. They may be unpublished. Examples of reports would be company annual reports, heritage reports, departmental reports, research group reports, and some brief publications. The fact that the word 'report' appears in the

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title does not always mean that it should be referenced in this format - you may prefer to reference it as a Book or an Edited Book instead. Bibliography Format: Author(s) Year, Report Title, Report Number, Publisher, City. Examples:
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1999, Annual Report 1998-99, DFAT, Canberra. Law Reform Commissioner of Tasmania 1996, Report on Public Fundraising by Charitable Institutions, Report Number 75, Government Printer, Hobart.

In the text these would be:

(Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1999) and (Law Reform Commissioner of Tasmania 1996)

7.3.1.13

Film or Audiovisual Material

Medium must be motion picture (for films), video recording, CD-ROM, DVD, audio cassette, slide, or microform. Production Company is used for films, Publisher for Audiovisual Material. Only specify the Director or Performers if you wish to. Bibliography Format: Title Year, Medium, Production Company or Publisher, City, directed by Director, starring Performers. Examples:
Annie Hall 1977, motion picture, United Artists, Hollywood, directed by W. Allen, starring W. Allen & D. Keaton. Muriel's Wedding 1994, motion picture, Roadshow Entertainment, Sydney. The Edge of the Possible 1998, video recording, Film Art Doco Productions & Ronin Films, Canberra.

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Attack on the Wires 2002, video recording, BBC for the Open University, London, directed by D. Shulman.

In the text these would be: (Annie Hall 1977) and (Muriel's Wedding 1994) and (The Edge of the Possible 1998) and (Attack on the Wires 2002) 7.3.1.14 Television or Radio Program

Medium must be television program or radio broadcast. Leave out Series Title if the program is not part of a series. Broadcast Date is Day Month. Only specify Producer and Presenters or Performers if you think this is important. Bibliography Format: Title Broadcast Year, Medium, Series Title, TV or Radio Station, City, Broadcast Date, Presenters or Performers. Examples:
Canberra Firestorm 2003, television program, Catalyst, ABC TV, Sydney, 3 March. Shock! Horror! 2004, television program, This is Modern Art, ABC TV, Sydney, 19 May, presented by M. Collings. PM 2004, radio broadcast, ABC Radio 702AM, Sydney, 2 June, presented by M. Colvin.

In the text these would be:

(Canberra Firestorm 2003) and (Shock! Horror! 2004) and (PM 2004)

7.3.1.15

Case Law

Use the abbreviated name for Law Reports, eg CLR for Commonwealth Law Reports. The Year is not in italics. Cases should be referenced as if in print even if viewed electronically. Bibliography Format:

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Case Name in Full (Year) Volume Law Report First Page. Example:
Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd (1920) 28 CLR 129.

In the text this would be:

(Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd 1920)

7.3.1.16

Legislation

Legislation should be referenced as if in print, even if viewed electronically. Jurisdiction should be the appropriate abbreviation for the jurisdiction (eg MLW for Malawi legislation). The Name and the Year of an Act are in italics, but not the Jurisdiction is not, nor the Name and Year of a Bill. Bibliography Format for an Act: Name of Act Year (Jurisdiction). Examples:
Crimes Act 1900 (NSW). Copyright Act 1968 (Cth).

Bibliography Format for a Bill: Name of Bill Year (Legislative Body). Example:
Anti-terrorism Bill 2004 (House of Representatives).

In the text these would be:

(Crimes Act 1900) and (Copyright Act 1968) and (Anti-Terrorism Bill 2004)

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In the text, you can specify particular sections of an Act if you wish, using s. for one section or ss. for several sections. For example
(Crimes Act 1900, s. 41A) and (Copyright Act 1968, ss. 40-42)

7.3.1.17

One Work Citing Another

Suppose you wish to cite something that is cited in a later work. For example, suppose you've read a book by Thorne, written in 1994, on p.78 of which he quotes from a paper by Einstein written in 1906. To cite the work by Einstein using Thorne's book you must cite in the text as (Einstein 1906; cited by Thorne 1994, p. 78) In your reference list you must have the full citation of Thorne. You can also include the full citation of Einstein in your bibliography if you wish (you can get this from Thorne's bibliography), but this isn't strictly necessary if you haven't actually consulted the Einstein paper directly.

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8 Bibliography
Booth, W.C., Colomb, G.G., & Williams, J.M.,1995,. The Craft of Research, London: University of Chicago Press. Engineering Communication Centre, The University of Toronto, On-Line Handbook, viewed on February 20, 2005, <http://www.ecf.utoronto.ca/~writing/> Online Writing Lab (OWL), Purdue University, Using APA Style Format, viewed on 5th March 2005, <http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html> The Writers Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Writers Handbook, viewed on 5th March 2005, <http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/index.html> University of Western Australia Library, Citing Your Sources: Harvard Style, Viewed 20th March 2005, <http://www.library.edu.au/guides/citingsources/harvard.html>

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9 APPENDIX
9.1 Format of the Project Cover Page

[Title]
by

[Student name] FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering of the

Polytechnic University of Malawi

Date

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