General Technical Report PNW-138 June 1982

EDITOR'S

FILE COPY
Influence of Forest and Rangeland Management on Anadromous Fish Habitat in Western North America REHABILITATING AND ENHANCING STREAM HABITAT: 1. REVIEW AND EVALUATION
JAMES D. HALL and CALVIN O. BAKER

This file was created by scanning the printed publication. Mis-scans identified by the software have been corrected; however, some errors may remain.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station

ABSTRACT
The literature and many unpublished documents on rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat for salmonid fishes are reviewed. The historical development and conceptual basis for habitat management are considered, followed by a review of successful and unsuccessful techniques for manipulation of spawning, rearing, and riparian habitat. Insufficient attention to evaluation of past work has slowed the development of habitat management for anadromous salmonids in the West. Recent developments, including improved design of structures to accommodate variable streamflow, show promise of permitting increased application of these techniques. Past work in the West has emphasized management of spawning habitat. We recommend increased emphasis on rehabilitation and enhancement of rearing and riparian habitat. The importance of a strong program of habitat protection is emphasized.

KEYWORDS:
salmonids.

Fish habitat, habitat improvement, riparian habitat, anadromous fish,

USDA FOREST SERVICE General Technical Report PNW- I 38

INFLUENCE OF FOREST AND RANGELAND MANAGEMENTON ANADROMOUS FISH HABITAT IN WESTERN NORTH AMERICA William R. Meehan, Technical Editor
12. Rehabilitating and Enhancing Stream Habitat: 1. Review and Evaluation

JAMES D. HALL Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 9733 1 CALVIN 0. BAKER U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Hebo Ranger District Hebo, Oregon 97122

1982

PACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , Portland, Oregon

PREFACE
This is one of a series of publications on the influences of forest and rangeland management on anadromous fish habitat in western North America. This paper describes and evaluates methods that have been used for rehabilitating and enhancing habitat. Our intent is to provide managers and users of forests and rangelands with the most complete information available for estimating the consequences of various management alternatives

In this series of papers, we will summarize published and unpublished reports and data as well as the observations of scientists and resource managers developed over years of experience in the West. These compilations will be valuable to resource managers in planning uses of forest and rangeland resources, and to scientists in planning future research. Previous publications in this series include: 1.
2.

"Habitat requirements of anadromous salmonids," by D. W. Reiser and T. C. Bjornn. "Impacts of natural events," by Douglas N. Swanston. "Timber harvest," by T. W. Chamberlin. "Planning forest roads to protect salmonid habitat," by Carlton S. Yee and Terry D. Roelofs. "Silvicultural treatments," by Fred H. Everest and R. Dennis Harr. "Effects of livestock grazing," by William S. Platts. "Effects of mining," by Susan B. Martin and William S. Platts. "Processing mills and camps," by Donald C. Schmiege. "Rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat: 2. Field applications," by Gordon H. Reeves and Terry D. Roelofs.

3.
4.

6.
7.
8.

11.

13.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION SPAWNING HABITAT Gravel Restoration G r a v e l P l a c e m e n t and C a t c h m e n t Access Improvement Fishway Development

Page

.................................

................................ 6 ............................. 6 ....................... 8 ............................. 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 REARlhGHABITAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Boulder Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 RearingPools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 WinterHabitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -15 FlowAugmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 S t r e a m F e r t i l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 RIPARIANHABITAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -19
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27

DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

29

COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF FISHES MENTIONED IN TEXT"

Common name Pink salmon Chum salmon Coho salmon Sockeye salmon (kokanee) Chinook salmon Cutthroat trout Rainbow (steelhead) trout Atlantic salmon Brown trout Brook trout Dolly Varden Redside shiner Speckled dace Scientific name Oncorhynchus gorhuscha (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum) Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) Salmo clarki --Richardson Salmo gairdneri Richardson Salmo salar --Linnaeus Salmo trutta -- Linnaeus Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) Salvelinus malma (Walbaum) Richardsonius balteatus (Richardson) Rhinichthys osculus (Girard)

LIFrom "A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada," American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 12, Fourth Edition, 1980, 174 p.

and e v a l u a t i o n of p a s t e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t management, b o t h s u c c e s s f u l and u n s u c c e s s f u l . W have i n c l u d e d e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d f o r b o t h r e s i d e n t and anadromous s a l m o n i d s i n streams t h r o u g h o u t North America. A companion p a p e r (Reeves and R o e l o f s 1 9 8 2 ) r e v i e w s c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s i n t h e West, o u t l i n i n g s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n i q u e s and i n c l u d i n g s p e c i f i c recommendations on implementation. The p r i n c i p a l p u r p o s e of t h e s e reviews i s t o make p r a c t i c a l informat i o n a v a i l a b l e t o f i e l d managers wishing t o r e h a b i l i t a t e damaged h a b i t a t o r t o enhance h a b i t a t t h a t i s n a t u r a l l y low i n p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y . Thus, w e include only techniques t h a t r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e l a b o r and expendi t u r e . Such c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e measures a s spawning c h a n n e l s w i l l n o t be i n c l u d e d , e v e n though t h e y r e p r e s e n t a m a n i p u l a t i o n of h a b i t a t . The t a s k w a s made more d i f f i c u l t by t h e s c a r c i t y of w r i t t e n documentat i o n of p a s t work. Too many p r o j e c t s have n o t been e v a l u a t e d a t a l l , o r i f any review h a s been u n d e r t a k e n , i t h a s n o t been made g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e . As a r e s u l t , we were f o r c e d t o r e l y h e a v i l y on p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t and may have missed some i m p o r t a n t developments. When r e p o r t s on m a n i p u l a t i o n of s t r e a m h a b i t a t were completed, many of t h e s t u d i e s d i d n o t p r o v i d e a n a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m e n t of t h e outcome. In a d d i t i o n , a b i a s p r o b a b l y e x i s t s i n t h e p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d because of admini s t r a t i v e or editorial decisions a g a i n s t p u b l i c a t i o n of i n c o n c l u s i v e o r u n f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s . W hope t h a t one e outcome of o u r review w i l l be i n c r e a s e d awareness of t h e need t o e v a l u a t e and document all p r o j e c t s - - e v e n t h o s e t h a t are u n s u c c e s s f u l . O f t e n v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s c a n be l e a r n e d from a p p a r e n t failure.

INTRODUCTION
Techniques f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i n g and e n h a n c i n g h a b i t a t have been u s e d f o r o v e r 50 y e a r s i n f i s h e r y management, b u t t o a r e l a t i v e l y small d e g r e e i n t h e management o f anadromous s a l m o n i d s on t h e w e s t c o a s t of North America. P r e s e n t t h r e a t s t o many of t h e s e stocks call f o r intensified fishery management. I n c r e a s e d rates of h a r v e s t t h r e a t e n t h e s u r v i v a l of many w i l d p o p u l a t i o n s o f salmon and t r o u t . I n c r e a s e d u s e of o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g dam b u i l d i n g , l o g g i n g , g r a z i n g , and o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , has diminished t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f h a b i t a t a v a i l a b l e t o these wild stocks. In principle, r e h a b i l i t a t i n g and e n h a n c i n g h a b i t a t a r e a t t r a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s f o r working toward r e s t o r i n g t h e abundance o f anadromous s a l m o n i d s .

A r e c e n t l y renewed i n t e r e s t i n h a b i t a t management h a s been accompanied by s e v e r a l r e v i e w a r t i c l e s and b i b l i o g r a p h i e s ( s e e Barton e t a l . 1972, P a r k i n s o n and S l a n e y 1975, Maughan e t a l . 1978, Nelson e t a l . 1978, Wydoski and Duff 1978, Canada Department o f F i s h e r i e s and Oceans 1980). N o n e t h e l e s s , a r e v i e w f o c u s e d more d i r e c t l y o n anadromous f i s h habitat i n the forested r e g i o n s of w e s t e r n North America i s needed. W p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l r e v i e w e

I n t h e h i s t o r i c a l development of t h e s c i e n c e of w i l d l i f e management, m a n i p u l a t i o n of h a b i t a t was t h e l a s t i n a sequence of t e c h n i q u e s t o be recognized as a n important t o o l f o r t h e manager (Leopold 1 9 3 3 ) . The same h a s g e n e r a l l y been t r u e i n f i s h e r i e s . The f i r s t l a r g e - s c a l e h a b i t a t management i n streams was i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s i n t h e Midwest (Hubbs e t a l . 1932). S t i m u l a t e d i n p a r t by t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a b o r from t h e C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n Corps, t h i s p u l s e of a c t i v i t y l e d t o a l a r g e number of p r o j e c t s ( e . g . , Davis 1934; T a r z w e l l 1935, 1937; Fearnow 19/11). The a p p a r e n t s u c c e s s of t h e s e e f f o r t s i n t h e Midwest and E a s t was f o l l o w e d by a number of p r o j e c t s i n t h e West ( e . g . , Burghduff 1934, Madsen 1 9 3 8 , T a r z w e l l 1938). Many e v a l u a t i o n s of w e s t c o a s t e f f o r t s concluded t h a t f 7 i l u r e w a s more common t h a n s u c c e s s ( E h l e r s 1956, R i c h a r d 1 9 6 3 , Calhoun 1966). R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement c o n t i n u e d a t a s i g n i f i c a n t pace i n t h e Midwest ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949; Hale 1 9 6 9 ; Hunt 1969, 1 9 7 6 ) , and s e v e r a l manuals f o r h a b i t a t improvement were produced by S t a t e and F e d e r a l a g e n c i e s ( D a v i s 1935, USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e 1 9 5 2 , White and B r y n i l d s o n 1967, USDI Bureau of Land Management 1968). Over t h e y e a r s , m o d i f i c a t i o n s g r a d u a l l y made t e c h n i q u e s more c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s e v e r e freshet conditions i n western streams. F o r example, Sweet (1975 unpubl. l i s t s o v e r 150 p r o j e c t s t h a t have been completed i n Alaska. W are o p t i m i s t i c about chances f o r e s u c c e s s of h a b i t a t improvement f o r anadromous f i s h i n t h i s r e g i o n .

t h e p o t e n t i a l of stream "improvement" ( s e e Mullan 1962, R i c h a r d s 1 9 G 4 ) . N o n e t h e l e s s , s i n c e 1932 s e v e r a l well- designed r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s have shown t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of h a b i t a t i s a n i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a n t of salmonid biomass and p r o d u c t i o n . Although n e a r l y all t h i s work h a s been done on nonmigratory p o p u l a t i o n s , many c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be r e l a t e d t o anadromous s p e c i e s . The r e s e a r c h e f f o r t h a s t a k e n two r e l a t e d a p p r o a c h e s : a s s e s s m e n t of salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s b e f o r e and a f t e r h a b i t a t m o d i f i c a t i o n , and q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of h a b i t a t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e abundance of s a l m o n i d s . One e a r l y , well- documented s t u d y evaluated t h e e f f e c t s of d e f l e c t o r s i n a small brook t r o u t stream i n Michigan ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949). The d e f l e c t o r s caused a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e number, s i z e , and d e p t h of p o o l s . A s a r e s u l t , s u r v i v a l and s t o c k s i z e of young brook t r o u t were i n c r e a s e d , l e a d i n g t o a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n c a t c h r a t e and t o t a l c a t c h . Angling e f f o r t i n c r e a s e d 64 p e r c e n t , and a n g l e r s ' c a t c h i n c r e a s e d 1 4 1 p e r c e n t i n t o t a l weight and 46 p e r c e n t i n weight c a u g h t p e r hour.

)L/

Some of t h e e a r l y e n t h u s i a s m f o r stream improvement w a s p r o b a b l y misguided, i n t h a t p r o j e c t p l a n n e r s f a i l e d t o t a k e a c c o u n t of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l i m i t e d t r o u t production i n a p a r t i c u l a r stream. Many s t r u c t u r e s f a i l e d because t h e y were n o t d e s i g n e d t o withstand f r e s h e t conditions. For t h e s e r e a s o n s and o t h e r s , some f i s h e r y b i o l o g i s t s t o o k a p e s s i m i s t i c view o f

A s t u d y of c o v e r m a n i p u l a t i o n i n a Montana t r o u t stream showed s i g n i f i c a n t r e s p o n s e of t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n s ( p r i m a r i l y rainbow and brook t r o u t ) t o t h e t r e a t m e n t s (Boussu 1 9 5 4 ) . Invent o r i e s b e f o r e and a f t e r h a b i t a t manipul a t i o n showed t h a t t r o u t abundance i n c r e a s e d more t h a n t h r e e times a f t e r a d d i t i o n of b r u s h c o v e r t o a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t of t h e stream a r e a . Removal of b r u s h c o v e r t o t a l i n g a b o u t 1 0 p e r c e n t of t h e stream s u r f a c e a r e a r e s u l t e d i n a b o u t a 40- percent r e d u c t i o n i n t r o u t biomass. Removal of u n d e r c u t bank c o v e r t h a t p r o v i d e d s h e l t e r o v e r l e s s t h a n 2 p e r c e n t of t h e stream a r e a r e s u l t e d i n a o n e - t h i r d r e d u c t i o n i n t r o u t abundance.

L'Unpublished r e f e r e n c e s a r e l i s t e d a f t e r the Literature Cited.

The best- documented s t u d y of h a b i t a t m a n i p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r t a k e n on a Wisconsin brook t r o u t stream (Hunt 1 9 7 1 ) . A 1.7-km s e c t i o n of Lawrence Creek w a s a l t e - r e d i n 1964 by a d d i t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s f o r bank c o v e r and current deflection. As a result, stream s u r f a c e area w a s reduced by 50 percent, average depth was increased by 60 p e r c e n t , t h e number of p o o l s w a s i n c r e a s e d by 52 p e r c e n t , and t h e l e n g t h of streambank w i t h permanent overhangi n g c o v e r was i n c r e a s e d 416 p e r c e n t . These c h a n g e s i n t h e p h y s i c a l h a b i t a t g r e a t l y increased overwinter survival and biomass of t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n . A large increase i n angler e f f o r t r e s u l t e d i n a n even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l c a t c h . Average h a r v e s t d u r i n g 1965-67 w a s n e a r l y t h r e e t i m e s t h e preimprovement a v e r a g e (Hunt 1 9 7 1 ) . The r e s p o n s e of t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n t o h a b i t a t development c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e p e r i o d 1968- 70, when t h e t o t a l t r o u t biomass i n c r e a s e d t o 2.8 times t h e preimprovement v a l u e (Hunt 1976). S e v e r a l o t h e r e v a l u a t i o n s have been made b e f o r e and a f t e r h a b i t a t improvement, most of which have shown a p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e by t h e t r o u t population. The r e s u l t s of many of t h e s e up t h r o u g h 1975 are summarized i n t a b l e 1, t a k e n from White (1975a). Evaluating s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t r o u t h a b i t a t and r e l a t i n g s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t r o u t abundance ( u s u a l l y through c o r r e l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s ) has p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of h a b i t a t q u a l i t y t o salmonid abundance. S t u d i e s by L e w i s (1969) S t e w a r t ( 1 9 7 0 ) , and Wesche (1976) found c o v e r i n some form t o be t h e h a b i t a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c most c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h abundance of b r o o k , brown, and rainbow t r o u t . More complex combina t i o n s of h a b i t a t v a r i a b l e s have been included i n multiple regression a n a l y s e s t h a t provided s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r s of abundance f o r j u v e n i l e c u t t h r o a t and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t i n Oregon ( N i c k e l s o n and H a f e l e 1978) and f o r f o u r s p e c i e s of t r o u t i n Wyoming ( B i n n s and Eiserman 1 9 7 9 ) .

The C o o p e r a t i v e I n s t r e a m Flow S e r v i c e Group of t h e U.S. F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e h a s been u n d e r t a k i n g a l a r g e s c a l e e f f o r t designed i n p a r t t o p r e d i c t consequences t o t r o u t populat i o n s of i n c r e m e n t a l l o s s e s of s t r e a m f l o w (Bovee and Cochnauer 1977, P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s have Bovee 1978) been e n c o u r a g i n g b u t more work on v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e s e models i s needed.

A fundamental c o n c e p t of h a b i t a t management d e s e r v e s emphasis h e r e . Care must be t a k e n t o i d e n t i f y a s p e c t s of h a b i t a t t h a t l i m i t p r o d u c t i o n , and a t t e n t i o n must be f o c u s e d on improving t h o s e elements. Considering t h e timing of l i f e - h i s t o r y e v e n t s i s a l s o important. Increasing the quantity o r q u a l i t y of some a s p e c t of h a b i t a t l i m i t i n g t h e abundance of f r y w i l l g e n e r a l l y be of l i t t l e u s e i f a c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e of c o v e r o r some other resource occurs a t a later stage i n t h e l i f e cycle. A crude, but u s e f u l analogy t o a bottleneck is shown i n f i g u r e 1, a d a p t e d from H a l l and Field- Dodgson ( 1 9 8 1 ) . Note t h a t t h e neck i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a t t h e end of t h e b o t t l e ; a c r i t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n can occur w e l l before migration t o t h e ocean ( f i g . l b ) , o r i n t h e ocean a f t e r downstream m i g r a t i o n .
An example i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f u t i l i t y of enhancing numbers of f i s h b e f o r e o p e r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i s p r o v i d e d by a n experiment i n a B r i t i s h Columbia s t r e a m s u p p o r t i n g coho salmon (Mason 1 9 7 6 ) . I n t h a t system, most young coho go t o s e a a s s m o l t s a f t e r 1 y e a r of stream r e a r i n g . A r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g of j u v e n i l e s d u r i n g one summer i n c r e a s e d t h e i r abundance s i x t o seven f o l d over previously measured summer biomass. The number of s m o l t s estimated t o have l e f t t h e system i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g , however, w a s w i t h i n t h e range of previous values ( f i g . IC). I n t h i s stream, t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t a t i o n t o smolt p r o d u c t i o n a p p e a r e d t o be some a s p e c t of w i n t e r h a b i t a t .

T a b l e 1--Management e v a l u a t i o n s o f i n - s t r e a m h a b i t a t b y measurements o f t r o u t abundance o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s ( a d a p t e d f r o m White 1Y 7 5 a

)/ 1

Stream, w i l d t r o u t species, r e f e r e n c e Lawrence Creek, W i s c o n s i n Brook t r o u t Hunt (1971) B i g Roche- a- Cri Creek, Wisconsin tjrook, few brown t r o u t White (1Y72, 1975b)

P r i m a r y management Bank- cover d e f l e c t o r s i n 1.7 km (compared w i t h 1.4-km c o n t r o l ) Bank- cover d e f l e c t o r s i n 6 km (compared w i t h 5 km o f i n t e r s p e r s e d c o n t r o l areas), c a t t l e f e n c e d o u t , beaver dams removed D e f l e c t o r s , bank c o v e r s , low dams i n 1.6 km (compared w i t h 1.6-km c o n t r o l area) Low dams, d e f l e c t o r s , c o v e r s o f p o l e s and b r u s h i n 0.4 km (no c o n t r o l area) D e f l e c t o r s i n 0.5 km (no c o n t r o l a r e a )

Schedule o f population inventories 3 yr before, 3 yr a f t e r management 3 yr b e f o r e , 2 yr d u r i n g , 5 yr a f t e r management

E f f e c t s on t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n s and a n g l i n g y i e l d 141 p e r c e n t r i s e i n age-11+ biomass f r o m b e t t e r overwinter survival. 156 p e r c e n t more f i s h o v e r 20 cm ( 8 i n ) i n A p r i l . 200 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r anglers ' catch. 200 p e r c e n t r i s e i n numbers o f a g e - I I + , c o m p a r i n g 3 p r e - w i t h 3 postmanagement y e a r s o f s i m i l a r f l o w r e g i m e i n 3-km s e c t i o n o f most i n t e n s i v e a l t e r a t i o n . G r e a t e s t e f f e c t was improvement o f d r o u g h t ( l o w - w a t e r ) abundances o f f i s h . 36 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n c a t c h p e r a n g l e r h o u r . 9 - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n numbers o f age-0. D o u b l i n g o f number o f age- I+. A n g l e r success r o s e f r o m 0.58 t o 0.89 f i s h p e r a n g l e r h o u r i n managed area, w h i l e d e c l i n i n g i n c o n t r o l area. Number o f a g e - I + i n y e a r a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n was h i g h e s t on r e c o r d , n e a r l y d o u b l e t h e p r e v i o u s 5 - y r average. 35 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n c a t c h p e r a n g l e r h o u r . L i t t l e change i n s t a n d i n g c r o p .

w. Branch S p l i t Rock
River, Minnesota Brook t r o u t H a l e (1Y6Y) Hayes Brook, P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d , Canada Brook t r o u t Saunders and S m i t h (1962) Hunt Creek, M i c h i g a n Brook t r o u t S h e t t e r e t a l . (1949)

3 yr before, 3 yr a f t e r management

5 yr b e f o r e , 1 yr a f t e r management

1 yr before, 3 yr a f t e r ( c r e e l census 3 yr before, 5 yr a f t e r ) management

5 yr before, 5 yr a f t e r management, then 5 yr a f t e r dismantling 5 yr b e f o r e , 3 yr a f t e r management

Pigeon River, Michigan Brook, brown t r o u t L a t t a (1972)

D e f l e c t o r s i n 2 km (compared w i t h 2-km control)

Managed- section t r o u t abundance ( i n t e r m s o f f a l l population plus anglers' catch i n previous summer) was o r i g i n a l l y l o w e r t h a n i n c o n t r o l b u t r o s e t o e q u a l i t y a f t e r management, t h e n d e t e r i o r a t e d when d e v i c e s were i n t e n t i o n a l l y destroyed. 400- 500 p e r c e n t r i s e i n numbers o f b r o o k t r o u t o v e r 14 cm (5.6 i n ) and 150-200 p e r c e n t r i s e i n numbers o f brown t r o u t o v e r 14 cm (5.6 i n ) , w h i l e p o p u l a t i o n s i n c o n t r o l a r e a remained e s s e n t i a l l y static. O r i g i n a l l y n e g l i g i b l e brown t r o u t abundance (somet i m e s f e w e r t h a n 5 p e r km) r o s e t o a b o u t 250 p e r km.

K i n n i k i n n i c River, Wisconsin Brown, b r o o k t r o u t FranKenberger (1968) Bohemian Val l e y Creek, ki s c o n s i n Brown t r o u t F r a n k e n b e r g e r and Fassbender (1967) McKenzie Creek, W i s c o n s i n Brown t r o u t Lowry (1971) B l a c k E a r t h Creek, Wisconsin Brown t r o u t White (1975a)
M t . Vernon Creek, w i sconsi n Brown t r o u t Wni t e (1975a)

Rock d e f l e c t o r s , r o c k revetments, fences a l o n g 2.2 km (compared w i t h an unmanaged control ) Floodwater d e t e n t i o n dams, r o c k d e f l e c t o r s , rock revetments, low dams, f e n c i n g i n 4.3 km (compared w i t h 1.2-km control ) D e f l e c t o r s , bank covers, b r u s h c o v e r s , l o w dams i n 5 km (compared w i t h 0.6-km c o n t r o l ) Fencing, dam removal, few d e f l e c t o r s , bank r e v e t m e n t s i n 8 km ( c o n t r o l : M t . Vernon Creek) Unmanaged c o n t r o l f o r B l a c k E a r t h Creek (adjoining drainage b a s i n ) , dam removed

6 yr before, 4 yr a f t e r management

2 yr before, 6 yr a f t e r management 3 yr during, 5 yr a f t e r management

10-15 p e r c e n t r i s e i n t o t a l biomass ( 2 5 p e r c e n t r i s e f o r a g e - I + , 100 p e r c e n t r i s e f o r a g e - I I + ) . I n c o n c l u s i v e changes i n numbers o f f i s h l a r g e r t h a n 15 cm ( 6 i n ) . 3 - f o l d i n c r e a s e s i n age-0, t o t a l biomass, and a n g l e r s ' c a t c h p e r hour o f w i l d t r o u t . 5 - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n s p r i n g ( p r e - a n g l i n g ) numbers o f f i s h l a r g e r t h a n 15 cm ( 6 i n ) . R e l a t i v e l y m i n o r i n c r e a s e s i n age-0, t o t a l biomass, and a n g l e r s ' c a t c h p e r h o u r o f w i l d t r o u t . 2 - f o l d i n c r e a s e i n s p r i n g numbers o f f i s h l a r g e r t h a n 15 cm ( 6 i n ) a t t r i b u t a b l e t o h y d r o l o g i c e v e n t s .

Concurrent w i t h Black E a r t h Creek

1 1 T a o l e was p r e p a r e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e d i n W h i t e ( 1 9 7 5 a ) . b u t o m i t t e d f r o m p u b l i c a t i o n by e d i t o r i a l e r r o r ( w h i t e , p e r s o n a l communication).

The s i n g l e l i m i t i n g - f a c t o r "bottleneck" concept i s a n oversimplif i c a t i o n of a complex e c o l o g i c a l process. I n t h e c o n t e x t of a t o t a l system, t h e s e a r c h f o r a s i n g l e f a c t o r c a n be m i s l e a d i n g . Not o n l y may t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t a t i o n v a r y from y e a r t o y e a r , i t may be composed of i n t e r a c t i n g e l e m e n t s ; when one i s improved, o t h e r s may t a k e o v e r . Such a n i n t e r a c t i o n may a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a i l u r e of some of the well- intentioned attempts a t h a b i t a t improvement. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s c a u t i o n , however, t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t of l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s r e q u i r e s more a t t e n t i o n i n f u t u r e h a b i t a t improvement work. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t e x t , we have t r e a t e d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement methods u n d e r t h r e e h e a d i n g s : spawning h a b i t a t , r e a r i n g h a b i t a t , and riparian habitat. These c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t a continuum i n t h e salmonid environment and must be c o n s i d e r e d together i n evaluating a particular situation.

SPRING
A

SUMMER

FALL

WINTER

SPRING

SUMMER

FALL

WINTER

F i g u r e 1.--A. Example of a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r " bottleneck" occurring during t h e w i n t e r j u s t b e f o r e m i g r a t i o n of s m o l t s t o t h e ocean. B. Here t h e bottleneck occurs e a r l y i n the l i f e of t h e young salmon. Numbers are r e s t r i c t e d by h a b i t a t c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g summer, and t h i s l i m i t a t i o n c a r r i e s t h r o u g h t o smolt m i g r a t i o n . C. A t t e m p t s t o i n c r e a s e abundance e a r l y i n the l i f e history, before o p e r a t i o n of a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r , w i l l u s u a l l y n o t succeed. A r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g r e s u l t e d i n a 6- t o 7- fold i n c r e a s e i n j u v e n i l e coho salmon d u r i n g summer, b u t w i n t e r h a b i t a t l i m i t a t i o n s reduced s m o l t numbers t o p r e v i o u s l y observed l e v e l s (Mason 1976).

i m - i
'.I

SPRING

SUMMER

11 m m I 1I

FALL

.**

WINTER

c,

The c o n c e p t of a h y d r a u l i c g r a v e l c l e a n e r h a s r e c e n t l y been r e v i v e d on a somewhat smaller scale (Mih 1978, 1979, 1 9 8 1 ) . F i e l d t e s t s i n t h e S t a t e of Washington d u r i n g 1979 and 1980 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e new machine c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y remove f i n e s e d i m e n t s from spawning g r a v e l , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t m e c h a n i c a l problems remained t o be s o l v e d ( A l l e n e t a l . 1981). F u r t h e r t e s t i n g i n 1981 has achieved promising r e s u l t s (Cowan, p e r s o n a l communicat i o n l l ) . Work on a n o t h e r h y d r a u l i c g r a v e l c l e a n e r and o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l methods of c l e a n i n g g r a v e l i s a l s o underway i n B r i t i s h Columbia (Andrew 1981).
A b u l l d o z e r h a s been u s e d t o remove h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of f i n e sediment i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t spawning a r e a s used by p i n k and chum salmon i n Puget Sound. I n 1969, a p i l o t s t u d y w a s i n i t i a t e d i n which 1840 m 2 of h e a v i l y s i l t e d spawning g r a v e l i n t h e l o w e r Dungeness R i v e r were c l e a n e d ( H e i s e r 1972a unpubl. ). C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f sediment l e s s t h a n 0.8 mm d i a m e t e r w a s reduced d r a m a t i c a l l y , and s u r v i v a l o f p i n k salmon f r y w a s 90 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r i n t h e c l e a n e d area t h a n i n t h e immediately a d j a c e n t u n c l e a n e d area ( H e i s e r 1972a unpubl. ). F i n e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d t o d e c l i n e each y e a r a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l c l e a n i n g w i t h a b u l l d o z e r (1971, 1 2 . 8 p e r c e n t ; 1972, 1 2 . 3 p e r c e n t ; and 1973, 1 0 . 4 p e r c e n t ) . Gerke (1973) b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s d e c r e a s e r e s u l t e d from n a t u r a l hydraulic a c t i o n , f i n e sand and s i l t b e i n g removed a t a f a s t e r r a t e t h a n t h e y a c c r u e d from bedload transport. S i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s have been made i n o t h e r P a c i f i c Northwest r i v e r s and streams where s o u r c e s of sediment i n p u t have been c o n t r o l l e d (McNeil and A h n e l l 1964, Shapley and Bishop 1965, Burns 1972, P l a t t s and Megahan 1 9 7 5 ) .

SPAWNING HABITAT
Several approaches are a v a i l a b l e f o r improving spawning h a b i t a t . The t h r e e t h a t have been most s u c c e s s f u l are : e Improving t h e q u a l i t y of spawning g r a v e l by removing f i n e sediments; e I n c r e a s i n g t h e amount of spawning g r a v e l ; and o P r o v i d i n g a c c e s s f o r spawning a d u l t s above b a r r i e r s .

GRAVEL RESTORATION
An e a r l y development i n r e s t o r a t i o n of spawning h a b i t a t was t h e d e s i g n and t e s t i n g o f a s e l f p r o p e l l e d amphibious v e h i c l e f o r c l e a n i n g f i n e sediment from spawning g r a v e l . Known a s t h e " R i f f l e S i f t e r , " t h e machine w a s d e s i g n e d t o remove sediment by a c t i o n of h i g h - p r e s s u r e u n d e r w a t e r j e t s (Outdoor C a l i f o r n i a 1 9 6 8 ) . A s u c t i o n pump f o r c e d sedimentl a d e n water t h r o u g h a n o z z l e o n t o nearby streambanks. The " R i f f l e S i f t e r " was g r e e t e d w i t h g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m ( S h e r i d a n e t a l . 1968 u n p u b l . ) , and e a r l y f i e l d t e s t s i n Alaska and n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a p p e a r e d promising (Meehan 1 9 7 1 ) . I n t h e e n d , however, t h e machine had many mechani c a l problems and w a s abandoned a s a n expensive f a i l u r e .

2'A d i r e c t o r y f o r p e r s o n a l communic a t i o n s i s p r o v i d e d a t t h e end o f t h e paper.

Cleaning with a bulldozer has a l s o shown f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s i n some o t h e r Washington streams ( H e i s e r 1971, 1972b, u n p u b l . ; Gerke 1 9 7 3 ) . On t h e Cedar R i v e r , 29 000 m2 of g r a v e l were c l e a n e d a t a c o s t of $0.05/m2. I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t spawning s e a s o n , 3,000 sockeye and 50 c h i n o o k salmon used t h e area, which i n p r e v i o u s y e a r s s u p p o r t e d a l m o s t no f i s h . Heiser (1972b u n p u b l . ) e s t i m a t e d a b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o of 1 4 . 3 : l f o r t h e y e a r and f e l t t h a t i t would be economically j u s t i f i a b l e t o c l e a n each year i f necessary. Not a l l a t t e m p t s a t g r a v e l rehabi l i t a t i o n w i t h b u l l d o z e r s have m e t w i t h t h e s u c c e s s of t h o s e mentioned above. The p e r c e n t a g e of f i n e sediment in spawnfng a r e a s on t h e S t i l l a g u a m i s h R i v e r , Washington, w a s reduced from 1 9 t o 8.7 p e r c e n t , b u t t h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t u s e by spawning f i s h a f t e r c l e a n i n g ( H e i s e r 1972a unpubl. ).

An example of t h e s u c c e s s of s u c h a p r o t e c t i o n program i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g damaged spawning a r e a s comes from t h e S o u t h Fork Salmon R i v e r i n I d a h o ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1975). The r i v e r c h a n n e l had become choked w i t h s e d i m e n t t h a t r e s u l t e d from a c c e l e r a t e d s u r f a c e e r o s i o n and l a n d s l i d e s . The problem was made worse when a p e r i o d of i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l from 1962 t o 1965 f o l l o w e d l o g g i n g a c t i v i t y and road c o n s t r u c t i o n on s t e e p , u n s t a b l e s l o p e s . The r e s u l t i n g 3.5- fold i n c r e a s e i n r i v e r bedload p r a c t i c a l l y d e s t r o y e d t h e spawning p o t e n t i a l of t h e main A s a r e s u l t , t h e USDA F o r e s t river. S e r v i c e d e c l a r e d a moratorium o n l o g g i n g and r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n on National F o r e s t l a n d s i n t h e watershed o f t h e South Fork i n 1965. Watershed r e h a b i l i t a t i o n was begun t h a t y e a r , i n c l u d i n g t h e p l a n t i n g of v e g e t a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n of r o a d s . Throughout t h e program, s e d i m e n t l e v e l s i n t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l were m o n i t o r e d . From 1966 t o 1974, t h e p e r c e n t a g e of f i n e s e d i m e n t s ( l e s s t h a n 4.7 mm) i n t h e spawning areas d e c r e a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1 9 7 5 ) . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n f o u r monit o r e d areas d e c r e a s e d from a n a v e r a g e of a b o u t 55 p e r c e n t i n 1966 ( r a n g e 45 t o g r e a t e r t h a n 80 p e r c e n t ) t o a b o u t 2 1 p e r c e n t i n 1974 ( r a n g e 1 2 t o 26 percent). After t h e moratorium w a s d e c l a r e d , sediment sources f o r t h e r i v e r were d r a s t i c a l l y reduced b e c a u s e of d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n s i n s u r f a c e and l a n d s l i d e e r o s i o n . When s e d i m e n t i n p u t w a s c u r t a i l e d , t h e e n e r g y of t h e r i v e r g r a d u a l l y moved t h e accumulated f i n e s e d i m e n t s downstream. The p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e South Fork w a s n e a r optimum f o r spawning of chinook salmon i n 1974 ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1 9 7 5 ) . F u r t h e r improvement i n t h e c o n d i t i o n of f i s h h a b i t a t l e d t o a c a u t i o u s l i f t i n g of t h e moratorium on l o g g i n g and r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1978, w i t h f u t u r e a c t i v i t y t o be c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d (Megahan e t a l . 1 9 8 0 ) .

L e s s c o m p l i c a t e d means of g r a v e l c l e a n i n g c a n a l s o be e f f e c t i v e . Mundie and Mounce (1978) r e p o r t on t h e s u c c e s s f u l u s e of a p o r t a b l e pump and f i r e h o s e t o c l e a n g r a v e l i n a small c h a n n e l . Youth C o n s e r v a t i o n Corps crews u s e d s h o v e l s t o t u r n o v e r g r a v e l t o remove s i l t and d e b r i s t h a t accumulated a f t e r b e a v e r s c o n s t r u c t e d a dam on Bear Creek, a s m a l l , s p r i n g f e d t r i b u t a r y of Upper R u s s i a n Lake, Alaska ( N e l s o n , p e r s o n a l communicat i o n ) . The dam w a s t h e n broken, produci n g a f r e s h e t t h a t removed t h e r e l e a s e d m a t e r i a l . A f o u r f o l d i n c r e a s e i n surv i v a l of sockeye salmon from egg t o f r y was r e c o r d e d i n t h e spawning s e a s o n a f t e r t h i s p r o j e c t w a s completed.
Under most c i r c u m s t a n c e s , g r a v e l c l e a n i n g w i l l p r o v i d e o n l y a temporary b e n e f i t u n l e s s t h e s o u r c e of sediment a t i o n i s i d e n t i f i e d and measures taken t o reduce t h i s i n p u t . Often t h e most e f f e c t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n measure f o r e x c e s s i v e i n s t r e a m sediment i s i n c r e a s e d watershed p r o t e c t i o n .

GRA VEL PLACEMENT AND

Where spawning a r e a i s l i m i t e d , a t t e m p t s have been made t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l spawning g r a v e l by cons t r u c t i n g catchment d e v i c e s . These s t r u c t u r e s s t a b i l i z e introduced g r a v e l o r a l l o w t h e c a p t u r e of bedload. Most of t h e s e e a r l y a t t e m p t s o n west c o a s t streams w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l . Calhoun (1966) documented s e v e r a l of t h e s e e f f o r t s and s u g g e s t e d t h a t h i g h c o s t and s h o r t l i f e would g e n e r a l l y l i m i t t h e u s e of i n s t r e a m s t r u c t u r e s on t h e P a c i f i c s l o p e of North America. In s p i t e of c o n s i d e r a b l e f a i l u r e , t h e a c t i v i t y h a s c o n t i n u e d , and some s u c c e s s h a s been r e p o r t e d . Before 1 9 7 2 , a d e q u a t e spawning g r a v e l was l a c k i n g i n P e r k i n s Creek, Washington (Gerke 1 9 7 3 ) . Wooden weirs were i n s t a l l e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s t o p r o v i d e a n optimum g r a d i e n t f o r spawni n g chum salmon, and g r a d e d g r a v e l was introduced i n t o t h e channel. A f t e r h o l e s were d r i l l e d i n t h e w e i r s t o a l l o w p a s s a g e of i n t r a g r a v e l w a t e r , t h e spawner d e n s i t y w a s t w i c e a s h i g h i n areas where g r a v e l had been i n t r o duced t h a n it w a s i n unimproved a r e a s , and f r y o u t p u t from t h e stream was a l s o i n c r e a s e d (Gerke 1974). G r a v e l placement h a s a l s o shown promise i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g streams dredged d u r i n g g o l d mining. I n 1 9 6 1 , t h e Oregon S t a t e Game Commission r e p l a c e d o v e r 1 0 000 m3 of g r a v e l and r o c k t h a t had been dredged from 5.4 k of Clear Creek i n n o r t h e a s t m Oregon (West e t a l . 1965b). Rock s i l l s w e r e used t o h e l p s t a b i l i z e t h e introduced g r a v e l . Few f i s h were p r e s e n t t o u s e the introduced gravel i n the f i r s t y e a r , but i n t h e t h r e e following y e a r s , a n a v e r a g e of 137 chinook r e d d s w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c e d g r a v e l , comp a r e d t o 34 i n t h e s m a l l amount of o r i g i n a l g r a v e l t h a t remained a f t e r dredging. I n t h e 3 y e a r s before t h e p r o j e c t , a n a v e r a g e of 2 4 r e d d s w a s counted i n t h i s g r a v e l . Since then, t h e m o d i f i e d s e c t i o n s of Clear Creek have been t h e s u b j e c t of a n n u a l

spawning s u r v e y s and h a b i t a t e v a l u a t i o n . Although t h e c h a n n e l morphology and g r a v e l a c c u m u l a t i o n s have changed c o n s i d e r a b l y d u r i n g t h e y e a r s , some g r a v e l d e p o s i t s c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e spawning s i t e s f o r salmon ( C l a i r e , p e r s o n a l communication). I n streams w i t h a d e q u a t e g r a v e l bedload, b u t d e f i c i e n t i n r e t e n t i o n of t h i s g r a v e l , v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s have been used w i t h some s u c c e s s t o p r o v i d e spawning a r e a s Gabions ( r e c t a n g u l a r wire-mesh b a s k e t s t h a t can be f i l l e d w i t h r o c k ) have been most commonly u s e d , b u t have o n l y r e c e n t l y been successful. S e v e r a l a t t e m p t s have been made on t h e Oregon C o a s t , where bedrock forms a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e s u b s t r a t e of many streams. The Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission cons t r u c t e d low-head g a b i o n s and i n t r o duced g r a v e l behind t h e s t r u c t u r e s i n a n a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e spawning h a b i t a t f o r f a l l c h i n o o k salmon on t h e main s t e m of t h e Alsea R i v e r ( F e s s l e r 1970; G a r r i s o n 1971a, b ) . These s t r u c t u r e s , placed perpendicular t o t h e flow i n a l a r g e r i v e r , f a i l e d both t o slow t h e r a t e a t which i n t r o d u c e d m a t e r i a l s were c a r r i e d downstream and t o a c c u m u l a t e adequate replacement g r a v e l . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e p r o j e c t was abandoned,

Use of g a b i o n s a l s o had l i t t l e success i n t h e S i u s l a w R i v e r d r a i n a g e . The Bureau of Land Management cons t r u c t e d 44 g a b i o n dams of v a r i o u s d e s i g n between 1968 and 1975 a t a c o s t o f a b o u t $40,000 (Hammer 1976 u n p u b l . ) . Washed g r a v e l w a s i n t r o d u c e d behind most o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s , D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t many s t r u c t u r e s have washed o u t o r r o l l e d o v e r and no l o n g e r h o l d g r a v e l , t h e p r o j e c t h a s a c h i e v e d some s u c c e s s (Hammer, p e r s o n a l communication). Limited spawning by chinook and coho salmon and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t h a s been r e c o r d e d behind some of t h e g a b i o n dams, and r e l a t i v e l y more j u v e n i l e s have been found n e a r t h e s t r u c t u r e s t h a n i n s u r r o u n d i n g bedrock areas (Hammer 1977 unpubl ) Although anadromous f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s have n o t appeared t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e area, summer water t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e e x t r e m e l y h i g h and may b e a t l e a s t i n p a r t t h e c a u s e of low salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e d r a i n a g e (Johnson 1977 u n p u b l , )

Another g a b i o n p r o j e c t t h a t f a i l e d was l o c a t e d on Pass Creek, i n t h e North Umpqua d r a i n a g e i n Oregon. T h i s stream w a s t h e s i t e of e x t e n s i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n e f f o r t s a f t e r logging including t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of 1025 m 3 of g r a v e l 1 i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h placement o f 1 g a b i o n dams ( M a g i l l 1971) Initial e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s w a s q u i t e promising, w i t h a d u l t s t e e l h e a d o b s e r v e d u s i n g t h e added spawning g r a v e l . A t l e a s t two of t h e g a b i o n dams have s i n c e washed o u t , however, and t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e r e m a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s no l o n g e r h o l d s u i t a b l e spawning g r a v e l ( O l i v e r , p e r s o n a l communication).

The u s e of l o g s i l l s t o c a p t u r e spawning g r a v e l h a s been s u c c e s s f u l . I n Oregon f i v e s i l l s were c o n s t r u c t e d o n A n v i l Creek i n t h e summer of 1973, and 350 spawning c h i n o o k salmon were o b s e r v e d i n t h e improved area i n J a n u a r y 1974 (Bender 1978 u n p u b l . ) An a v e r a g e of 200 f i s h p e r y e a r w a s r e c o r d e d t h r o u g h 1978, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e v i o u s long- term a v e r a g e of 50 spawners i n t h a t s e c t i o n . S t e e l h e a d t r o u t have a l s o made use of t h e spawning a r e a (Bender and Mullarkey, p e r s o n a l communication).

D e s p i t e many f a i l u r e s , some g a b i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s have p r o v i d e d u s e f u l h a b i t a t enhancement. For example, 1 0 g a b i o n dams were c o n s t r u c t e d on J o h n s a m Creek, a t r i b u t a r y of t h e H m a Hamma R i v e r i n Washington, a stream w i t h a 3.05change i n e l e v a t i o n i n 222 m (Wilson 1 9 7 6 ) . These s t r u c t u r e s wer.e s u c c e s s f u l i n r e t a i n i n g g r a v e l and providing s u i t a b l e gradient f o r spawning

The Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans h a s r e c e n t l y begun a program t o d e v e l o p new spawning a r e a s f o r chum salmon i n s o u t h e r n B r i t i s h Columbia. Ground- water f l o w i s enhanced i n f o r m e r f l o o d c h a n n e l s now i s o l a t e d from t h e main r i v e r . P r e l i m i n a r y a s s e s s m e n t of f r y p r o d u c t i o n from t h e s e areas s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s promise ( L i s t e r e t a l . 1980).

Egg- to- fry s u r v i v a l of p i n k and chum salmon improved o n J o r s t e d Creek, Washington, a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n of gabions designed t o reduce g r a v e l s c o u r and s h i f t i n g . The most d r a m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e s between s t a b i l i z e d and u n s t a b i l i z e d s e c t i o n s occurred i n y e a r s of h i g h f l o w ; i n y e a r s of low f l o w , s u r v i v a l w a s a b o u t t h e same i n a l l s e c t i o n s (Wilson 1 9 7 6 ) . More t h a n 4,000 a d u l t chum salmon were c o u n t e d i n J o r s t e d Creek i n December 1978 (Wilson, p e r s o n a l communication). T h i s i n c r e a s e i n abundance of spawning f i s h w a s t h o u g h t t o be b e c a u s e of improved spawning and r e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from g a b i o n placement. Recent developments i n g a b i o n d e s i g n , which a p p e a r t o have g r e a t l y improved c h a n c e s f o r s u c c e s s , a r e d i s c u s s e d by Reeves and R o e l o f s ( 1 9 8 2 ) . One s t i m u l u s f o r t h e s e improvements was a n e x c e l l e n t e v a l u a t i o n o f problems e x p e r i e n c e d i n g a b i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s by E n g e l s (1975 u n p u b l . ) . This r e p o r t i n c l u d e s d i s c u s s i o n of s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e , and s u g g e s t s m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o improve g a b i o n performance

ACCESS IMPROVEMENT
H i s t o r i c a l l y , improvement of access t o spawning areas by removal of barr i e r s t o m i g r a t i o n h a s been t h e most common form of h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement f o r anadromous s a l m o n i d s o n t h e w e s t c o a s t . Unfort u n a t e l y , however, i t i s a l s o t h e l e a s t documented o r e v a l u a t e d of a l l techniques

BARRIER REMOVAL

D e b r i s and l o g j a m s pose a major t h r e a t t o m i g r a t i o n o f anadromous salmonids. Jams were e s t i m a t e d t o have p r e v e n t e d a c c e s s t o o v e r 500 miles o f u s a b l e stream h a b i t a t i n Alaska i n 1 9 7 1 ( E l l i o t t 1978). More t h a n 200 jams, r a n g i n g from p a r t i a l t o complete b a r r i e r s t o anadromous f i s h , were e s t i m a t e d t o be p r e s e n t on a s i n g l e Ranger D i s t r i c t of t h e S i u s l a w N a t i o n a l F o r e s t i n w e s t e r n Oregon i n 1978 ( H e l l e r , p e r s o n a l communication). H e l l e r , however, n o t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y of p r o v i d i n g a n a c c u r a t e i n v e n t o r y , because of s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n d e b r i s l o c a t i o n from one l a r g e s t o r m t o the next. One of t h e e a r l i e s t documented e f f o r t s t o remove d e b r i s jams w a s r e p o r t e d by Merrell (1951). About 1 7 0 m a j o r and minor jams were removed from 43 km of t h e C l a t s k a n i e R i v e r s y s t e m i n Oregon. Stream c l e a r a n c e and access development were a l s o a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of p r o j e c t s t o improve c o a s t a l streams conducted i n Oregon d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 ' s (Summers and Neubauer 1965 u n p u b l . ) . More t h a n a dozen f i s h w a y s were i n s t a l l e d o r r e p a i r e d and more t h a n 50 l o g jams were removed. E x t e n s i v e stream c l e a r a n c e h a s a l s o been u n d e r t a k e n i n C a l i f o r n i a . During t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 ' s and i n t o t h e 1960' s , a program t o remove o l d l o g jams was c a r r i e d o u t by t h e C a l i f o r n i a Department of F i s h and G a m e on n e a r l y e v e r y major c o a s t a l r i v e r system t h a t s u p p o r t e d anadromous f i s h , from t h e Oregon b o r d e r s o u t h t o S a n t a Cruz (Evans, p e r s o n a l communication). This w a s a very extensive e f f o r t , involving l a r g e e x p e n d i t u r e s by t h e W i l d l i f e C o n s e r v a t i o n Board, b u t v e r y few of t h e r e p o r t s s u b m i t t e d were p u b l i s h e d . An e x c e p t i o n was t h e work on t h e Moyo R i v e r , where n e a r l y 60 km of stream were c l e a r e d of l o g jams, p a r t i a l b a r r i e r s , and d e b r i s t h a t t h r e a t e n e d t o form f u t u r e jams (Holman and Evans 1964).

Log d e b r i s jams have a l s o r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n e l s e w h e r e on t h e P a c i f i c C o a s t , Roppel (1978 u n p u b l . ) l i s t e d 88 major s t r e a m - c l e a r a n c e p r o j e c t s conducted i n t h e S t a t e of Alaska by t h e USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e and Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e between 1952 and 1978. I f p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s a l o n e were c o n s i d e r e d , t h e scope of p a s t log- jam removal o p e r a t i o n s would be g r e a t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . One example from t h e Northwest c a n b e found i n t h e r e c o r d of p a s t removal p r o j e c t s i n t h e S i u s l a w R i v e r b a s i n i n w e s t e r n Oregon. Although Saltzman (1964 u n p u b l . ) r e p o r t s on m a j o r e f f o r t s t o c l e a r d e b r i s d u r i n g 1962- 64, 1948-50 was a l s o a t i m e o f e x t e n s i v e undocumented stream c l e a n u p , and numerous c l e a r a n c e p r o j e c t s have been u n d e r t a k e n s i n c e t h e w i n t e r of 1975-76. I n a d d i t i o n , many small p r o j e c t s were conducted d u r i n g 1936- 38, 1944- 46, 1957- 58, and 1965- 66, f o r which few r e c o r d s a r e a v a i l a b l e (Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commiss i o n , F i s h e r y D i v i s i o n Annual R e p o r t s , numerous y e a r s ) . Added t o t h i s l i s t a r e t h e many removal p r o j e c t s u n d e r t a k e n by p r i v a t e companies, o f which no r e c o r d s a t a l l were k e p t . I f a l l t h e d e b r i s removal p r o j e c t s completed i n t h i s d r a i n a g e o v e r t h e p a s t 45 y e a r s c o u l d be l i s t e d , t h e t o t a l would b e l a r g e , p o s s i b l y more t h a n l,OOOe The same c o n c l u s i o n would probably apply t o o t h e r r i v e r draina g e s i n Oregon, and t o many o t h e r P a c i f i c Northwest w a t e r s h e d s a s w e l l . Although l o g jams have undoubtedly d e c l i n e d i n b o t h number and s i z e , t h e y a r e s t i l l a common f e a t u r e of P a c i f i c Northwest streams. I n t h e p a s t , jams were most o f t e n c a u s e d by poor l o g g i n g p r a c t i c e s and f i r e s , b u t now l a r g e d e b r i s jams are most commonly c a u s e d by d e b r i s t o r r e n t s d u r i n g major s t o r m s . The l a r g e s t o r m s of 1964- 65, 1972, 1975, and 1977 l e d t o f o r m a t i o n o f many jams.

10

For many y e a r s , r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e major c a u s e of mass s o i l f a i l u r e leading t o debris avala n c h e s and t o r r e n t s i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest (Swanston and Swanson 1976) Recent e v i d e n c e from s t e e p l a n d s i n t h e Oregon C o a s t Ranges, however, s u g g e s t s t h a t c l e a r c u t t i n g a l o n e can a l s o t r i g g e r a s i g n i f i c a n t number of such e v e n t s (Gresswell e t a l . 1979). Thus, as a r e s u l t of p a s t and f u t u r e f o r e s t h a r v e s t i n g , l o g d e b r i s jams w i l l c o n t i n u e t o pose a s i g n i f i c a n t t h r e a t t o anadromous f i s h h a b i t a t i n t h e s t e e p l a n d s of t h e P a c i f i c Northwest, and jam removal w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be a n i m p o r t a n t management activity

Baker (1979) p o i n t e d o u t s e v e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s t o a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s of o p e r a t i o n s t o remove d e b r i s jams. I n a s t u d y of s e v e n removal s i t e s i n w e s t e r n Oregon, h e found t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s h o r t - t e r m i m p a c t s were release of sediment a n d d e b r i s t r a p p e d behind t h e j a m and d e s t r u c t i o n of existing habitat within the jam. Sometimes t h e s e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s c a n be o f f s e t by g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d u s e by anadromous f i s h above t h e j a m , b u t t h e t r a d e - o f f s are o f t e n h a r d t o e v a l u a t e . B a k e r ' s work s u g g e s t e d i n c r e a s e d emphasis o n p a r t i a l removal of d e b r i s jams.

Despite the extensive e f f o r t i n d e b r i s j a m removal, s u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e e f f o r t h a s been made t o e v a l u a t e t h e impact of t h e s e stream c l e a r a n c e p r o j e c t s , e i t h e r on t h e anadromous f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s t h e y a r e designed t o enhance, o r on h a b i t a t q u a l i t y downstream from t h e removal area. L a r g e amounts of f i n e sediment are u s u a l l y s t o r e d behind d e b r i s jams, and c o m p l e t e removal of t h e j a m r e s u l t s i n t r a n s p o r t of t h a t material t o downstream areas. Removal of one p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e j a m i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges r e s u l t e d i n t h e release of o v e r 5000 m3 of sediment t o t h e stream c h a n n e l below t h e removal s i t e ( B e s c h t a 1979)

Moderate amounts of d e b r i s i n a stream c a n p r o v i d e f a v o r a b l e salmonid h a b i t a t , and e x c e s s i v e removal of d e b r i s may r e s u l t i n f u r t h e r h a b i t a t d e g r a d a t i o n ( H a l l and Baker 1975 unpubl.). An example of s u c h a n e f f e c t comes from a s t u d y i n c o a s t a l Alaska. The numbers of j u v e n i l e s e a - r u n D o l l y Varden d e c r e a s e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r c o m p l e t e removal of accumulated l o g g i n g d e b r i s i n S p r i n g Pond Creek ( E l l i o t t 1 9 7 8 ) . Two y e a r s l a t e r , t h e p o p u l a t i o n had d e c r e a s e d by 80 percent. Changes i n s p e c i e s abundance and c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e benthic macroinvertebrate population l e d t o a s h i f t i n t h e d i e t of t h e f i s h . T h i s s t u d y recommended t h a t many d e b r i s removal p r o j e c t s be r e e v a l u a t e d .

A s t u d y of t h e r o l e of l a r g e d e b r i s i n streams examined t h e e f f e c t s of removal of a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t of t h e n a t u r a l d e b r i s from one of two a d j a c e n t small t r i b u t a r i e s i n t h e C l e a r w a t e r R i v e r d r a i n a g e , Washington ( L e s t e l l e 1978). Nonmigratory c u t t h r o a t t r o u t were t h e o n l y s a l m o n i d s p r e s e n t , and t h e i r numbers were l i t t l e a f f e c t e d i n t h e f i r s t few months a f t e r removal of d e b r i s i n August. The m a j o r e f f e c t w a s d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e streambed during the following winter, including widespread d e p o s i t i o n and s c o u r i n g . Changes i n t h e p h y s i c a l h a b i t a t may have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n numbers o f t r o u t observed during t h e winter. W i t h i n a y e a r of removal, however, most of t h e d e b r i s volume had rea c c u m u l a t e d , and t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n had r e t u r n e d t o i t s p r e v i o u s l e v e l .
,
'

Some d e b r i s jams may a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e amount of h a b i t a t available f o r rearing juvenile s a l m o n i d s , p r o v i d i n g t h e y are n o t e x t e n s i v e enough t o c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k p a s s a g e upstream. A s t u d y c u r r e n t l y underway i n t h e Oregon Coast Ranges h a s i d e n t i f i e d a t l e a s t one jam t h a t formed a s m a l l impoundment and i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of j u v e n i l e coho salmon i n t h e impoundment a b o u t 1 0 - f o l d o v e r t h a t i n t h e n a t u r a l c h a n n e l , based o n l i n e a l stream d i s t a n c e ( E v e r e s t , p e r s o n a l communication). More thorough e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r o l e of d e b r i s i n streams and p o l i c i e s f o r i t s removal i s needed.

11

Log d r i v i n g , o f t e n i n v o l v i n g t h e u s e of s p l a s h dams on smaller streams and r i v e r s , was a common p r a c t i c e i n t h e e a r l y d a y s of t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest. The s c o u r i n g of stream bottoms and b l o c k a g e of salmonid r u n s by t h e dams were two prominent i m p a c t s on f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s . The I n t e r n a t i o n a l P a c i f i c Salmon F i s h e r i e s Commission (1966) documented many of t h e consequences of l o g d r i v i n g on t h e S t e l l a k o River i n B r i t i s h Columbia, i n c l u d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n of numerous l o g j a m s . Wendler and Deschamps (1955) p r o v i d e d a n e x c e l l e n t a c c o u n t of t h e u s e of l o g g i n g dams i n Washington, i n c l u d i n g a map of t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . These b a r r i e r s t o m i g r a t i o n have been g r a d u a l l y removed, by n a t u r a l means and by v a r i o u s l o g g i n g companies o r t h e Washington S t a t e Department of Fisheries.

One of t h e many f i s h - p a s s a g e techniques, t h e Denil fishway, has particular significance t o f i e l d managers. A m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h i s design t h a t i s adaptable t o portable u s e h a s become known a s t h e Alaskan s t e e p p a s s (Ziemer 1 9 6 2 ) . T h i s f i s h p a s s h a s been u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h new r u n s of salmon t o p r e v i o u s l y i n a c c e s s i b l e F r a z e r Lake o n Kodiak I s l a n d i n Alaska ( B l a c k e t t 1979). Eggs and f r y of sockeye salmon from n e a r b y s t o c k s were p l a n t e d i n t h e t r i b u t a r i e s b e g i n n i n g i n 1951. I n 1962, a f o u r - s t e p s t e e p p a s s , 64 m long, w a s b u i l t t o provide r e t u r n i n g f i s h access o v e r t h e 10-m f a l l s t h a t had p r e v i o u s l y b a r r e d anadromous f i s h . By 1978, t h e r u n had grown t o 142,000 and p l a n s a r e underway t o provide a d d i t i o n a l passage f a c i l i t i e s t o accommodate a r u n e x p e c t e d t o r e a c h 300- 400,000 i n t h e 1980' s ( B l a c k e t t 1 9 7 9 ) . A small r u n of c h i n o o k salmon h a s a l s o been d e v e l o p e d i n t h e system. Because of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y l a r g e s i z e of salmon r u n s i n t h e r e g i o n , b a r r i e r b y p a s s p r o j e c t s have a f a v o r a b l e b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o i n Alaska and B r i t i s h Columbia, and a s a r e s u l t a r e f a i r l y common. Sweet (1975 unpubl.) l i s t s over 20 steeppass p r , o j e c t s i n t h e A l a s k a r e g i o n , and N a r v e r ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e c o r d s 28 f i s h w a y s i n B r i t i s h Columbia. F a r t h e r s o u t h , a l a r g e number of access p r o j e c t s h a v e a l s o i n v o l v e d l a d d e r i n g of b a r r i e r s . Narver ( 1 9 7 6 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t Oregon a l o n e had f i s h p a s s a g e f a c i l i t i e s a t 56 n a t u r a l and 79 a r t i f i c i a l o b s t r u c t i o n s , e x c l u d i n g t h e dams on t h e main Columbia R i v e r . Few r e p o r t s , however, have e v a l u a t e d t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of p r o j e c t s f o r improving f i s h p a s s a g e on small i s o l a t e d stream r e a c h e s s u c h a s t h o s e b l o c k e d by improperly i n s t a l l e d c u l v e r t s . C u l v e r t s t h a t are poorly designed o r i n s t a l l e d have b e e n a m a j o r c a u s e of i m p a i r e d f i s h p a s s a g e . An a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y of r e p o r t s d e a l i n g w i t h f i s h passage a t road c r o s s i n g s h a s r e c e n t l y been p r e p a r e d (Anderson and B r y a n t 1 9 8 0 ) .

FISHWAY DEVELOPMENT
Removing l o g j a m s i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y compared t o some b a r r i e r s ; p r o v i d i n g a passageway o v e r and around n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l o b s t r u c t i o n s h a s f r e q u e n t l y been n e c e s s a r y . Among t h e d e v i c e s employed have been f i s h l a d d e r s , l o c k s , tramways and t r o l l e y s , and a v a r i e t y of o t h e r methods of p a s s i n g f i s h u p s t r e a m and downstream (Clay 1961).

12

REARING HABITAT
Most of t h e e a r l y work on development of r e a r i n g h a b i t a t w a s done i n t h e Midwest, where i n c r e a s e s i n bank c o v e r and p o o l area were shown t o i n c r e a s e t h e abundance and h a r v e s t of l e g a l - s i z e d brook t r o u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( S h e t t e r e t a l . 1949, Hunt 1 9 7 6 ) . T a r z w e l l ( 1 9 3 8 ) , however, o b s e r v e d t h a t most midwestern and e a s t e r n t e c h n i q u e s were n o t d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r a b l e t o w e s t c o a s t streams. Highly v a r i a b l e f l o w r e g i m e s , i n c l u d i n g f r e q u e n t f l o o d s and d r o u g h t s , make many s t r u c t u r e s u n s u i t a b l e o r u n s t a b l e . The u s e of i n s t r e a m b o u l d e r s , however, d i d seem t o have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o v i d i n g s t a b l e c o v e r and small p o o l s i n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s (Madsen 1938, Tarzwell 1938).

few a d d i t i o n a l e f f o r t s have been made t o use t h i s technique i n h a b i t a t enhancement. B j o r n n (1971) found t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of l a r g e r o c k i n t o small h e a d w a t e r s n e a r spawning areas i n c r e a s e d t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y and r e t a r d e d t h e downstream movement of pre- smolt c h i n o o k salmon and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t o v e r t h e w i n t e r . B o u l d e r s were added t o a n A t l a n t i c salmon stream i n New Brunswick (Redmond 1 9 7 5 ) . I n s e c t i o n s of t h e T r a c a d i e R i v e r where l a r g e a n g u l a r r o c k (up t o 1 . 2 m i n d i a m e t e r ) had been p l a c e d , t h e numbers of j u v e n i l e salmon i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y - - i n some i n s t a n c e s , from no f i s h p r e s e n t t o between 25 and 50/100 m2 ( N a r v e r 1 9 7 6 ) . L a r g e r o c k h a s been u s e d e f f e c t i v e l y t o enhance salmonid h a b i t a t i n s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s i n t h e John Day R i v e r b a s i n i n e a s t e r n Oregon ( C l a i r e 1978c, 1980, unpubl. ).

BOULDER PLACEMENT
One of t h e e a r l y w e s t c o a s t e f f o r t s i n v o l v i n g b o u l d e r placement o c c u r r e d i n C a l i f o r n i a t r o u t streams (Calhoun 1964, 1966). Followup p h o t o g r a p h s c l e a r l y showed t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r large boulders t o s u r v i v e m a j o r s t o r m s and c o n t i n u e t o Since provide d e s i r a b l e h a b i t a t t h e n , s e v e r a l s t u d i e s have emphasized t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between r o c k c o v e r and abundance of anadromous f i s h (Hartman 1965, Chapman and B-jornn 1969, E v e r e s t and Chapman 1 9 7 2 , Narver 1 9 7 6 ) , and a

A c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n of b o u l d e r placement i s p r e s e n t l y underway o n t h e Keogh R i v e r i n B r i t i s h Columbia (Ward and S l a n e y 1979). T e s t s a r e being made o n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of b o u l d e r s , a l o n e and i n combination w i t h l o g cover. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s from 1 y e a r of e v a l u a t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t g r o u p i n g s of b o u l d e r s a r e most e f f e c t i v e , b o t h as t o d u r a b i l i t y and p r o v i s i o n of h a b i t a t Significant i n c r e a s e s i n abundance of b o t h s t e e l h e a d t r o u t p a r r and coho salmon f r y o c c u r r e d i n improved s e c t i o n s of stream. S t e e l h e a d t r o u t abundance w a s significantly correlated with the number of b o u l d e r s p l a c e d i n a r e a c h . Placement of b o u l d e r s by h e l i c o p t e r proved t o be comparable i n c o s t t o placement w i t h heavy equipment, and a l l o w s h a b i t a t development i n i n a c c e s s i b l e stream r e a c h e s . Although b e n e f i t / c o s t a n a l y s i s i s very u n c e r t a i n a t t h i s stage i n the project, early r e s u l t s a r e p r o m i s i n g (Ward and S l a n e y 1979).

stepdams w a s v e r y s h o r t , t h e m a j o r i t y l a s t i n g o n l y a b o u t 1 y e a r (Lund 1 9 7 6 ) . The i m p o r t a n c e of p o o l s a s r e a r i n g h a b i t a t f o r j u v e n i l e coho salmon h a s s t i m u l a t e d s e v e r a l e f f o r t s t o create new p o o l s i n t h e Oregon C o a s t Ranges. P o o l s a r e scarce d u r i n g low summer f l o w i n many streams w i t h bedrock s u b s t r a t e a l o n g t h e c o a s t . The Coos Bay D i s t r i c t of t h e Bureau of Land Management u s e d dynamite t o b l a s t a t e s t p o o l i n a s a n d s t o n e bedrock s e c t i o n of V i n c e n t C r e e k , Oregon (Anderson 1 9 7 3 ) . I n i t i a l r e s u l t s a p p e a r e d f a v o r a b l e , and 1 2 a d d i t i o n a l p o o l s were c r e a t e d i n 1974. An e x c e l l e n t f o l l o w u p r e p o r t w a s produced by Anderson a n d Miyajima ( 1 9 7 5 ) t h a t c o u l d p r o v i d e a model f o r e v a l u a t i o n of many management- oriented p r o j e c t s . Diagrams of t e c h n i q u e s and recommendat i o n s f o r improvement accompany a n e v a l u a t i o n of f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e p r o j e c t . Although r e s o u r c e s were a v a i l a b l e f o r o n l y one sample i n t h e y e a r b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and two i n t h e y e a r a f t e r , some of t h e c h a n g e s o b s e r v e d were l a r g e enough t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . J u v e n i l e coho salmon p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e new p o o l s of V i n c e n t C r e e k i n c r e a s e d 10- fold over those i n h a b i t i n g comparable a r e a s b e f o r e b l a s t i n g (Anderson and Miyajima 1 9 7 5 ) . Coho salmon i n t h e newly formed p o o l s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e found i n t h e c o n t r o l a r e a s b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , but f i s h i n t h e c o n t r o l r i f f l e were a l s o l a r g e r t h a n b e f o r e . No change w a s found i n c u t t h r o a t t r o u t abundance, b u t t h o s e i n t h e new p o o l s averaged 8 c m l a r g e r than c o n t r o l s . These b i g g e r f i s h have p r o v i d e d r e c r e a t i o n f o r s p o r t fishermen, but t h e y may a l s o have become p r e d a t o r s o n j u v e n i l e coho salmon (Anderson, p e r s o n a l communication). The d a t a were t o o l i m i t e d t o assess c h a n g e s i n o t h e r f i s h species- - age O+ s t e e l h e a d t r o u t , t h e s p e c k l e d d a c e , and t h e In some p o o l - b l a s t i n g redside shiner. p r o j e c t s , t h e r e d s i d e s h i n e r and t h e s p e c k l e d d a c e have i n c r e a s e d i n abundance.

REARING PQQLS
Some of t h e e a r l i e s t e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t development i n t h e West u s e d various s t r u c t u r e s t o c r e a t e pools i n streams of t h e S i e r r a Nevada i n C a l i f o r n i a d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1930' s. An e v a l u a t i o n of 4 1 of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s b u i l t on t h e E a s t F o r k of t h e Kaweah R i v e r i n t h e S e q u o i a N a t i o n a l F o r e s t w a s c o n d u c t e d some 1 8 y e a r s l a t e r by E h l e r s ( 1 9 5 6 ) . Although most of t h e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s had f a i l e d , 9 of 15 l o g dams had s u r v i v e d a n d 6 were o p e r a t i n g p r o p e r l y and p r o v i d i n g added t r o u t h a b i t a t . Flows a s h i g h a s 7 0 m 3 / s (2500 f t 3 / s ) were e s t i m a t e d t o have o c c u r r e d s i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Small l o g and r o c k dams were constructed t o provide a d d i t i o n a l t r o u t h a b i t a t i n t h e h e a d w a t e r s of Sagehen C r e e k , C a l i f o r n i a , i n 1957. No t r o u t were p r e s e n t i n t h i s a r e a , s o brook t r o u t were i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e newly formed p o o l s from t h e stream below. The t r o u t s u r v i v e d and grew w e l l , e s t a b l i s h i n g a s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g populat i o n (Gard 1 9 6 1 ) . A f t e r 1 2 y e a r s , t h e area was r e s u r v e y e d ; 6 of t h e 14 o r i g i n a l dams were i n good t o e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n and t h e t r o u t p o p u l a t i o n had p e r s i s t e d (Gard 1 9 7 2 ) . The t e c h n i q u e w a s b e l i e v e d c o s t - e f f e c t i v e i n enhancing headwater populations. In one Montana t r o u t stream, however, t h e u s e f u l l i f e of

14

Water t e m p e r a t u r e s a t t h e bottom of one p o o l were up t o 2.2"C c o o l e r t h a n peak t e m p e r a t u r e s i n a n a d j a c e n t r i f f l e . Also, t e m p e r a t u r e s were above 22C f o r a much s h o r t e r p e r i o d e a c h day i n t h e p o o l t h a n i n t h e r i f f l e (Anderson and Miyajima 1 9 7 5 ) . Other u n a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s a c c r u e d 'from t h e newly formed p o o l s . High numbers of c r a y f i s h were found i n t h e p o o l s (Anderson, p e r s o n a l communication). C r a y f i s h are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y sought a f t e r f o r s p o r t and food i n some areas of t h e c o a s t . Another b e n e f i t h a s been t h e o c c a s i o n a l d e p o s i t i o n of g r a v e l a t t h e t a i l of a p o o l , which h a s been used by s t e e l h e a d t r o u t f o r spawning.
The Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e c r e a t e d 1 5 p o o l s w i t h dynamite o n s i x t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e S i u s l a w R i v e r ( H u t c h i s o n 1973 u n p u b l . ) . Results t h e r e have n o t been f a v o r a b l e . No s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n p o p u l a t i o n s have been o b s e r v e d , a p a r t from small numbers o f c u t t h r o a t t r o u t i n p o o l s where none o c c u r r e d b e f o r e . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e f a i l u r e of coho salmon t o respond i n t h i s s y s t e m may be t h e v e r y low numbers o f a d u l t f i s h t h a t have spawned t h e r e -i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s ( H u t c h i s o n 1978 u n p u b l . ) . I n a n e a r b y a r e a , however, r e s u l t s of p o o l b l a s t i n g a p p e a r e d more f a v o r a b l e . The USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e b l a s t e d s e v e n p o o l s i n Cedar Creek, t r i b u t a r y t o the Siuslaw River, i n 1978 and e n l a r g e d f i v e n a t u r a l p o o l s i n a t r i b u t a r y of t h e Smith R i v e r , Oregon, i n 1979. The p o o l s have been s e l f - c l e a n i n g , as planned. Those on Cedar Creek i n p a r t i c u l a r have resulted i n substantial increases i n t h e number of j u v e n i l e coho salmon r e a r i n g i n a n area t h a t w a s predomi n a n t l y bedrock. E v a l u a t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t s u g g e s t s t h e need f o r v a r y i n g s i z e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e p o o l s , with possibly greater potential f o r small p o o l s c r e a t e d w i t h j u s t a few s t i c k s of dynamite ( H e l l e r , p e r s o n a l communication).

WINTER HABITAT
Evidence i n c r e a s i n g l y p o i n t s t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e of w i n t e r h a b i t a t i n c o n t r o l l i n g p r o d u c t i o n of salmonid s m o l t s i n some stream systems. The p r e v i o u s l y mentioned work of Mason (1974, 1976) w i t h coho salmon i n B r i t i s h Columbia p r o v i d e s some of t h e b e s t s u c h documentation. I n t e r m i t t e n t s i d e p o o l s , back c h a n n e l s , and o t h e r areas of r e l a t i v e l y s t i l l w a t e r t h a t become i n u n d a t e d d u r i n g h i g h f l o w s have r e c e n t l y been shown t o p r o v i d e valuable winter habitat f o r juvenile salmonids, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o a s t a l areas ( B u s t a r d and Narver 1975a, b; K r a l i k and Sowerwine 1 9 7 7 ) . Overwinter s u r v i v a l of j u v e n i l e coho salmon t h a t moved i n t o one s i d e - c h a n n e l t r i b u t a r y of C a r n a t i o n Creek, B r i t i s h Columbia, i n t h e f a l l a v e r a g e d 74 p e r c e n t f o r f o u r w i n t e r s . Comparable s u r v i v a l f o r t h o s e f i s h remaining i n t h e main channel w a s 23 percent (Narver, p e r s o n a l communication). I n the e a r l y 1960's, suggestions were made t o u s e b u l l d o z e r s t o excavate such channels i n conjunction with logging o p e r a t i o n s (Narver, p e r s o n a l communication), b u t l i t t l e o r no enhancement work of t h i s t y p e h a s been c a r r i e d o u t . Recent s t u d i e s o n w i n t e r growth and s u r v i v a l of j u v e n i l e coho salmon i n n a t u r a l s p r i n g ponds o n t h e Olympic P e n i n s u l a of Washington ( P e t e r s o n 1980) s u g g e s t t h a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e area of lowland ponds a d j a c e n t t o salmonid streams h a s g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r enhancing salmonid abundance. J u v e n i l e salmon t h a t had r e a r e d i n streams d u r i n g s p r i n g and summer moved i n t o t h e s e s p r i n g ponds i n l a r g e numbers d u r i n g f a l l and w i n t e r . F i s h i n t h e ponds s u r v i v e d and grew b e t t e r than those overwintering i n t r i b u t a r y streams ( P e t e r s o n 1 9 8 0 ) .

15

Augmentation of low summer f l o w h a s been a n e f f e c t i v e and i n e x p e n s i v e approach t o h a b i t a t enhancement f o r r e s i d e n t t r o u t . Most of t h i s work h a s o c c u r r e d i n t h e S i e r r a Nevada mount a i n s of C a l i f o r n i a , where low (1-2 m) flow- maintenance dams have been b u i l t a t t h e o u t l e t s of n a t u r a l l a k e s , The s t o r a g e p r o v i d e d by t h e s e dams m a i n t a i n s permanent s t r e a m f l o w i n downstream c h a n n e l s t h a t f o r m e r l y were d r y d u r i n g p a r t o f t h e summer. The f i r s t dam w a s b u i l t i n 1925 by a p r i v a t e c i t i z e n , and f i v e more s t r u c t u r e s were b u i l t i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 ' s a t a c o s t of $5,200 (Burghduff 1 9 3 4 ) . By 1954, 40 dams had been b u i l t , enhancing h a b i t a t i n 540 km of stream ( C r o n e m i l l e r and F r a s e r 1954, C r o n e m i l l e r 1 9 5 5 ) . By t h i s t i m e , many of t h e most d e s i r a b l e s i t e s had been u s e d , and c o s t s had i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y . These small p r o j e c t s have r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n summer p o p u l a t i o n s of r e s i d e n t t r o u t , and f l o w a u g m e n t a t i o n c o u l d be a p p l i c a b l e t o enhancement of anadromous populations. Although some e v i d e n c e h a s b e e n found t o t h e c o n t r a r y ( H a l l and Knight 1 9 8 1 ) , most d a t a p o i n t t o a s t r o n g p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n of s t r e a m f l o w w i t h n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n of coho salmon (Smoker 1955, Matthews and Olson 1 9 8 0 , S c a r n e c c h i a 1 9 8 1 ) . Although t h e r e l a t i o n of salmonid abundance t o s t r e a m f l o w seems complex, i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of anadromous salmonids by supplementing low summer s t r e a m f l o w w i t h upstream s t o r a g e might be possible. One s u c h p r o j e c t i s r e p o r t e d o n a 28-ha l a k e o n Vancouver I s l a n d (Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans 1980). An a d d i t i o n a l 0.04- 0.06 m 3 / s of f l o w i s a v a i l a b l e downstream from t h e l a k e d u r i n g t h e d r y summer. B e f o r e any l a r g e - s c a l e development of t h i s k i n d g o e s f o r w a r d , i n s u r i n g t h a t l i m i t s on c a r r y i n g capacity i n winter w i l l not negate b e n e f i t s g a i n e d d u r i n g t h e summer and f a l l would be i m p o r t a n t . A more promising approach might be t o augment f l o w i n i n t e r m i t t e n t streams s u p p o r t i n g anadromous f i s h .

A t l e a s t one a t t e m p t h a s been made t o augment f l o w i n a s t e e l h e a d stream i n e a s t e r n Oregon (West e t a l . 1 9 6 5 a ) . S u b t e r r a n e a n weirs, c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h p l a s t i c sheeting placed i n trenches, brought ground water t o t h e s u r f a c e and m a i n t a i n e d s u r f a c e f l o w f o r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s above a n d below some of t h e s t r u c t u r e s , where t h e c h a n n e l had p r e v i o u s l y been d r y . The scheme w a s judged t o be e x p e n s i v e and i m p r a c t i c a l , hoiJever, because of t h e l a r g e number of s t r u c t u r e s r e q u i r e d and t h e damage s u s t a i n e d during s p r i n g runoff ( C l a i r e 1978b unpubl. ).

B u i l d i n g dams may n o t be t h e o n l y means of augmenting s t r e a m f l o w . An unexpected i n c r e a s e i n low f l o w o c c u r r e d when a h e a v i l y g r a z e d s e c t i o n of stream i n e a s t e r n Oregon w a s f e n c e d t o e x c l u d e l i v e s t o c k (Winegar 1977). A 4-km s e c t i o n was f e n c e d i n 1966, and 5.6 km of stream c h a n n e l were added t o t h e e x c l o s u r e i n 1974. I n s p i t e of the significant increase i n riparian v e g e t a t i o n , summer low f l o w h a s i n c r e a s e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e stream no longer consistently freezes solid d u r i n g w i n t e r (Winegar 1978 u n p u b l . ) . Although t h e c a u s e of t h e i n c r e a s e d f l o w i s n o t c e r t a i n , removal of t h e c a t t l e reduced s t r e a m s i d e s o i l compaction, a p p a r e n t l y r e s u l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d i n f i l t r a t i o n and g r e a t e r ground- water r e c h a r g e (Winegar, p e r s o n a l communication).

Some e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of stream w a t e r i n f l u e n c e abundance and growth r a t e of s a l m o n i d s ( H a l l a n d Knight 1 9 8 1 ) . A few a t t e m p t s have been made t o i n c r e a s e b i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n streams by a d d i t i o n of n u t r i e n t s . S t o c k n e r and S h o r t r e e d (1978) and Gregory (1980) showed s i g n i f i c a n t r e s p o n s e of attached algae t o nutrient addition i n streams i n B r i t i s h Columbia a n d Oregon. An e a r l i e r f e r t i l i z a t i o n experiment by Huntsman (1948) i n a n e a s t e r n Canadian stream showed a l i m i t e d r e s p o n s e i n abundance of A t l a n t i c salmon and associated f i s h species, as w e l l a s some i n c r e a s e i n i n v e r t e b r a t e numbers.

16

N c o n c l u s i v e evidence i s a v a i l a b l e on o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n e n h a n c i n g salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s i n streams, b u t f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l work l i k e t h a t now underway by t h e B r i t i s h Columbia F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch ( S l a n e y , p e r s o n a l communication) s h o u l d b e encouraged. T h i s n o n s t r u c t u r a l a p p r o a c h t o h a b i t a t enhancement h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t i t c a n be e a s i l y terminated i f i t proves i n e f f e c t i v e o r u n d e s i r a b l e , N commito ment must be made t o a long- term program, s u c h a s accompanies most s t r u c t u r a l enhancement.

a l o n g t h e stream (Newbold e t a l , 1980, Murphy and H a l l 1 9 8 1 ) . One p r o j e c t i n Wisconsin d e l i b e r a t e l y removed r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n a s a n enhancement measure f o r brook t r o u t (Hunt 1 9 7 9 ) . C o n d i t i o n s of t h e w a t e r s h e d away from t h e stream c a n a l s o i n f l u e n c e f i s h h a b i t a t , a s noted i n t h e earlier d i s c u s s i o n of l o g d e b r i s jams i n streams, I n f a c t , one of t h e more i m p r e s s i v e case s t u d i e s of stream r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i n v o l v e d no d i r e c t a c t i o n w i t h i n o r n e a r t h e stream c h a n n e l a t a l l , s i m p l y p r o t e c t i o n of t h e w a t e r s h e d . T h i s was t h e l o g g i n g moratorium on t h e S o u t h Fork Salmon River, discussed earlier i n r e l a t i o n t o c l e a n i n g of spawning g r a v e l ( P l a t t s and Megahan 1 9 7 5 ) . O t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t watershed p r o t e c t i o n i s an e f f e c t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n measure comes from s t u d i e s of t h e impact of l i v e s t o c k g r a z i n g on stream h a b i t a t and salmonid populations ( P l a t t s 1981). S e v e r a l s t u d i e s have p r o v i d e d q u a n t i t a t i v e evidence of t h e s e r i o u s impact of heavy g r a z i n g p r e s s u r e o n The t r o u t populations ( t a b l e 2). p o p u l a t i o n s i z e in c o n t r o l s e c t i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a v e r a g e salmonid abundance might be t r i p l e d by c o n t r o l l i n g heavy g r a z i n g p r e s s u r e . The e v i d e n c e i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e because few s t u d i e s of f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e same s e c t i o n of stream b e f o r e and a f t e r g r a z i n g . D i f f e r e n c e s i n abundance between g r a z e d and c o n t r o l areas i n t h e s t u d i e s summarized i n t a b l e 2 a r e s o l a r g e as t o l e a v e l i t t l e doubt of a r e a l i m p a c t , however.
Table 2--Comparisons o f t r o u t populations i n sections o f stream where grazing pressure was absent o r l i g h t ( c o n t r o l ) versus those h e a v i l y grazea (modified from C l a i r e 1980. unpubl.) Percent greater i n control 236

RIPARIAN HABITAT
Hynes (1975) h a s e f f e c t i v e l y made t h e case t h a t a stream and i t s v a l l e y are a n i n s e p a r a b l e e c o l o g i c a l u n i t . Many examples a r e a v a i l a b l e t h a t demonstrate t h i s interdependence a s i t relates s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e h a b i t a t of anadromous f i s h . Among t h e e l e m e n t s of h a b i t a t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r i p a r i a n zone are t e m p e r a t u r e , c o v e r , and f o o d . S t u d i e s of e f f e c t s of l o g g i n g have shown t h e r e s p o n s e of f i s h h a b i t a t t o f o r e s t h a r v e s t i n g n e a r streams ( H a l l and L a n t z 1969, Burns 1972, Gibbons and S a l 0 1 9 7 3 ) . Most changes i n h a b i t a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d salmonid p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t i n a few i n s t a n c e s f i s h and i n v e r t e b r a t e abundance i n c r e a s e d a f t e r opening of t h e canopy

Species Brown t r o u t C u t t h r o a t and rainDow t r o u t Brown t r o u t Steelhead t r o u t

Location Rock Creek, Montana i/ B i g Creek, Utah L i t t l e Deschutes R i v e r , Oregon Camp Creek, Oregon

Units kg/ha

Reference Marcuson (1977 unpubl .) Duff (1977 unpubl )

kg/ha kg/ha no/km

263 269

Lorz (1974) Claire (1980 unpubl .)

2/94

1/An e a r l i e r stuay on t h e same stream by Gunderson (1968) Is n o t comparable because o f d i f f e r e n t base area.

!/Bases

on 5 years o f sampling. estimate.

A l l o t h e r studies based on a s i n g l e

17

An example of t h i s impact i s provided by s t u d i e s i n Camp Creek, a n i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c e r of summer s t e e l h e a d i n t h e John Day d r a i n a g e i n e a s t e r n Oregon t h a t had been h e a v i l y g r a z e d f o r 70 y e a r s . I n 1964, 0.8 km of stream was f e n c e d t o e x c l u d e l i v e s t o c k . By 1974, 75-80 p e r c e n t of t h e stream was shaded by r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n , which had been v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t b e f o r e f e n c i n g . An a d d i t i o n a l 9.6 km of stream were f e n c e d i n 1976. During 1 y e a r , maximum stream t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e f e n c e d s e c t i o n w a s 19"C, compared t o 25.5"C i n t h e h e a v i l y g r a z e d s e c t i o n ( C l a i r e 1978a unpubl. ). Numbers of spawning and r e a r i n g s t e e l h e a d t r o u t have i n c r e a s e d significantly. Spawning s u r v e y s have been conducted i n t h e d r a i n a g e s i n c e 1956. I n a n 11- year p e r i o d a f t e r f e n c i n g , 1 0 . 5 r e d d s p e r km were c o u n t e d i n t h e h e a v i l y g r a z e d a r e a and 18.6 r e d d s p e r k i n t h e f e n c e d m s e c t i o n . I n 5 y e a r s of sampling, from 1974 t o 1979, t h e a v e r a g e number of j u v e n i l e s t e e l h e a d was twice a s h i g h i n s i d e t h e e n c l o s u r e a s o u t , and d a c e p o p u l a t i o n s were 6-7 t i m e s g r e a t e r o u t s i d e t h e f e n c e d area ( C l a i r e 1980 unpubl. ) E v e r e s t (1978 unpubl. ) e s t i m a t e d the b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o of t h i s f e n c i n g p r o j e c t t o be between 2 . 3 : l and 3 . 3 : l (depending on i n t e r e s t rates and maintenance c o s t s ) . A f a v o r a b l e b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o was a l s o e s t i m a t e d by Olson and A m o u r (1979) f o r f e n c i n g r i p a r i a n zones on a l l l a n d s a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e Bureau of Land Management.
e

The h i s t o r y o f h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement f o r streamd w e l l i n g s a l m o n i d s h a s been a m i x t u r e of f a i l u r e and s u c c e s s . Where a d e q u a t e d o c u m e n t a t i o n h a s been a v a i l a b l e , l e a r n i n g from f a i l u r e h a s b e e n p o s s i b l e and t e c h n i q u e s and a p p r o a c h e s improved. W b e l i e v e t h a t s u f f i c i e n t e background i s now a v a i l a b l e t o recommend s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d emphasis on t h i s phase o f f i s h e r y management. P a s t work i n t h e West h a s been weighted i n f a v o r of spawning h a b i t a t ; f u t u r e work s h o u l d p u t more emphasis on r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement o f rearing habitat From an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s of h a b i t a t management a r e s o u n d l y based. They a r e i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o t h e g o a l of maintaining such n a t u r a l w i l d s t o c k s a s s t i l l e x i s t and p r e s e r v i n g g e n e t i c v a r i a b i l i t y where possible. In t h e f a c e of increasing concern about impacts of large- scale h a t c h e r y p r o d u c t i o n on b o t h g e n e t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n of s t o c k s and c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e environment, t h i s r a t i o n a l e may b e one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t arguments f o r emphasis on improving q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y of stream h a b i t a t . F i n a l l y , w e j o i n w i t h Reeves and R o e l o f s (1982) and Narver (1973) i n emphasizing t h a t h a b i t a t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n must n e v e r b e viewed a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r habitat protection. Communication between f i s h e r y managers and f o r e s t e r s i s a n e s s e n t i a l element o f h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n ( s e e Toews and Brownlee 1981, f o r example) H a b i t a t management c a n now be c o s t e f f e c t i v e , and a s w e l e a r n more, i t s h o u l d become more so. I n a l m o s t e v e r y i n s t a n c e , however,
e

I n s p i t e of a p p a r e n t l y c o n c l u s i v e evidence on adverse impacts of grazi n g , p r o g r e s s i n r e h a b i l i t a t i n g damaged streams h a s been slow. Fencing streambanks i s e x p e n s i v e a n d , e v e n where e v i d e n c e shows t h a t b e n e f i t s exceed c o s t s , r e s i s t a n c e from l a n d managers and owners i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . N o n s t r u c t u r a l measures s u c h a s r o t a t i o n a l g r a z i n g p a t t e r n s may sometimes be a s o l u t i o n , b u t c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y e x i s t s now and w i l l p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e f o r some t i m e (Cope 1979).

18

preventing i n i t i a l habitat degradation would be more e c o n o m i c a l of t o t a l r e s o u r c e s t h a n r e p a i r i n g i t , and some Past damage s i m p l y i s n o t r e v e r s i b l e . mistakes require e f f o r t s t o rehabilit a t e many streams, b u t o u r e f f o r t s i n h a b i t a t management must c o n t i n u e t o put a n e q u a l l y s t r o n g p r i o r i t y on p r o t e c t i o n of w a t e r s h e d and stream resources.
\

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s p a p e r owes much t o c o n s t r u c t i v e comments of o t h e r s . In particular, we acknowledge t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Gordon Reeves and T e r r y R o e l o f s . T h e i r p a p e r i n t h i s series (No. 1 3 ) w a s o r i g i n a l l y planned t o be i n d e p e n d e n t from o u r s . When t h e two m a n u s c r i p t s were c o m p l e t e , we r e o r g a n i z e d them t o s e p a r a t e e v a l u a t i o n of p a s t work from d e s c r i p t i o n of s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n i q u e s . F o r a c o m p l e t e a s s e s s m e n t of t h e f i e l d , t h e two p a p e r s must be used t o g e t h e r . W t h a n k t h o s e b i o l o g i s t s who e provided unpublished d a t a f o r t h i s review; i n a d d i t i o n , we a p p r e c i a t e comments o n one o r more v e r s i o n s of t h e m a n u s c r i p t by J. W. Anderson, A. R. C a r g i l l , C , J. Cederholm, E. W . C l a i r e , W. A. Evans, J. M. H u t c h i s o n , W. R. Meehan, J. F. Orsborn, and P. A. S l a n e y . James D. H a l l i s g r a t e f u l f o r u s e of s p a c e and l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s of t h e F i s h e r i e s R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n , New Zealand M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and F i s h e r i e s , made a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e c o u r t e s y of D r . R. M. McDowall. T h i s i s T e c h n i c a l P a p e r 6127, Oregon A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n .

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Andrew, F . J . G r a v e l c l e a n i n g t o i n c r e a s e salmon p r o d u c t i o n i n r i v e r s and spawning c h a n n e l s . I n : Salmonspawning g r a v e l : a renewable r e s o u r c e i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest? Rep. 39. Pullman, WA: Washington S t a t e Water R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ; 1981: 15-31. B a k e r , C . 0. The i m p a c t s of logjam removal o n f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s and stream h a b i t a t i n w e s t e r n Oregon. C o r v a l l i s , OR: Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1979. 86 p . b1.S. t h e s i s . B a r t o n , J. R . ; P e t e r s , E , J . ; White, D. A . ; Winger, P. V . B i b l i o g r a p h y on t h e p h y s i c a l a l t e r a t i o n of t h e a q u a t i c h a b i t a t ( c h a n n e l i z a t i o n ) and stream improvement Provo, UT: Brigham Young U n i v e r s i t y P u b l i c a t i o n s ; 1972. 30 p .
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Bovee, K. D. P r o b a b i l i t y - o f - u s e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e f a m i l y Salmonidae. I n s t r e a m Flow I n f Pap. 4 , FWS/OBS78/07. Washington, DC: U.S. F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , O f f i c e of Biologi c a l S e r v i c e s ; 1978. 80 p . Bovee, K , D . ; Cochnauer, T. Development and e v a l u a t i o n of w e i g h t e d c r i t e r i a , probability- of- use curves f o r instream flow assessments: f i s h e r i e s . I n s t r e a m Flow Inf Pap. 3 , FWS/OBS-77/63, Washington, DC: U.S. F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , O f f i c e of B i o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e s ; 1977. 39 p . Burghduf f , A, E o S t r e a m improvement C a l i f . F i s h and G a m e . 2 0 ( 2 ) : 113- 118; 1934. Burns, J. W. Some e f f e c t s of l o g g i n g and a s s o c i a t e d r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n on n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a streams. T r a n s . Am. F i s h . SOC. lOl(1): 1- 1 7 ; 1972. Bustard, D e R.; Narver, D, W. Aspects of t h e w i n t e r e c o l o g y of j u v e n i l e coho salmon (Oncorhynchus k i s u t c h ) and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t (Salmo g a i r d n e r i ) . J. F i s h . R e s . Board Can, 3 2 ( 5 ) : 667-680; 1975a. B u s t a r d , D. R . ; N a r v e r , D e W , P r e f e r e n c e s of j u v e n i l e coho salmon (Oncorhynchus k i s u t c h ) and c u t t h r o a t -t r o u t (Salmo c l a r k i ) r e l a t i v e t o s i m u l a t e d a l t e r a t i o n of w i n t e r h a b i t a t . J . F i s h . R e s . Board Can. 3 2 ( 5 ) : 681-687; 1975b. Calhoun, A. Homo v s . Salmo. P r o c . West. Assoc. G a m e and F i s h Comm, 43: 243-245; 1964. Calhoun, A. H a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n and improvement. I n : Calhoun, A . , e d . I n l a n d f i s h e r i e s management. Sacramento, CA: S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , Department of F i s h and G a m e ; 1966: 40-48.

B e s c h t a , R , L. D e b r i s removal and i t s e f f e c t s on s e d i m e n t a t i o n i n a n Oregon Coast Range stream. Northwest S c i , 5 3 ( 1 ) : 71-77; 1979. B i n n s , N. A , ; Eiserman, F, M. Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of f l u v i a l t r o u t h a b i t a t i n Wyoming. T r a n s , Am. F i s h . SOC. 1 0 8 ( 3 ) : 215-228; 1979. B j o r n n , T. C. T r o u t and salmon movements i n two I d a h o streams a s r e l a t e d t o temperature, food, s t r e a m f l o w , c o v e r , and p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y . T r a n s , Am. F i s h , SOC. 100( 3 ) : 423-438; 1971. B l a c k e t t , R. F. E s t a b l i s h m e n t of s o c k e y e (Oncorhynchus n e r k a ) and c h i n o o k (0. t s h a w y t s c h a ) salmon r u n s a t Frazer-Lake Kodiak I s l a n d Alaska. J. F i s h . R e s . Board Can. 3 6 ( 1 0 ) : 1265-1277; 1979.

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Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans; B r i t i s h Columbia M i n i s t r y of t h e Environment. Stream enhancement g u i d e . Vancouver, BC: Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans; B r f t i s h Columbia M i n i s t r y of t h e Environment. Salmonid Enhancement Program; 1980. 8 2 p. Chapman, D. W . ; B j o r n n , T. C . D i s t r i b u t i o n of s a l m o n i d s i n streams w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o food and f e e d i n g . I n : N o r t h c o t e , T. G., e d . P r o c e e d i n g s , symposium on salmon and t r o u t i n streams: H. R. MacMillan L e c t u r e s i n F i s h e r i e s ; 1968 F e b r u a r y 22-24; Vancouver, BC. Vancouver, BC: U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia; 1969. 388 p. (p. 153-176). C l a y , C . H. Design of f i s h w a y s and o t h e r f i s h f a c i l i t i e s . O t t a w a , ON: Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1961. 301 p . Cope, 0 , B . , ed. Grazing and r i p a r i a n / stream e c o s y s t e m s : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e forum; 1978 November 3-4; Denver, CO. Washington, DC: T r o u t , U n l i m i t e d ; 1979. 94 p. C r o n e m i l l e r , F. P. Making new t r o u t streams i n t h e S i e r r a Nevada. I n : U.S.D.A. Yearbook o f A g r i c u l t u r e . Washington, DC: S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Documents (Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ) ; 1955: 583-586. C r o n e m i l l e r , F. P.; F r a s e r , J. S t r e t c h ing our S i e r r a t r o u t streams. Outdoor C a l i f . 1 5 ( 4 ) : 3-7; 1954. D a v i s , H. S. The p u r p o s e and v a l u e of s t r e a m improvement Trans. Am. F i s h . SOC. 64: 63-67; 1934.

E l l i o t t , S. Ecology of r e a r i n g f i s h . J u n e a u , AK: Alaska Department of F i s h and Game, F e d e r a l Aid i n F i s h R e s t o r a t i o n ; 1978; Annual r e p o r t 1977- 1978, Pro j . F-9-10, 1 9 ( D-I) : 39-52. E v e r e s t , F. H.; Chapman, D. W. H a b i t a t s e l e c t i o n and s p a t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n by j u v e n i l e chinook salmon and s t e e l h e a d t r o u t i n two I d a h o streams. J. F i s h . R e s . Board Can. 2 9 ( 1 ) : 91-100; 1972. Fearnow, T. C . An a p p r a i s a l of stream improvement programs of t h e N a t i o n a l F o r e s t s of t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s t a t e s . T r a n s . North Am. W i l d l . Conf. 6 : 161168; 1941. F e s s l e r , J. L. Spawning area development f o r f a l l c h i n o o k salmon. I n : Rayner, H. J.; Campbell, H. J . ; L i g h t f o o t , W. C . , e d s . P r o g r e s s i n game and s p o r t f i s h r e s e a r c h 1963-1970. R e s . Div. Rep. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission; 1970: 16-17, F r a n k e n b e r g e r , L. E f f e c t s of h a b i t a t management on t r o u t i n a p o r t i o n of t h e Kinnikinnic River, S t . Croix County, Wisconsin. Rep. 22. Madison, W I : Wisconsin Department of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s , Bureau of F i s h Management; 1968. 8 p. F r a n k e n b e r g e r , L . ; F a s s b e n d e r , R. Evalu a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t s of t h e h a b i t a t management program and t h e w a t e r s h e d p l a n n i n g program on t h e brown t r o u t f i s h e r y i n Bohemian V a l l e y Creek, La Crosse County, Wisconsin. Rep. 16. Madison, W I : Wisconsin Department of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s , Bureau of F i s h Management; 1967. 9 p. Gard, R. C r e a t i o n of t r o u t h a b i t a t by c o n s t r u c t i n g small dams. J. W i l d l . Manage. 25( 4 ) : 384-390; 1961. Gard, R. P e r s i s t e n c e of headwater check dams i n a t r o u t stream. J. W i l d l . Manage. 3 6 ( 4 ) : 1363- 1367; 1972.

D a v i s , H, S. Methods f o r t h e improve- , ment of streams. Memorandum 1-133. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of F i s h e r i e s ; 1935. 27 p. E h l e r s , R. An e v a l u a t i o n of stream improvement d e v i c e s c o n s t r u c t e d e i g h t e e n y e a r s a g o . C a l i f . F i s h and G a m e 4 2 ( 3 ) : 203-217; 1956.

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G a r r i s o n , R. L. Spawning area development f o r f a l l chinook and s u b s e q u e n t s u r v i v a l from egg d e p o s i t i o n t o seaward m i g r a t i o n . P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission; 1971a; J o b f i n a l r e p o r t , P r o j . AFS-27-1. 10 p. G a r r i s o n , R , L e F a l l chinook r e h a b i l i t a t i o n on t h e Alsea R i v e r . P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission; 1971b; Annual p r o g r e s s r e p o r t , P r o j . AFS-57-1: 33-38.. Gerke, R. J. Spawning ground improvement s t u d y . Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department o f F i s h e r i e s ; 1973; P r o g r e s s r e p o r t , P r o j . AFC-59-2. 18 p. Gerke, R , J. Salmon spawning h a b i t a t improvement s t u d y . Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department o f F i s h e r i e s ; 1974; P r o j e c t c o m p l e t i o n r e p o r t , P r o j . 1-93-D. 1 5 p . Gibbons, D . R . ; S a l o , E . 0. An annot a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y of t h e e f f e c t s of l o g g i n g on f i s h of t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s and Canada. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-10. P o r t l a n d , OR: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , P a c i f i c Northwest F o r e s t and Range Experiment S t a t i o n ; 1973. 145 p Gregory, S. V. E f f e c t s of l i g h t , n u t r i e n t s , and g r a z i n g o n p e r i p h y t o n communjties i n streams. C o r v a l l i s , OR: Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1980. 1 5 1 p. Ph. D . t h e s i s .
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Hale, J . G. An e v a l u a t i o n o f t r o u t stream h a b i t a t improvement i n a n o r t h s h o r e t r i b u t a r y of Lake S u p e r i o r . Minn. F i s h . I n v e s t . 5: 37- 50; 1969. H a l l , J. D . ; Field- Dodgson, M . S. Improvement of spawning and r e a r i n g h a b i t a t f o r salmon. I n : Hopkins, C . L . , comp. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e salmon symposium; 1980 August 30-31; C h r i s t c h u r c h , N. Z. Occas. Publ. No. 30. [ C i t y of p u b l i s h e r unknown]: N . Z . New Zealand M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e and F i s h e r i e s , F i s h e r i e s R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n ; 1981. 98 p . ( p . 21- 28).
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Madsen, M. J . A p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e r e s u l t s of stream improvement i n t h e i n t e r m o u n t a i n f o r e s t r e g i o n . T r a n s . North Am. W i l d l . Conf. 3: 497-503; 1938.

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M a g i l l , A. R e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n problems. I n : K r y g i e r , J. T o ; H a l l , J. D . , e d s . F o r e s t l a n d u s e s and s t r e a m e n v i r o n ment: P r o c e e d i n g s of a symposium; 1970 Oct, 19-21; C o r v a l l i s , OR. C o r v a l l i s , OR: Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1971: 230-231. Mason, J. C. A f u r t h e r a p p r a i s a l of t h e r e s p o n s e t o s u p p l e m e n t a l f e e d i n g of j u v e n i l e coho (0. i s u t c h ) i n a n k e x p e r i m e n t a l s t r e a m . Tech. Rep. 470. Nanaimo, BC: Canada F i s h e r i e s and Marine S e r v i c e ; 1974. 26 p . Mason, J. C. Response of u n d e r y e a r l i n g coho salmon t o s u p p l e m e n t a l f e e d i n g i n a n a t u r a l s t r e a m . J. W i l d l . Manage. 4 0 ( 4 ) : 775-788; 1976. Matthews, S . B . ; O l s o n , F. W . F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g Puget Sound coho salmon (Oncorhynchus k i s u t c h ) r u n s . Can. J. F i s h . Aquat. S c i . 37( 9 ) : 1373-1378; 1980. Maughan, 0 , E . ; Nelson, K. L . ; Ney, J. J . E v a l u a t i o n of stream improvement practices i n southeastern trout streams. B u l l . 115. B l a c k s b u r g , VA: V i r g i n i a Water R e s o u r c e s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ; 1978. 67 p. Meehan, W. R. E f f e c t s of g r a v e l c l e a n i n g on bottom o r g a n i s m s i n t h r e e s o u t h e a s t Alaska streams. Prog. F i s h - C u l t . 3 3 ( 2 ) : 107- 111; 1971 Megahan, W. F.; P l a t t s , W. S . ; K u l e s z a , B. Riverbed improves o v e r t i m e : S o u t h Fork Salmon. I n : Proceedi n g s , symposium on w a t e r s h e d management; 1980 J u l y 21-23; B o i s e , I D , New York: American S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g ; 1980: 380-395. M e r r e l l , T. R. Stream improvement a s c o n d u c t e d on t h e C l a t s k a n i e R i v e r and t r i b u t a r i e s . F i s h . Comm. Oreg Res. B r i e f s 3 ( 2 ) : 41-47; 1951. Mih, W. C. A r e v i e w of r e s t o r a t i o n of stream g r a v e l f o r spawning and r e a r i n g of salmon s p e c i e s . F i s h e r i e s . 3 ( 1 ) : 16-18; 1978.

Mih, W. C . H y d r a u l i c r e s t o r a t i o n of stream g r a v e l s f o r spawning and r e a r i n g of salmon s p e c i e s . Rep. 33. Pullman, WA: Washington S t a t e Water R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ; 1979. 34 p . Mih, W. C . Research and development of a salmon spawning g r a v e l c l e a n e r ( G r a v e l G e r t i e ) . I n : Salmon-spawning g r a v e l : a renewable r e s o u r c e i n t h e P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t ? Rep. 39. Pullman, WA: Washington S t a t e Water R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ; 1981: 140-153. Mullan, J . W. Is stream improvement t h e answer? W . V a . Conserv. 2 6 ( 6 ) : 25-30; 1962. Mundie, J . H . ; Mounce, D . E. Applicat i o n of s t r e a m e c o l o g y t o r a i s i n g salmon s m o l t s i n h i g h d e n s i t y . Verh. I n t . Ver. Limnol. 20: 2013-2018; 1978. Murphy, M. L . ; H a l l , J . D. V a r i e d e f f e c t s of c l e a r - c u t l o g g i n g o n p r e d a t o r s and t h e i r h a b i t a t i n s m a l l s t r e a m s of t h e Cascade Mountains, Oregon. Can. J . F i s h . Aquat. S c i . 3 8 ( 2 ) : 137-145; 1981. N a r v e r , D. W. Are h a t c h e r i e s arid spawning c h a n n e l s a l t e r n a t i v e s t o stream p r o t e c t i o n ? C i r c . 93. Nanaimo, B C : F i s h e r i e s R e s e a r c h Board of Canada; 1973. 1 p. 1 N a r v e r , D. W . Stream management f o r w e s t c o a s t anadromous s a l m o n i d s . T r o u t . 1 7 ( 1 ) : 7-13 ( S u p p l . ) ; 1976. N e l s o n , R. W . ; Horak, G. C . ; O l s o n , J . E. Western r e s e r v o i r and stream h a b i t a t improvements handbook. FWS/OBS-78/56. Washington, DC: U . S . F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , O f f i c e of Biologi c a l S e r v i c e s ; 1978. 250 p . Newbold, J. D,; Erman, D. C . ; Roby, K. B. E f f e c t s of l o g g i n g o n m a c r o i n v e r t e b r a t e s i n s t r e a m s w i t h and w i t h o u t b u f f e r s t r i p s . Can. J . F i s h . Aquat. S c i . 37( 7) : 1076-1085; 1980.

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Redmond, M. A. N a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . In: Bohne, J. R.; Sochasky, L., e d s . Proc e e d i n g s , New England A t l a n t i c Salmon R e s t o r a t i o n Conference; 1975 J a n u a r y 14- 16; Boston, MA. Spec. Publ. S e r . 6. S t . Andrews, NB: I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t l a n t i c Salmon Foundation; 1975: 134-135

Reeves, G. H., R o e l o f s , T. D. I n f l u e n c e of f o r e s t and r a n g e l a n d management o n anadromous f i s h h a b i t a t i n w e s t e r n North America: 13. Rehabili t a t i n g and enhancing stream h a b i t a t : 2. F i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s . Meehan, W. R., t e c h . e d . Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-140. P o r t l a n d , OR: U . S . Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , P a c i f i c Northwest F o r e s t and Range Experiment S t a t i o n ; 1982. 38 p. R i c h a r d , J. B. Log stream improvement d e v i c e s and t h e i r e f f e c t s upon t h e f i s h p o p u l a t i o n , S o u t h Fork Mokelumne R i v e r , C a l a v e r a s County, C a l i f o r n i a . I n l a n d F i s h . Adm. Rep. 63-7. Sacramento, CA: C a l i f o r n i a Department of F i s h and G a m e ; 1963. 1 2 p. R i c h a r d s [ R i c h a r d ] , J. You c a n ' t b u i l d a t r o u t stream. Outdoor C a l i f . 2 5 ( 7 ) : 3-4; 1964. S a u n d e r s , J. W.; Smith, M. W. P h y s i c a l a l t e r a t i o n of stream h a b i t a t t o improve brook t r o u t p r o d u c t i o n . Trans. Am. F i s h . SOC. 9 1 ( 2 ) : 185- 188; 1962. S c a r n e c c h i a , D. L. E f f e c t s of streamf l o w and u p w e l l i n g on y i e l d of w i l d coho salmon (Oncorhynchus k i s u t c h ) i n Oregon. Can. J. F i s h . Aquat. S c i . 38( 6 ) : 471-475; 1981. S h a p l e y , S. P.; Bishop, D. M. Sediment a t i o n i n a salmon s t r e a m . J. F i s h . R e s . Board Can. 2 2 ( 4 ) : 919-927; 1965. S h e t t e r , D. S . , C l a r k , 0. H.; Hazzard, A. S. The e f f e c t s of d e f l e c t o r s i n a s e c t i o n of a Michigan t r o u t stream. Trans. Am. F i s h . SOC. (1946) 76: 248-278; 1949.

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Smoker, W. A. E f f e c t s of s t r e a m f l o w o n s i l v e r salmon p r o d u c t i o n i n w e s t e r n Washington. S e a t t l e , WA: U n i v e r s i t y of Washington; 1955. 1 9 8 p. Ph. D. thesis. S t e w a r t , P. A . P h y s i c a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t r o u t d e n s i t y i n a small stream. F o r t C o l l i n s , C O : Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1970. 78 p . Ph. D . thesis. S t o c k n e r , J . G . ; S h o r t r e e d , K . R. S. Enhancement of a u t o t r o p h i c product i o n by n u t r i e n t a d d i t i o n i n a c o a s t a l r a i n f o r e s t stream on Vancouver I s l a n d . J. F i s h . Res. Board Can. 3 5 ( 1 ) : 28-34; 1978. Swanston, D. N . ; Swanson, F. J. Timber h a r v e s t i n g , mass e r o s i o n and s t e e p l a n d geomorphology i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest. I n : C o a t e s , D. R . e d . Geomorphology and e n g i n e e r i n g . S t r o u d s b u r g , PA: Dowden, H u t c h i n s o n and R o s s , I n c . ; 1976: 199-221. T a r z w e l l , C. M. P r o g r e s s i n l a k e a n d stream improvement. T r a n s . Am. G a m e Conf. 21: 119-134; 1935. T a r z w e l l , C . M. E x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e on t h e v a l u e of t r o u t stream management i n Michigan. T r a n s . Am. F i s h . SOC. (1936) 66: 177- 187; 1937. T a r z w e l l , C . M. An e v a l u a t i o n of t h e methods and r e s u l t s of stream improvement i n t h e S o u t h w e s t . T r a n s . N o r t h Am. W i l d l . Conf. 3 : 339-364; 1938. Toews, D. A. A.; Brownlee, M. J . A handbook f o r f i s h h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n on f o r e s t l a n d s i n B r i t i s h Columbia. Vancouver, BC: Canada Department of F i s h e r i e s and Oceans; 1981. 1 7 3 p.

U. S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e . F i s h stream improvement handbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e ; 1952. 21 p.

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West, D. C.; R e e h e r , J. A . ; Hewkin, J. A. H a b i t a t improvement t o enhance anadromous f i s h p r o d u c t i o n . P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e Game Commission; 1965b; C l o s i n g r e p o r t , Tex Creek P r o j . 1 0 , Columbia R i v e r F i s h e r i e s Development Program. 20 p.
White, R. J. Responses of t r o u t populat i o n s t o h a b i t a t change i n Big Roche-a-Cr i Creek, Wisconsin. Madison, W I : U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin; 1972. 296 p. Ph. D. thesis. White, R. J . In- stream management f o r w i l d t r o u t . I n : King, W . , ed. Wild t r o u t management. Denver, CO: T r o u t , U n l i m i t e d ; 1975a: 48-58. White, R. J . T r o u t p o p u l a t i o n r e s p o n s e s t o s t r e a m f l o w f l u c t u a t i o n and h a b i t a t management i n Big Roche-a-Cri Creek, Wisconsin. Verh. I n t . V e r . Limnol. 1 9 : 2469-2477; 1975b.

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Bender, R. Log s i l l s . R e p o r t from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; 0choco.Kanger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978. 1 7 p. (p. 7 ) .

Claire, E. Fencing: Camp Creek. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978a. 1 7 p. ( p . 9- 10).
C l a i r e , E. Flow r e c o v e r y . Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department o f F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978b. 1 7 p. (p. 8 ) . C l a i r e , E. Rock work. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978c. 1 7 p. (p. 2-3).

White, R. J.; B r y n i l d s o n , 0. M. G u i d e l i n e s f o r management of t r o u t stream h a b i t a t i n Wisconsin. Tech. B u l l . 39. Madison, W I : Wisconsin Department of N a t u r a l Resources; 1967. 65 p.
Wilson, D. A. Salmonid spawning h a b i t a t improvement s t u d y . Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1976; P r o j e c t c o m p l e t i o n r e p o r t , P r o j . 1-93-D. 20 p. Winegar, H. H. Camp Creek c h a n n e l f e n c i n g - - p l a n t , w i l d l i f e , s o i l and water r e s p o n s e . Rangeman' s J. 4( 1 ) : 10- 12; 1977. Wydoski, R. S.; D u f f , D. A. Indexed b i b l i o g r a p h y on stream h a b i t a t improvement. ,Tech. Note 322. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1978. 35 p .

C l a i r e , E. W. Stream h a b i t a t and - r i p a r i a n r e s t o r a t i o n techniques: g u i d e l i n e s t o c o n s i d e r i n t h e i r use. 1980. M a n u s c r i p t p r e p a r e d f o r Workshop f o r D e s i g n of F i s h H a b i t a t and Watershed R e s t o r a t i o n P r o j e c t s . D u f f , D. A. L i v e s t o c k g r a z i n g i m p a c t s o n a q u a t i c h a b i t a t i n Big Creek, Utah. M a n u s c r i p t p r e p a r e d f o r L i v e s t o c k and W i l d l i f e / F i s h e r i e s Workshop; 1977 May 3-5; Reno, NV; 1977. 3 3 p. E n g e l s , J. D. Use of g a b i o n s i n stream h a b i t a t improvement. Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1975. 18 p. E v e r e s t , F. H. Economics of f e n c i n g streams t o p r o t e c t f i s h . C o r v a l l i s , OR: U. S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Forest Service, Forestry Sciences L a b o r a t o r y ; 1978. 9 p.

Z i e m e r , G. L. S t e e p p a s s f i s h w a y d e v e l opment. I n f . L e a f l . 1 2 . J u n e a u , AK: Alaska Department of F i s h and Game; 1962. 9 p.

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H a l l , J . D . ; Baker, C . 0. B i o l o g i c a l i m p a c t s of o r g a n i c d e b r i s i n P a c i f i c Northwest streams. I n : Logging d e b r i s i n streams: P r o c e e d i n g s of a workshop; 1975 September 9-10. C o r v a l l i s , OR: Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; 1975. 1 3 p.

Johnson, D. E. Analysis of p o s t - p r o j e c t t e m p e r a t u r e s and of f i s h s p e c i e s and p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e S i u s l a w R i v e r d r a i n a g e . Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1977. 5 p . Marcuson, P. E. The e f f e c t of c a t t l e g r a z i n g on brown t r o u t i n Rock Creek, Montana. Helena, MT: Montana Department of F i s h and G a m e ; 1977; Spec. Rep. P r o j . No. F-20-R-21, 2a. 26 p . Roppel, P . E x i s t i n g and c u r r e n t l y proposed f i s h e r i e s r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and enhancement p r o j e c t s i n S o u t h e a s t A l a s k a . J u n e a u , AK: Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e , F i s h e r i e s Rehabi li t a t i o n , Enhancement, and Development D i v i s i o n ; 1978. 22 p. S a l t z n a n , W. 0. A r e p o r t of t h e stream clearance a c t i v i t i e s c o n d u c t e d by t h e Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission on t h e S i u s l a w R i v e r system. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e Gane Commission; 1964. 21 p. Sheridan, W. L.; Wilke, R. W.; Olson, S. T. The g r a v e l c l e a n e r ( " r i f f l e s i f t e r " ) . Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , Alaska Region; 1968. 8 p . , P r o g r e s s r e p o r t 1967. S u m e r s , V. C . ; Neubauer, E , K. C l o s i n g r e p o r t f o r t h e c o a s t a l stream improvement and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n program. P o r t l a n d , OR: F i s h Commiss i o n of Oregon; 1965. 46 p. Sweet, M. F i s h h a b i t a t improvement i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e A l a s k a Region. J u n e a u , AK: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e , Alaska Region; 1975. 1 3 p . Winegar, H. Fencing. Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department of F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978. 1 7 p . ( p . 9 ) .

Hammer, R. A q u a t i c h a b i t a t improvement ( d i s t r i c t summary). Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1976. 2 p .
Hammer, R . F i s h e r y e v a l u a t i o n f o r Eugene D i s t r i c t stream improvement s t r u c t u r e s . Eugene, OR: U.S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau of Land Management; 1977. 3 p. Heiser, D. W. Rear R i v e r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n : p i n k and chum salmon i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1971, 9 p. P r o g r e s s report.
Heiser, D . W. Cedar R i v e r g r a v e l improvement: p i n k and chum salmon i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Olympia, WA: Was h i ng t o n S t a t e Department o f F i s h e r i e s ; 1972a. 9 p. P r o g r e s s report.

Heiser, D. W e Spawning ground improvement- - gravel l o o s e n i n g , 19711972. Olympia, WA: Washington S t a t e Department of F i s h e r i e s ; 1972b. 6 p . Progress report.

Hutchison, J . Use of dynamite t o c r e a t e f i s h rearing pools i n Siuslaw River t r i b u t a r i e s . P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon S t a t e G a m e Commission; 1973. 10 p . Hutchison, J . B l a s t i n g bedrock p o o l s . I n : Report from f i s h h a b i t a t improvement workshop; 1978 September 26-27; Ochoco Ranger S t a t i o n , P r i n e v i l l e , OR. P o r t l a n d , OR: Oregon Department o f F i s h and W i l d l i f e ; 1978. 1 7 p. ( p . 6-7).

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DIRECTORY FOR PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Anderson, J. W. (1978) USDI Bureau of Land Management 333 South F o u r t h Coos Bay, OR 97420 Bender, R . ; M u l l a r k e y , W . (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h and Wildlife 300 F i f t h S t r e e t , Bay P a r k Coos say, OR 97420 C l a i r e , E , (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h a n d Wildlife P.O. Box 1 9 John Day, OR 97845 Cowan, L. ( 1 9 8 1 ) Washington S t a t e Department of Fisheries 115 General Administration Building Olympia, WA 98504 Evans, W. A. (1978) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e 630 Sansome S t r e e t San F r a n c i s c o , CA 94111 E v e r e s t , F, H. (1981) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e F o r e s tr y S c i e n c e s L a b o r a t o r y 3200 J e f f e r s o n Way C o r v a l l i s , OR 97331 Narver, D o W. (1978) B r i t i s h Columbia M i n i s t r y of t h e Environment F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch 400-1019 Wharf S t r e e t V i c t o r i a , BC V8W 221 Nelson, D. C. (1978) Alaska Department of F i s h and G a m e P.O. Box 3150 S o l d o t n a , AK 99669 O l i v e r , F, (1978) USDI Bureau of Land Management Roseburg, OR 97470 S l a n e y , P. A, (1981) B r i t i s h Columbia M i n i s t r y of t h e Environment. F i s h and W i l d l i f e Branch Vancouver, BC V6T 1W5 White, R. J , (1981) Department of B i o l o g y Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Bozeman, MT 59715 Wilson, D. A , (1978) Washington S t a t e Department of Fisheries 115 General Administration Building Olympia, SJA 98507 Winegar, H. (1978) Oregon Department of F i s h and Wildlife P a u l i n a S t a r Route, Box 5 P r i n e v i l l e , OR 97754

Hammer, R. (1978) U S D I Bureau o f Land Management Eugene D i s t r i c t O f f i c e 1225 Pearl S t r e e t Eugene, OR 97401 Heller, D. (1978, 1981) USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e M t . Hood N a t i o n a l F o r e s t 19559 D i v k s i o n P o r t l a n d , OR 97030

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The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nations forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives - as directed by Congress - to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Applicants for all Department programs will be given equal consideration without regard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station 809 NE Sixth Avenue Portland, Oregon 97232

G P O 996-049