The solubility of a substance is dependent on the forces holding the crystal together (the lattice energy) and the

solvent acting on these forces. For now, we will consider only water as the solvent. As the solid dissolves, water molecules surround the ions in the solution by a process called hydration. During hydration, energy is released. The extent to which the energy of hydration is greater than the lattice energy determines the solubility. The equilibrium involved in the solubility of a substance is: MaXb (s) a Mn+ (aq) + b Xn- (aq) ( a general equation)

where M is the cation of change n+ and X is the anion of charge n-. The subscripts of the salt become the coefficients for the ions. The equilibrium mass action expression would be: Ksp = [Mn+]a [Xn-]b Notice that only the aqueous ions are part of the mass action expression. Solids are never included. Also notice that the coefficient for each ion becomes the exponent in the mass action expression. There are four common types of solubility equilibria problems: solubility in pure water (will a precipitate form or finding the molar solubility), solubility in the presence of a common ion and selective precipitation. We will look at each of these in turn. Solubility in pure water Numerical problems involving solubility of a compound in pure water may fall into two categories: (1) determining whether a precipitate will form when two aqueous solutions are mixed or (2) determining the actual concentration of ions in a saturated solution. Lets examine the mixing of two solutions. The problem might read as follows: Suppose 100.0 mL of a 0.0100 M CaCl2 solution and 200.0 mL of a 0.0200 M Na3PO4 solution were mixed. Would a precipitate form?To tackle this problem, you must do a stoichiometry problem first. Start by writing the balanced chemical equation:

3 CaCl2 (aq) + 2 Na3PO4 (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s) + 6 NaCl (aq) Convert this equation into net ionic form by crossing out the spectator ions from the total ionic form of the equation: 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 6 Cl(aq) + 6 Na+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s) + 6 Na+ (aq) + 6 Cl(aq) 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s) Find the initial concentration of Ca2+ ions and PO43- ions:

[Ca2 ]

0.0100 mol CaCl2 1 mol Ca2 x 0.0100 M Ca2 1L 1 mol CaCl2 0.0200 mol Na3PO4 1 mol PO43 x 0.0200 M PO43 1L 1 mol Na3PO4

[PO43-]

Next, determine the new, diluted concentration of calcium and phosphate ions resulting from the mixing of the two solutions:

(0.100 L)(0.0100 mol Ca [Ca ] 0.300 L

2

/L)

0.00333 M Ca2

[PO43-]

(0.200 L)(0.0200 mol PO43 - ) 0.0133 M PO43 0.300 L

Calculate the solubility product quotient, Q, based on the mass action expression of the solubility equilibrium: Q = [Ca2+]3[PO43-]2 Q = [0.00333 M]3[0.0133 M]2 = 6.53 x 10-12

Compare the value of Q to the value of Ksp. If the Q Ksp , then the solubility has not been exceeded and a precipitate will not form. If the Q > Ksp, then the solubility has been exceeded and a precipitate will form. The K sp of Ca3(PO4)2 is 1.0 x 10-26. Since Q, 6.53 x 10-12, exceeds the Ksp of 1.0 x 10-26, a precipitate of Ca3(PO4)2 will form in this case. A second type of solubility problem would ask to find the solubility of a pure substance in water. Suppose the question asks for the solubility of calcium phosphate in water. The equilibrium taking place is: Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq)

The Ksp of calcium phosphate is 1.0 x 10-26, and is either given in the problem or can be found on a table of solubility product constants. Below the equilibrium, show what is occurring initially, the change needed to establish equilibrium and the conditions at equilibrium: Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3 Ca2+ (aq) + 2 PO43- (aq)

Initial Change Equilibrium

0 + 3x 3x

0 + 2x 2x

Initially, calcium phosphate has not dissociated, thus the concentrations of calcium ions and phosphate ions is considered to be 0. Think of it as a reference point. To establish equilibrium, some calcium phosphate must dissociate as a 3x amount of calcium ions and 2x amount of phosphate ions. Thus, at equilibrium, the amount of calcium ions is 3x and the amount of phosphate ions is 2x. These values are substituted into the mass action expression: Ksp = [Ca2+]3[PO43-]2 = 1.0 x 10-26 = (3x)3(2x)2 = 1.0 x 10-26 As a reminder, Ca3(PO4)2 is a solid, and is therefore not a part of the mass action expression.

Solve the above algebraic expression for x: 108 x5 = 1.0 x 10-26 x5 = 1.0 x 10-26/108 = 9.3 x 10-29
x
5

9.3 x 10 - 29 2.5 x 10 - 6

The value of x is the molar solubility of calcium phosphate. The actual concentrations of Ca2+ ions and PO43- ions in solution is given by:

[Ca2+] = 3x = 3(2.5 x 10-6) = 7.5 x 10-6 M Ca2+

[PO43-] = 2x = 2(2.5 x 10-6) = 5.0 x 10-6 M PO43-

Using the molar solubility, one may calculate the actual mass of calcium phosphate dissolved in one liter of water:

2.5 x 10 - 6 mol Ca3(PO4)2 310.18 g Ca3(PO4)2 x 7.8 x 10 - 4 g Ca3(PO4)2/L solution 1 L solution 1 mol Ca3(PO4)2
Solubility in the presence of a common ion

Suppose a salt of low solubility is found in the presence of a soluble salt in which the cation or anion of the soluble salt is common to the cation or anion of the insoluble salt. For instance, if a quantity of sodium phosphate is introduced to a saturated solution of calcium phosphate, what would happen to the solubility of calcium phosphate? Lets look at this problem qualitatively, first. The common ion is the

phosphate ion. According to LeChateliers Principle, if a stress is placed on an equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift in the direction which relieves the stress. The stress in this case is excess phosphate ion; the equilibrium will shift to the left, and one would see additional precipitate of calcium phosphate form.

Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3 Ca2+ (aq)

2 PO43- (aq)

Equilibrium shifts to the left in the presence of excess phosphate ion.

The lowered solubility of calcium phosphate becomes evident when the problem is approached quantitatively. A typical problem would read:

What is the solubility of calcium phosphate in a 0.10 M solution of sodium phosphate?

The equilibrium taking place is:

Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3 Ca2+ (aq)

2 PO43- (aq)

Keep in mind that while excess phosphate will be present from the sodium phosphate, sodium ion is just a spectator ion during the process.

To start the problem, set up an equilibrium table:

Ca3(PO4)2 (s) 3 Ca2+ (aq)

2 PO43- (aq)

Initial

0.10 M

Change

+ 3x

+ 2x

Equilibrium

3x

0.10 M + 2x

Notice how the initial amount of phosphate is not zero. This initial amount of phosphate ion is contributed by the 0.10 M sodium phosphate solution. For equilibrium to become established, a 3x amount of calcium ion is formed and an additional 2x amount of phosphate ion from the dissociation of calcium phosphate is introduced. Thus, at equilibrium, the amount of calcium ion in solution is 3x and the amount of phosphate ion in solution is 0.10 + 2x.

Substitute the algebraic terms into the mass action expression:

Ksp = [Ca2+]3[PO43-]2 = 1.0 x 10-26

= (3x)3(0.10 + 2x)2 = 1.0 x 10-26

The above expression is a polynomial and its solution may require a serial approximation method. However, solving for x may be simplified if the 2x term in the second factor may be neglected. Recall that the solubility, x in pure water, had a magnitude of 10-6. Comparing a magnitude of 10-6 to 0.10, one can see that 2x will be negligibly small, thus can be neglected in the above expression. This simplifies the equation to:

Ksp = (3x)3(0.10)2 = 0.27 x3 = 1.0 x 10-26

Solve for x by dividing through both sides by 0.27:

x3 = 1.0 x 10-26/0.27 = 3.7 x 10-26

Next, take the cube root of both sides of the expression:

molar solubility x

3.7 x 10 - 26 3.3 x 10 - 9

As one can see, x, the solubility is quite small. Our assumption to neglect the 2x in the original algebraic expression was valid. Also, one can quantitatively see how the solubility has decreased, as predicted by LeChateliers Principle. In pure water, the solubility was 2.5 x 10-6; in the presence of a common ion, phosphate ion with a concentration of 0.10 M, the solubility of calcium phosphate decreased to 3.3 x 10-9.

Selective precipitation

Many compounds have variable solubility. This difference in solubility has a practical application when attempting to separate metal ions in solution. Water purification treatment plants use carbonates and sulfates to remove heavy metal cations from your drinking water. Qualitative analysis schemes in a general chemistry lab course often uses selective precipitation as the basis for identification of ions.

A saturated hydrogen sulfide solution (0.10 M H2S) is often used. This solution can be adjusted to a desired sulfide concentration by changing the pH of the solution. By controlling the sulfide ion concentration, one can selectively precipitate out the less soluble metal sulfide. Recall in an earlier problem we examined how the reaction quotient, Q, compared to the K sp. This concept is applied here. If the sulfide ion concentration in solution exceeds the solubility of one cation and not the other, the less soluble metal sulfide precipitates (Q > K sp), and the more soluble metal sulfide remains in solution (Q Ksp).

Suppose one wishes to separate nickel(II) cations with a concentration of 0.20 M from copper(II) cations with a concentration of 0.10 M. What pH must one adjust a saturated hydrogen sulfide solution to achieve the separation and what is the concentration of nickel(II) and copper(II) ions remaining in solution?

First, consider all the equilibria involved:

H2S(aq) H+ (aq) + HS(aq)

Ka1 = 8.9 x 10-8

HS(aq) H+ (aq) + S2- (aq)

Ka2 = 1.2 x 10-13

NiS (s) Ni2+ (aq) + S2- (aq)

Ksp = 3 x 10-19

CuS (s) Cu2+ (aq) + S2- (aq)

Ksp = 6 x 10-36

Determine the maximum sulfide concentration for each metal ion:

[S2-]max

Ksp 3 x 10 - 19 1.5 x 10 - 18 2 [Ni ] 0.20

[S2-]max

Ksp 6 x 10 - 36 6 x 10 - 35 2 [Cu ] 0.10

The above calculation shows nickel(II) sulfide is many times more soluble than copper(II) sulfide. If the sulfide ion concentration is set to the more soluble [S2-]max of nickel(II) sulfide ([S2-]max = 1.5 x 10-18), copper(II) sulfide will precipitate and nickel(II) sulfide will remain in solution. The sulfide ion concentration is adjusted using a saturated hydrogen sulfide solution as a function of pH. Since hydrogen sulfide is a diprotic acid, there are two sources of hydrogen ions (H2S and HS), as shown by the first two equilibria, above. It will be easier to solve for hydrogen ion concentration if only one mass action expression were involved. With this in mind, combine the two equilibria into one overall equilibrium:

H2S(aq) H+ (aq) + HS(aq)

Ka1 = 8.9 x 10-8

HS(aq) H+ (aq) + S2- (aq)

Ka2 = 1.2 x 10-13

H2S (aq) 2 H+ (aq) + S2- (aq)

Koverall = Ka1Ka2 = 1.1 x 10-20

The mass action expression for the above equilibrium is:

Koverall

[H ]2[S2-] [H2S]

Rearrange the above equation to solve for the hydrogen ion concentration. Multiply both sides of the equation by hydrogen sulfide concentration and divide both sides by the sulfide ion concentration:

[H ]2

Koverall [H2S] [S2-]

Take the square root of both sides of the equation:

[H ]

Koverall [H2S] [S2-]

The concentration of saturated solution of hydrogen sulfide is 0.10 M. For sulfide ion concentration, substitute the more soluble sulfide ion concentration calculated previously. Substitute for Koverall. Solve for hydrogen ion concentration:

[H]

(1.1 x 10 - 20)(0.10) 0.027 M 1.5 x 10 - 18

Finally, calculate the pH:

pH = - log[H+] = - log(0.027) = 1.57

This pH represents the maximum pH which must be maintained in order to separate nickel(II) ions and copper(II) ions. Since the sulfide ion concentration is 1.5 x 10-18 M, the actual copper ions concentration still remaining in solution is:

Ksp 6 x 10 - 36 [Cu ] 2- 4.0 x 10 - 18 M Cu2 - 18 [S ] 1.5 x 10

2

As one can see, the copper(II) ion concentration is indeed very negligible. The concentration of nickel(II) ions remains 0.20 M as long as the sulfide ion concentration is less than1.5 x 10-18 M.

TheChromate - Dichromate Equilibrium

When solid potassium chromate, K2CrO4 is dissolved in water it forms a yellow solution. When solid potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 is dissolved in water the resulting solution is orange. The colors come from the negative ions: CrO42-(aq) and Cr2O72-(aq). However, in solution these ions are actually in equilibrium as indicated by the equation: 2 CrO42-(aq) + 2 H+ (aq) Cr2O72-(aq) + H2O (l) A solution of A solution of chromate ions dichromate ions

In a solution we call a chromate solution, there is also a little bit of dichromate, but the predominant color will be yellow.

In a solution we call a dichromate solution, there is also a little bit of chromate, but the predominant color will be orange.

The chemical reaction in each test tube is the same. However, the relative abundances of each ion are different, and this has been illustrated by different size letters for each species present.

The Chromate - Dichromate Equilibrium What happens if we add some hydrochloric acid? For simplicity, the symbol H+ is being used for the acid proton, rather than the Brnsted-Lowry hydronium ion H3O+. If you wish to use the symbol H3O+, then you will have to add another H2O to the right hand side of each equation for each acid proton. All ions in these equations are aqueous, but the (aq) symbol has been omitted for brevity. Hydrochloric acid is a source of H+ ions. If there was no chemical reaction then adding HCl should increase the amount of H+(aq). The original H+ in the water would increase to become H+

If we added H+ to the chromate solution and there was no chemical reaction: 2 CrO42- + 2 H+ Cr2O72- + H2O (l) would become 2 CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O(l)

If we added H+ to the dichromate solution and there was no chemical reaction: 2 CrO42- + 2 H+ Cr2O72- + H2O (l) would become 2 CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O (l)

We wouldn't see any color change since H+ is colorless. But there is going to be a chemical reaction. From Le Chatellier's principle, we know the reaction will try to remove some of the H+ we have added. Some of the added H+ reacts with the CrO42-, removing some of each, and making more Cr2O72-. For the chromate solution:

add some H+ (aq) and it becomes

a much more orange solution

Original condition Immediately after some H+ is added New equilibrium is established

2 CrO42- + 2 H+ 2 CrO42- + 2 H+ 2 CrO42- + 2 H+

Cr2O72- + H2O (l) Cr2O72- + H2O(l) Cr2O72- + H2O(l)

Notice, that the H+(aq) is less than it would be if there was no reaction, but greater than it was at the beginning.

For the dichromate solution:

add some H+ (aq) and it becomes

a slightly more orange solution

Original condition Immediately after some H+ is added New equilibrium is established

2 CrO42- + 2 H+ 2 CrO42- + 2 H+ 2 CrO42- + 2 H+

Cr2O72- + H2O (l) Cr2O72- + H2O (l) Cr2O72- + H2O(l)

Notice, that the H+ is less than it would be if there was no reaction, but greater than it was at the beginning, and there has been a slight increase in the dichromate ion concentration.

Copyright 1998 - 2008 David Dice