Exp No.

9 SYSTEMS

DIGITAL SIMULATION OF LINEAR

AIM: To calculate the unit - step time response characteristics of first order linear system analytically and also verify using MATLAB. EQUIPMENTS / COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO

NAME OF THE EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS

QUANTITY

System with MATLAB / MATHCAD

THEORY: LINEAR SYSTEM The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity. It will be linear if the differential equation describing the system has constant coefficients (or the co-efficient may be functions of independent variables). STATE VARIABLE FORMULATION The modeling process of linear systems involves setting up of a chain of cause-effect relationships, beginning from the input variable. This cause-effect chain includes a number of internal variables. These
1

variables are eliminated both in the differential equation model and in the transfer function model, to obtain the final relationship between the input and the output. Analysis of systems with the input- output model will not give any information about the behavior of the internal variables for different operating conditions. For a better understanding of the system behavior, its mathematical model should include the internal variables also. The state variable techniques of the system representation and analysis make the internal variables an integral part of the system model, and thus provide more complete information about the system behavior. ANALYSIS Consider the first order system shown in Figure (1). Physically, this system may represent an RC circuit, thermal system, or the like. A simplified block diagram is shown in Figure (2). The input-output relationship is given by C(s) / R(s) = 1 / (Ts+1) The initial conditions are assumed to be zero. UNIT-STEP RESPONSE OF FIRST - ORDER SYSTEMS: Since the Laplace transform of the unit-step function is 1/s, substituting R(s) = 1/s into equation (1), we obtain C(s) = (1 / (Ts+1)) (1 / s) Expanding C(s) C(s) into partial fractions (2) gives = [(1 / s) (T / (Ts + 1)] = [(1 / s) (1 / (s + (1 / T)] (1)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of equation (2), we obtain c (t) = 1 e

t/T

, for t 0

(3)

Equation (3) states that initially the output c (t) is zero and finally it becomes unity. One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c (t) is that at t = T the value of c (t) is 0.632, or the response c(t) has reached 63.2% of its total change. This may easily seen by substituting t = T in c (t). That is, c (T) = 1 e
-1

= 0.632

Note that the smaller the time constant T, the faster the system response. Another important characteristic of the exponential response curve is that the slope of the tangent line at t = 0 is 1/T, since dc / dt at t = 0 = 1 /T e
t/T

at t = 0 = 1 / T

(4)

The output would reach the final value at t = T if it maintained its initial speed of response. From equation (4), we see that the slope of the response curve c (t) decreases monotonically from 1 / T at t = 0 to zero at t = . The exponential response curve c(t) given by equation (3) is shown in Figure (3). In one time constant, the exponential response curve has gone from 0 to 63.2% of the final value. In two time constants, the response reaches 86.5% of the final value. At T = 3T, 4T, and 5T, the response reaches 95%, 98.2% and 99.3% respectively, of the final value. Thus, for t 4T, the response remains within 2% of the final value. As seen from equation (3), the steady state is reached mathematically only after an infinite time. In practice, however, a reasonable estimate of the response time is the length of time the response curve needs to reach and stay within the 2% line of

the

final

value,

or

four

time

constants.

R(s) + -

E(s) 1 / Ts

C(s)

Fig (1). Block Diagram of a first order system

R(s) 1 / (Ts +1)

C(s)

Fig (2). Simplified Block Diagram of a first order system

Slope = 1/T c(t)

c(t) = 1-e-(t/T)

1 B A
63.2% 86.5% 98.2% 99.3%
5T

0.632

2T

95%
3T

4T

Fig (3). Exponential response curve

DIGITAL SIMULATION USING MATLAB: Practically, the plotting of time response curves of systems is done through computer simulation using MATLAB. Consider the following transfer function: C(s) / R(s) = 1 / (Ts+1) The numerator and denominator of the given transfer function can be represented as num and den. These transfer functions can be
5

represented as two arrays in MATLAB. Each array containing the coefficients of polynomials in decreasing power of s as follows: num = [0 1] den = [T 1] The input to the given transfer function is unit step signal. The given transfer function generates unit step responses. In MATLAB, the command step (num, den) will generate plots of unit step responses.

48 Fig (4). System response

RESULT

The unit step response characteristics of first order linear system was calculated analytically and verified using MATLAB.

4. DIGITAL SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS AIM: To calculate sinusoidal time response characteristics of linear system with simple non linearities like saturation and dead zone analytically and also verify using MATLAB. EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO

NAME OF THE EQUIPMENTS/ COMPONENTS

QUANTITY

System with MATLAB / MATHCAD

THEORY: Separable systems which comprise a linear part defined by its transfer function, and a nonlinear part defined by a time-independent relationship between its input and output variables. Emphasis will be
7

on the piecewise linear systems characterized by the existence of a number of regions of linear operation. Such systems often constitute a valid approximation which which simplifies the investigation of nonlinear phenomena. SATURATION This is perhaps the most common of all nonlinearities. All devices when driven by sufficiently large signals, exhibit the phenomenon of saturation due to limitations of their physical capabilities. Saturation in the output of electronic, rotating, and flow (hydraulic and pneumatic) amplifiers, speed and torque saturation in electric and hydraulic motors, saturation in the output of sensors for measuring position, velocity, temperature, etc., are the well-known examples. Figure (1) shows a linear-segmented approximation of saturation nonlinearity. Deadzone Many physical devices do not respond to small signals, i.e., if the input amplitude is less than some small value, there will be no output. This is true of many sensors and amplifiers. These devices are said to have a deadzone. Fig (2) shows linearsegmented approximation of deadzone nonlinearity. ANALYSIS OF NONLINEAR FUNCTION: Let us consider the block diagram of a nonlinear system shown in Fig (3) wherein the blocks G1(s) and G2(s) represent the linear elements, while the block N represents the nonlinear element. Let us assume that input x to the nonlinearity is sinusoidal, i.e., x = X sin t With such an input, the output of the nonlinear will in general be nonsinusoidal periodic function which may be expressed in terms of Fourier series as follows:

y = A0 + A1 sin t + B1 cos t + A2 sin 2 t + B2 cos 2 t + . It is important to note that in writing the above expression, it has been assumed that the nonlinearity N does not generate subharmonics. Furthermore, if the nonlinearity is assumed to be symmetrical, the average of y is zero, so that the output y is then given by, y = A1 sin t + B1 cos t + A2 sin 2 t + B2 cos 2 t + . In the absence of an external input (i.e., r = 0), the output y of N is feedback to its input through the linear elements G2(s) and G1(s) in tandem. If G2(s) G1(s) has low-pass characteristics, x(t) remains sinusoidal. Under such conditions the harmonic content of y can be thrown away for the purpose of analysis and the fundamental component of y, i.e, y1 = A1 sin t + B1 cos t = Y1 sin ( t + 1) need only be considered. The above procedure heuristically linearizes the nonlinearity, since for a sinusoidal output of the same frequency is now assumed to be produced. This type of linearization is valid for large signals as well so long as the harmonic condition is satisfied. Under the above assumption, the nonlinearity can be replaced by a describing function KN(X, ) which is defined to be the complex function embodying amplification and phase shift of the fundamental frequency component of y relative to x. i.e., KN(X, ) = (Y1 / X) x = X sin t The describing function is in general dependent upon the amplitude and frequency of the input.
1

--------------- (1)

when the input to the nonlinearity is

From Fig (4), it is observed that it is much easier to handle a nonlinear system when the nonlinearity is replaced by its describing function. The describing function of a nonlinear element is given by, KN(X, ) = (Y1 / X)
1

where X = amplitude of the input sinusoid; Y1 = amplitude of the fundamental harmonic component of the output; and the input. Therefore for computing the describing function of a nonlinear element, we are simply required to find the fundamental harmonic component of its output for as input x = X sin t. The fundamental component of the output can be written as y1 = A1 sin t + B1 cos t where A1 and B1 are the coefficients of the Fourier series.
2 1

= phase shift

of the fundamental harmonic component of the output with respect to

B1 = (1 / ) y cos t d( t) -------------0 2

(2)

A1 = (1 / ) y sin t d( t) -------------0

(3)

The amplitude and phase angle of the fundamental component of the output are given by, Y1 = (A12 + B12)
1

--------------------

(4)

= tan

-1

(B1 / A1)

--------------------- (5)

DEAD-ZONE AND SATURATION Idealized characteristic of a nonlinearity having dead-zone and saturation and its response to sinusoidal input are shown in Fig (5). The output waveform may be described as follows. 0 ;0 t
10

K (x D/2) y = K(S D/2) K(x D/2) 0 where = sin

-1

; t ; t ( - ) ; ( - ) t ( - ) ; ( - ) t

D / 2X and = sin

-1

S/X

Using equations (2) and (3) and recognizing that the output has halfwave and quarter-wave symmetries, we have B1 = 0 A1 = 4/ y sin t d( t)
0 /2

= 4/ [ K(X sin t D/2)sin t d( t) + K(S D/2)sin t d( t)]

0

/2

= K/

2X ( - ) X (sin 2 - sin 2 ) + 4 [D/2 (cos - cos ) + (S D/2) cos ]

= KX / [2(( - ) + (sin 2 - sin 2 )] Therefore the describing function is given by,

0 ; = /2 KN (X) / K = /2 1 2/ ( + sin cos )

; X < D/2; =

;D/2 < X < S; =

1/ [2( - ) + (sin 2 -sin 2 )]; X > S ------------(6) Two special cases immediately follow from eqn. (6) Case 1: Saturation nonlinearity (D/2 = 0, = 0)
11

1 KN(X)/K = >S Case 2: Dead zone nonlinearity ( S 0 KN(X)/K = 1 - 2/ ( + sin cos ) ; = /2) 2/ ( + sin cos )

;X<S

2/ [ sin-1 (S/X) + (S/X) ( 1-(S/X)2)]

;X

;X<S

1 - 2/ [ sin-1 (D/2X) + (D/2X) ( 1-(D/2X)2)] ; X > D/2 It is found that the describing functions of saturation and dead - zone non linearities are frequency invariant having zero phase shift. In fact all nonlinearities, of whose input but output characteristics are represented by a planar graph, would result in describing functions independent frequency amplitude dependent. An element described by a nonlinear differential equation on the other hand has both frequency and amplitude describing function. A frequency invariant describing function having zero phase shift would be produced by a memory less nonlinearity whose output is independent of the history of input as is the case with saturation and dead zone nonlinearities.

Output

Input

Fig (2). Deadzone Nonlinearity

12

+ -

G1 (s)

x N

G2 (s)

Fig (3). Block Diagram for a nonlinear system

+ -

G1 (j )

KN(X, )

G2 (j )

Describing function

Fig (4). Nonlinear system with nonlinearity replaced by describing function

13

Slope K

K(S -D/2)

-S

-D/2 D/2 S X 0 2 t - -

0 X - -

x = X sin t

t Fig (5). Sinusoidal response of nonlinearity with dead zone and saturation

14

ANALYSIS USING MATLAB: Practically, the plotting of time response curves of systems is done through computer simulation using MATLAB. The input to the non linear element is X which is a sinusoidal signal. The output of the non linear element is Y1. The describing function of a non linear element is given by KN(X, ) = (Y1 / X) where, Y1 = A1 sin t + B1 cos t
2 1

A1 (constant) = 1/ y sin t
0 2

B1 (constant) = 1/ y cos t
0

x = X sin t To plot the input time response of the non linear element, the following command is used. Plot ( t, X) To plot the output response of the non linear element with respect to input signal, the following command is used. Plot (X, Y) To plot the output time response of the non linear element, the following command is used. Plot ( t, Y)

15

Fig (6). System response

RESULT Sinusoidal time response characteristics of linear system with simple non linearities like saturation and deadzone was calculated analytically and also verified using MATLAB.

16

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS AIM: To analyze the stability of linear systems based on Rouths Stability criterion and verify it using MATLAB. EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO

NAME OF THE EQUIPMENTS/ COMPONENTS System with MATLAB / MATHCAD

QUANTITY

THEORY: For a control system, it is necessary to determine whether the system is stable. A control system is stable if and only if all closed loop poles lie in the left - half s plane. Most linear closed - loop systems have closed - loop transfer functions of the form. C (s) R (s) A (s) Where the as and bs are constants and m n. A simple criterion, Rouths stability criterion, enables as to determine the number of closed - loop poles that lie in the right - half s plane without having to factor the denominator polynomial.
17

= =

b0sm + b1sm-1 + + bm-1s +bm

= B (s) =

a0sn + a1sn-1 + + an-1s + an

Rouths Stability Criterion: Rouths stability criterion tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in a polynomial equation without actually solving for them. This stability criterion applies to polynomials with only a finite number of terms. When the criterion is applied to a control system, information about absolute stability can be obtained directly from the coefficients of the characteristic equation. The procedure in Rouths stability criterion is as follows: Write the polynomial in s in the following form: 1. If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive coefficient, there is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have positive real parts. Therefore, in such a case, the system is not stable. If we are interested in only the absolute stability, there is no need to follow the procedure further. Note that all the coefficients must be positive. This is a necessary condition, as may be seen from the following argument: A polynomial in s having real coefficients can always be factored into linear and quadratic factors, such as ( s+a ) and (s2 + bs + c), where a, b and c are real. The linear factors yield real roots and the quadratic factors yield a0sn + a1sn-1 + + a s + an =0 ------------ (1)

n-1

where the coefficients are real quantities. We assume that an 0; that is, any zero root has been removed. complex - conjugate roots of the polynomial. The factor (s2 + bs + c) yields roots having negative real parts only if b and c are both positive. For all roots to have negative real parts, the constants a, b, c and so on, in all factors must be positive. The product of any number of linear and quadratic factors containing only positive coefficients always yields a polynomial with positive

18

coefficients. It is important to note that the condition that all the coefficients be positive is not is not sufficient to assure stability. The necessary but not sufficient condition for stability is that the coefficients of equation (1) all be present and all have a positive sign. (If all as are negative, they can be made positive by multiplying both sides of the equation by -1) 3. If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and columns according to the following pattern: sn sn-1 sn-2 sn-3 sn-4 . . . s2 s1 s0 e1 f1 g1 a0 a1 b1 c1 d1 . . . e2 a2 a4 a3 a5 b2 d2 . . . c2 c3 a6 a7 c4 .. .. .

b3 b4 d3 d4

The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total number of rows is n+1.) The coefficients b1, b2, b3 and so on are as follows: b1 = (a1a2 - a0a3) / a1 b2 = (a1a4 - a0a5) / a1 b3 = (a1a6 - a0a7) / a1 . . .

19

The evaluation of the bs is continued until the remaining ones are all zero. The same pattern of cross - multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is followed in evaluating the cs, ds, es and so on. That is c1 = (b1a3 -a1b2) / b1 c2 = (b1a5 -a1b3) / b1 c3 = (b1a7 -a1b4) / b1 . . . d1 = (c1b2 -b1c2) / c1 d2 = (c1b3 -b1c3) / c1 . . . This process is continued until the nth row has been completed. The complete array of coefficients is triangular. Note that in developing the array an entire row may be divided or multiplied by a positive number in order to simplify the subsequent numerical calculation without altering the stability conclusion. Rouths stability criterion states that the number of roots of eqn (1) with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the coefficients of the first column of the array. It should be noted that the exact values of the terms in the first column need not be known; instead, only the signs are needed. The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of eqn (1) lie in the left - half s plane is that all the coefficients of eqn (1) be positive and all terms in the first column of the array have positive signs. Application of Rouths stability criterion: The given closed loop transfer function is C(s) = 1

20

R(s)

s (s2 + s +1) (s+2) + 1

The characteristic equation is s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s +1 = 0 The above equation resembles the standard characteristic equation, a0sn + a1sn-1 + + an-1s + an = 0 Here a0 = 1; a1 = 3; a2 = 3; a3 = 2; a4 = 1; The array of coefficients becomes s4 s3 s2 s1 s0 a0 a1 b1 c1 d1 a2 a4 a3 b2

b1 = (a1a2 - a0a3) / a1 = (3 x 3 - 1 x 2) / 3 = 7/3 b2 = (a1a4) / a1 = (3 x 1) / 3 =1 c1 = (b1a3 -a1b2) / b1 = (7/3 x 2 - 3 x 1) / (7/3) = 5/7 d1 = (c1b2) / c1 = (5/7 x 1)/ (5/7) =1 The array of coefficients for the given transfer function becomes s4 s3 s2 s1 1 3 5/7 3 2 1

7/3 1

21

s0

All the coefficients are positive. Hence the given system is stable. ANALYSIS USING MATLAB: The given transfer function is given by C(s) = R(s) = 1 s (s2 + s +1) (s+2) + 1

The characteristics equation is given by R(s) = q = s (s2 + s +1) (s+2) + 1 = s4 + 3s3 +3s2 + 2s +1 The numerator and denominator of transfer function are represented as two arrays. The numerator and denominator of transfer function are represented as num and den respectively in MATLAB. [num] = [1]; [den] = [1 3 3 2 1]; The roots of the denominator of transfer function (or characteristics equation) can be determined using the command roots (den); For stability the roots should be positive. Otherwise, the system will be instable. In MATLAB to determine stability In MATLAB, The following commands are used. If (roots (den) >0) disp (stable); else disp (unstable); end

22

Fig (2). System response

RESULT:

23

To the stability of linear systems based on Rouths Stability criterion was analysed and verified using MATLAB.

6. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPERATELY EXCITED D.C.GENERATOR AIM: To determine the transfer function of a separately excited D.C.Generator APPARATUS REQUIRED: S.No 1. 2. 3. Equipment Ammeter Voltmeter Rheostat Type MC MI MC MI Wire wound Wire wound Range (0-2) A (0-2) A (0-300) V (0-300) V 185 /1.1A Quantity 1 1 2 1 1 1
24

350 /1.1A 4. 1 auto transformer PRECAUTIONS: At the time of starting, 1. The motor field rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position. 2. The generator field rheostat should be kept at maximum resistance position. FORMULA: Resistance of the field coil, Rf = Vf If Reactance of the field coil, Xf= Zf2 Rf2 Inductance of the Field coil, Lf = Xf 2 f where, Vf= Field voltage in Volts. If = Field current in Amps. Zf= Field impedance in Ohms. f = Frequency in Hertz. THEORY: In a separately excited DC generator the field coils are energized from an independent source. The exciting current is independent of the load or armature current. The terminal voltage on load is the difference between the EMF generated and the voltage drop in the armature i.e., V=E-IaRa. With the increase in the value of the load current, the terminal voltage decreases slightly. This decrease can be easily neutralized by increasing the field current value and therefore a constant terminal voltage can be maintained. 1

25

The separately excited DC generator has a decided advantage over the self-excited generators. It operates in a stable condition with any field excitation. Thus a wide range of output voltage may be obtained. The main disadvantage of separately excited DC generator lies in the inconvenience and expense of providing a separate excitation source. For this reason, the use of this type of generator is largely confined to experimental and testing laboratories where such a source is available and a wide variation of output voltage is desirable. Transfer Function: Definition: The transfer function is defined to be the ratio of the laplace transform of the output variable to the laplace transform of input variable under the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero. (a) Transfer function on No load condition: From the circuit diagram shown in Fig (1) we have ef(t)=Input field voltage. eg(t)=Output generated voltage. ef(t)= Rfif + Lf dif(t) dt eg (t) If(t) eg (t)= KgIf(t) where, Kg = Generator constant. eg (t)= (Ra+RL) ia (t) + La dia(t) dt Taking the laplace transform of the system governed by the equations (1), (2) and (3) with zero initial conditions, Ef (s)= (Rf+SLf) If (s) Eg(s) = KgIf (s) Eg (s)= [(Ra+RL) + SLa] Ia(s) (4) (5) (6) (3) (2) (1)

26

On dividing the equation (5) by (4), we get Eg (s) = Ef (s) KgIf (s) (Rf+sLf)If(s) (7)

Rearranging the equation (7) we get the eqution for transfer function of separately excited D.C.Generator on No load as: Eg(s) = Ef(s) Kg (8) Rf +SLf

Therefore Transfer function of separately excited D.C.Generator on No load condition is Eg(s) = Ef(s) where, Time constant,t = Lf/Rf (calculated value) Field Inductance = Lf Field resistance = Rf (calculated value) (calculated value) Kg Rf+SLf

Generator constant = Kg (calculated value) b) Transfer function on Loaded condition: From the circuit diagrm shown in Fig (2) we apply Kirchoffs voltage law and we get Vt = e-RaiL IL = Vt/RL (9) (10)

Taking the laplace transform of the system governed by the equations (9) and (10) with zero initial conditions, we get Vt(s) = E(s)-RaIL(s) IL(s) = Vt(s) / RL Vt(s) = E(s)-Ra [Vt(s) / RL] Rearranging the equation (13) we get Vt(s) = RL (14) (11) (12) (13)

On substituting equation (12) for IL(s) in eqution (11),we get

27

E(s)

Ra + RL

By combining the eqution (8) and (12), we get the transfer function of separately excited D.C.Generator on Load as; Vt(s) = Vf(s) Load is Vt(s) Vf(s) where, Generator constant Load Resistance Field Inductance Field resistance = Lf = Rf = Kg (calculated value) = RL (calculated value) (calculated value) (calculated value) = Ra (calculated value) = Kg RL (Rf+SLf) (Ra + RL) Kg RL (Rf+SLf) (Ra + RL) (15)

Therefore Transfer function of separately excited D.C.Generator on

Armature resistance PROCEDURE:

TO FIND THE GENERATOR CONSTANT (Kg): 1. Connections are made as per shown in the circuit diagram Fig (3). 2. Using the three-point starter the motor is started to run. 3. The field resistance is increased by varying the field rheostat to run the motor at rated speed. 4. Note down the value of the corresponding field current (If) and generated voltage (Eg) in observation Table (1). 5. Close the SPST switch and note down the value of the corresponding field current (If) and generated voltage (Eg) in observation Table (1).

28

6. The Field resistance of the generator is decreased in steps and the corresponding field current (If) and generated voltage (Eg) values are noted in observation Table (1). 7. Plot the generated voltage (Eg) Vs field current (If) curve as shown in Fig (6) and determine generator constant (Kg) from the plot, by projecting any two points from the curve. TO FIND FIELD RESISTANCE (Rf): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig (4). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and increases the load step by step. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in observation Table (2). TO FIND FIELD IMPEDANCE (Zf): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig (5). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and varies the autotransformer in steps of 25V. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in observation Table (3). TO FIND THE TRANSFER FUNCTION: 1. Calculate the Inductance of the Field coil with the known values of Xf and f,using the formula Lf = Xf / 2 f 2. Calculate the transfer function with the known values of Kg, Ra, RL, Lf and Rf, using the formula Vt(s) Vf(s) = Kg RL (Rf+SLf) (Ra + RL)

29

+ Rf

If

Input ef

Lf

Output eg

Fig (1) SEPERATELY EXCITED GENERATOR ON NO LOAD + Rf If IL Ra

Input ef

Lf

RL

Output Vt

Fig (2) SEPERATELY EXCITED GENERATOR ON LOAD

30

SPST Switch 3 Point Starter 15A D P S T 230V D.C Supply S W I T C H 15A Fig (3) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FINDING GENERATOR CONSTANT (Kg) OF SEPARATELY EXCITED D.C GENERATOR MOTOR H.P : 3 Voltage : 230 V Current : 11 A Speed : 1500 rpm SPECIFICATIONS GENERATOR H.P : 3 Voltage : 230 V Current : 10 A Speed : 1500 rpm L FA + A A F M FF 400/1.1 A AA AA 400/1.1A A F + FF (0-300)V MC V (0-2)A MC D P S T S W I T C H 15 A A (0-20A) L O A D 15 A

31

+ 220V DC supply D P S T S

10A Loading Rheostat (50 /5A) 10A

(0-5) A + - MC A + (0-50)V MC -

Z V ZZ

Fig (4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND FIELD RESISTANCE (Rf) (0-2)A MI P 10A Z A D P 1 ,230 V, (0-300)V S 50 Hz, V T MI AC Supply 1 auto S NL ZZ Transformer N Fig (5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND FIELD IMPEDANCE (Zf) OBSERVATION TABLE (1) To Find Generator Constant (Kg): S.No 1 2 3 Field current, If (A) (d.c) Generated Voltage, Eg (V) (d.c)

32

OBSERVATION TABLE (2): To Find Field Resistance (Rf) S.No 1 2 3 Field Current, If (A) (d.c) Field Voltage, Vf (V) (d.c) Field Resistance Rf = Vf/ If ()

Average dc Field Resistance, Rf = OBSERVATION TABLE (3): To Find Field Impedance (Zf): S.No 1 2 3 Field current, If (A) (d.c) Field voltage, Vf (V) (d.c)

( )

Field Impedance, Zf=Vf /If ()

Average Field Impedance, Zf =

( )
33

MODEL GRAPH: y
Generated voltage

Eg (v) Eg If Kg = Eg/ If

Field current, If (A)

Fig (6) To Find Generator constant (Kg) MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT: Thus the transfer function of a separately excited D.C generator was determined.

34

6. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE AND FIELD CONTROLLED D.C.MOTOR PART A : ARMATURE CONTROLLED D.C. MOTOR AIM: To determine the transfer function of armature controlled D.C.Motor APPARATUS REQUIRED: S.No 1. Equipment Ammeter Type MC MI 2. 3. 4. 5. Voltmeter Rheostat Tachometer 1 auto transformer MC MI wire wound wire wound Digital Range (0-2) A,(0-20) A (0-5) A (0-300) V (0-50) V 350 /1.1A 185 /1.1A Quantit y Each 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

PRECAUTIONS: 1. At the time of starting, the field circuit rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position. 2. There should be no load on the motor at the time of starting. FORMULAE: Angular speed, =2 N/60 (rad /sec) Torque, T = (S1-S2) x 9.81x R (N-m) Back EMF, Eb = V-IaRa (V) Inductance of the armature, La= Xa/2 f (H)
35

Reactance, Xa=Za2-Ra2 ( ) where, N=Speed in rpm S1, S2= Spring balance readings in Kg. R=Radius of the brakedrum in m. Ra= Armature resistance in Za= Armature impedance in La=Armature inductance in H V=Supply voltage in Volts. THEORY: The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to flux in field winding. The system consists of armature circuit and field circuit. In armature controlled DC motor the speed is obtained by varying the armature voltage. In armature controlled method only the armature circuit is considered because the field is excited by a constant voltage source. Transfer Function: Definition: The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of the output variable to the laplace transform of input variable under the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero. Derivation: On applying Kirchoffs voltage law to the circuit diagram shown in Fig (1), IaRa+La dia/dt+eb=Va Torque Ta ia, T= Kt.ia where, Kt = Torque Constant The differential equation governing the mechanical system of motor is Jd2 + Bd =T (4)
36

(1) (2) (3)

dt2

dt dt eb= Kbd dt (5)

Back emf, eb d

where, Kb = Back emf constant Taking Laplace transform of the system governed by the equation (1), (3), (4) & (5) with zero initial conditions, we get Ia(s) [ Ra+SLa] + Eb(s)= Va(s) T(s)= Kt.Ia(s) Js2 (s)+Bs (s) = T(s) Eb(s)= sKb (s) Equating (7) & (8) for T(s), we get Js2 (s)+BS (s)= KtIa (s) Therefore, Ia(s)= Js2(s)+Bs(s) Kt On substituting Eb(s) from eqution (9) and Ia(s) from equation (10) in equation (6), we get [Js2+Bs] (s) (Ra+sLa) + Kbs (s) = Va(s) Kt [(Ra+sLa)(Js2+Bs)+KbKts] (s) Kt Rearranging the equation (12) we get the equation for transfer function of armature controlled D.C.Motor as: (s) = (13) Va(s) = Ra (s) = [Ra+sLa][Js2+Bs]+KbKts Kt {Ra[sLa+1]Bs[1+Js2]+KtKbs} Bs Kt/RaB (15)
37

(6) (7) (8) (9)

(10)

(11) (12)

= Va(s)

Kt

(14)

Va(s)

s[(1+sTa)(1+sTm)+KbKt/RaB]

Therefore the transfer function of armature controlled D.C.Motor is (s) Va(s) where, Electrical Time Constant, Moment of inertia Viscous friction co-efficient Armature inductance Armature resistance Back emf constant Torque constant Ta = La/Ra (calculated value) (calculated value) =J (Given value) =B (Given value) = La (calculated value) =Ra (calculated value) =Kb (calculated value) =Kt (calculated value) Mechanical Time Constant, Tm = J/B = Kt/RaB s[(1+sTa)(1+sTm)+KbKt/RaB]

PROCEDURE: TO FIND THE BACK EMF CONSTANT (Kb): 1. Connections are made as per shown in the circuit diagram Fig (2). 2. Using the three-point starter the motor is started to run. 3. The field resistance is increased by varying the field rheostat to run the motor at rated speed. 4. The armature resistance is decreased by varying the armature rheostat. 5. Note down the armature voltage (Va), Line current (IL), field current (If) and speed (N) in the observation Table (1) 6. Calculate armature current (Ia) using the formula, Ia=IL- If. 7. Calculate armature voltage drop (IaRa). 8. Calculate back emf (Eb), using the formula Eb=V-IaRa. 9. Calculate angular frequency ( ), using the formula =2 N/60 (rad /sec) 10. Repeat the steps from (4) to (9) for different armature voltage (Va).

38

11.

Plot the angular speed Vs back emf curve as shown in Fig (6) and determine back emf constant (Kb) from the plot by projecting any two points from the curve.

TO FIND THE TORQUE CONSTANT (Kt): 1. Connections are made as per shown in the circuit diagram Fig (3). 2. Using the three-point starter the motor is started to run. 3. The field resistance is increased by varying the field rheostat to run the motor at rated speed. 4. Note down the Line current (IL), field current (If) and Spring balance readings (S1,S2) in the observation Table (2) 5. Calculate armature current (Ia) using the formula, Ia=IL-If 6. Calculate torque (T), using the formula T = (S1-S2) x 9.81 x R (N-m) 7. Increase the load by varying the spring balance and repeat the Steps from (4) and (7) for different value of line current (IL). 8.Plot the armature current Vs torque curve as shown in Fig (7) and determine the torque constant (Kt) from the plot by projecting any two points from the curve.

TO FIND ARMATURE RESISTANCE (Ra): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (4). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and increase the load step by step. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in
39

observation Table (3).

TO FIND ARMATURE IMPEDANCE (Za): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (5). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and vary the autotransformer in steps of 25V. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in observation Table (4).

TO FIND TRANSFER FUNCTION: 1. Calculate Electrical Time Constant(Ta) with the known values of La and Ra, using the formula Ta= La/Ra 2. Calculate Mechanical time c onstant(Tm) with the known values of J and B, using the formula Tm= J/B 3. Calculate the transfer function with the known values of Kt, Ra, B, Ta, Tm, Kb, using the formula, (s) Va(s) = Kt/RaB s[(1+sTa)(1+sTm)+KbKt/RaB]

40

3 Point Starter + 25 A (0-25) A MC + _ A L F A

SPECIFICATIONS: 50 / 5A 360 / 1.1 A V + (0-300)V _ MC A F M FF 25 A _ Fig (2) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FINDING BACK EMF CONSTANT (Kb) FOR ARMATURE CONTROL OF D.C SHUNT MOTOR
41

D P S T 230V D.C Supply S W I T C H

H.P :5 VOLTAGE : 230 V CURRENT : 18 A FIELD CURRENT: 0.8 A SPEED : 1500 rpm

V AA

+ (0-300)V _ MC

+ (0-2) A _ MC

Loading Rheostat 5A + D P S T 24 V D.C Supply S W I T C H 5A _ + 50 , 5A +

(0 5) A MC

A M MC ( 0 50 ) V AA AA V

Fig. (4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND ARMATURE RESISTANCE (R a )

42

P 1 ,230 V, 50 Hz, AC Supply N D P S T S 5A

A M

AA

V
NL 1 Auto Transformer (0-100) V

A (0-2)A

MI

(0-300v) MI

Fig. (5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND ARMATURE IMPEDANCE (Za)

43

OBSERVATION TABLE (1) To Find Back emf constant (Kb): S.No Armatur e Voltage, Va (V) (d.c) Line curren t, Ia (A) (d.c) Field curren t, If (A) (d.c) Armatur e current, Ia=IL-If (A) Voltage drop IaRa (V) Back emf Eb=V-IaRa (V) Speed, N (rpm) Angular speed, =2 N/60 (rad/sec)

1 2 3 -

44

OBSERVATION TABLE (2) To find Torque constant (Kt):

45

S.No

Line current, IL (A) (d.c)

Field current, If (A) (d.c)

Armature current, Ia=IL-If (A)

Spring balance reading S1 S2 S1-S2 (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)

Torque, T = (S1-S2) x 9.81x R (N-m)

1 2 3 -

46

OBSERVATION TABLE (3): To Find Armature Resistance (Ra): S.No 1 2 3 Average d.c armature resistance (Ra) = OBSERVATION TABLE (4): To Find Armature Impedance (Za): S.No 1 2 3 Average armature impedance (Za) = Armature current, Ia(A) Armature voltage, Va (V) Armature Impedance, Za=Va/Ia () Armature current, Ia(A) (d.c) Armature voltage, Va (V) (d.c) Armature Resistance, Ra=Va/Ia ()

MODEL GRAPH:
47

Y Back Emf, Eb in (V)

eb Kb = eb /

Angular speed, in (rad/sec)

Fig (6) To Find Back emf constant (Kb)

Y Torque, Tm in (N-m)

Ia Tm Ia in (A) Kt = Tm / X Ia

Fig (7) To find Torque constant (Kt)

MODEL CALCULATION:

48

RESULT: The transfer function of armature controlled D.C.Motor was determined.

PART B : FIELD CONTROLLED D.C.MOTOR

49

AIM: To determine the transfer function of field controlled D.C.Motor. APPARATUS REQUIRED: S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Apparatus Ammeter Voltmeter Rheostat Tachometer 1 auto transformer PRECAUTIONS: At the time of Starting, 1. The motor field rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position. 2. The generator field rheostat should be kept at maximum resistance position. FORMULAE: Torque, T = (S1-S2) x 9.81 x R (N-m) Inductance of the Field, Lf= Xf/2 f Reactance, Xf=Zf2-Rf2 where, S1, S2= Spring balance readings in Kg. R=Radius of the brakedrum in m. Rf= Field resistance in Zf= Field impedance in Lf= Field inductance in Henry. THEORY:
50

Type MC MI MC MI Wire wound Wire wound Digital -

Range (0-2) A,(0-10) A (0-100) A (0-100) V (0-300) V 350 /1.1A 185 /1.1A -

Quantity Each 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1

The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to flux in field winding. The system consists of the armature and the field circuit. In field controlled DC motor the armature voltage is kept constant and the speed is varied by varying the flux of the machine. In field controlled DC motor method the field circuit is considered because the armature is excited by a constant voltage. Transfer function : Definition: The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of the output variable to the laplace transform of input variable under the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero. Derivation: From the circuit diagram shown in Fig (1), We have, Torque, T If T= Ktfif where, Ktf = Torque Constant. The differential equation given by the mechanical system is, T = J d2 +Bd dt2 dt The differential equation governing the field controlled DC motor is, Rfif + Lf dif= vf dt Taking Laplace transform of the system governed by equation (1), (2) and (3), we get T(s)= KtfRf (s) Js2 (s) + Bs (s) = T(s) RfIf(s) + LfsIf(s) = Vf(s) KtfIf(s) = Js2 (s) + Bs (s) (4) (5) (6) (7)
51

(1)

(2)

(3)

On equating (4) & (5) for T(s), we get

If(s) = s(Js+B) (s) Ktf Equation (6) can be written as, (Rf + sLf) If(s) = Vf(s) (Rf + sLf) s (Js+B) (s) = Vf(s) Ktf

(8)

(9) (10)

On substituting for If(s) from equation (8) in equation (9), we get

Rearranging the equation (10) we get the equation for transfer function of field controlled D.C.Motor as: (s) = Vf(s) (s) Vf(s) (s) Vf(s) = = Ktf s(Rf + sLf) (B + sJ) Ktf Km (15) (14) sRf [ 1+sLf/Rf]B [1+sJ/B] s (1+sTf) (1+sTm) (13)

Therefore the transfer function of field controlled D.C.Motor is (s) Vf(s) where, Motor gain constant, Field time constnt, Mechanical time constant, Moment of inertia Density co-efficient constant Armature inductance Armature resistance Torque constant PROCEDURE: TO FIND TORQUE CONSTANT (Ktf):
52

Km

s(1+sTf) (1+sTm) Km Tf Tm = Ktf/RfB (calculated value) =Lf/Rf (calculated value) =J/B (calculated value) =J (Given value) =B (Given value) = Lf (calculated value) =Rf (calculated value) =Ktf (calculated value)

1.Connections are made as per shown in the circuit diagram Fig (2). 2. Using the three-point starter the motor is started to run. 3.The field resistance is increased by varying the field rheostat to run the motor at rated speed. 4.The corresponding field current (If) and spring balance reading (s1 ,s2) are noted in observation Table (1). 5.Calculate Torque (T), using the formula T = (S1-S2) x 9.81 x R (N-m) 6.Increase the load and repeat the steps (4) and (5) for different Field current (If). 7. Plot the field current Vs torque curve as shown in Fig (5) and determine Torque constant (Ktf) from the plot, by projecting any two points from the curve. To Find Field Resistance (Rf): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (3). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and increases the load step by step. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in observation Table (2). To Find Field Impedance (Zf): 1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (4). 2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch and vary the autotransformer in steps of 25V. 3. Enter the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings in observation Table (3). TO FIND THE TRANSFER FUNCTION: 1. Calculate Field time constant(Ta) with the known values of Lf and Rf using the formula Tf =Lf/Rf
53

2. Calculate using the 3. Calculate using the

Mechanical time constant(Tm) with the known values of J and B, formula Tm = J/B the transfer function with the known values of Km, Tf and Tm, formula, (s) = Km Vf(s) s(1+sTf) (1+sTm)

54

25 A L 3 POINT STARTER D P S T F A

S1

S2

360 1.1 A A F FF (0-5) 25A AA A Brake Drum M +

230V D.C Supply

S W I T C H

_ Fig (2) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FINDING TORQUE CONSTANT (Ktf ) FOR FIELD CONTROLLED D.C SHUNT MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS : H.P :5 VOLTAGE : 230 V CURRENT : 18 A FIELD CURRENT : 0.8 A SPEED : 1500 rpm
55

if Rf

ia Load

Vf = input

Va=constant

M Lf, Rf

J, B

Lf (Output)

Fig (1) Field controlled DC motor

+ D P 230 V, DC Supply S T S -

+ (0-2) A MC A + Loading Rheostat MC (50 /5A) V (0-300)V Z

ZZ

Fig (3) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND FIELD RESISTANCE (Rf) 5A D P S T S (0-5)A MI Z V

P 1 , 230 V, 50 Hz, AC Supply N

NL

1 Auto Transformer

MI (0-300)V

ZZ

Fig (4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM TO FIND FIELD IMPEDANCE (Zf)

56

OBSERVATION TABLE (1): To Find Torque Constant (Ktf): Radius of the brake drum,R= S.No Field current, If (A) (d.c) Spring balance readings S1 S2 S1-S2 (kg) (kg) (kg) (m) Torque, T= (S1-S2) x 9.81 x R (N-m)

1 2 3 OBSERVATION TABLE (2): To Find Field Resistance (Rf): S.No 1 2 3 Field current, If (A) (d.c) Field voltage, Vf (V) (d.c) Field Resistance, Rf=Vf/If ()

Average d.c Field Resistance, Rf=

57

OBSERVATION TABLE (3): To Find Field Impedance (Zf): S.No 1 2 3 Field current, If (A) (a.c) Field voltage, Vf (V) (a.c) Field Impedance, Zf=Vf/If ()

Average Field Impedance, Zf= MODEL GRAPH

Y Torque, T in (N-m)

T If

Ktf=

If / T

Field current (If) in (A)

Fig (5) To Find Torque constant (Ktf)

58

MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT: The transfer function of field controlled D.C.Motor was determined.

59

8. DC AND AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM AIM: To obtain the transient response of DC servo motor position controller. EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S. NO

NAME OF THE EQUIPMENTS/COMPONEN TS

TYPE

QUANTITY

Closed loop position control system

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Digital

THEORY: The basic components of position control system are error detector, Amplifier and Controller, Actuator (power actuator), Plant and Sensor or Feedback system. The block diagram of an position control system is shown in Fig (1). The plant is the open loop system whose output is automatically controlled by closed loop system. The combined unit of error detector, amplifier
60

and controller is called automatic controller, because without this unit the system becomes open loop system. In automatic control systems, the reference input will be an input signal proportional to desired output. The feedback signal is a signal proportional to current output of the system. The error detector compares the reference input and feedback signal and if there is a difference it produces an error signal. An amplifier can be used to amplify the error signal and the controller modifies the error signal for better control action. The actuator amplifies the controller output and converts to the required form of energy that is acceptable for the plant. Depending on the input to the plant, the output will change. This process continues as long as there is a difference between reference input and feedback signal. If the difference is zero, then there is no error signal and the output settles as the desired value. The position control system is shown in Fig (2). The system consists of a servomotor powered by a generator. The l oad whose position has to be controlled is connected to motor shaft through gear wheels. Potentiometers are used to convert the mechanical motion to electrical signals. The desired load position (R) is set on the input potentiometer and the actual load position (c) is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to generator field circuit. The induced emf of the generator drives the motor. The rotation of the motor stops when the error signal is zero, i.e. when the desired load position is reached. PROCEDURE 1. Make the circuit connections as shown in Fig (1). 2. Set the desired load position (R) as 30 and note down this position interms of voltage (SV) in observation Table 3. Note down the actual load position (c) and note down this position interms of voltage (PV) in observation Table.
61

4. Adjust proportional controller and integral controller so as to reduce maximum overshoot and settling time. 5. Note down Kp, Ki in position feedback loop and Kp1 in speed feedback in observation table. 6. Plot the input and output waveforms in CRO as shown in Fig (3). 7. Note down the maximum overshoot (Mp), Peak time (tp) and rise time (tr).

62

Error Detector Actual Output C + To CRO PI Control

Error Detector P Control Converter Motor Gear

Output

gfjjg

Speed sensor

Position sensor

Fig (1) Block Diagram of Position Control System.

63

If Motor Field Amplifier Generator Field G M

+ Vf -

Gears

+ 100V R A B C Load

Fig (2). Circuit diagram for position control system using servomotor

64

OBSERVATION TABLE: S.No Input Position R SV ( in ) 1 (in V) Output position C PV ( in ) (in V) Proportional constant Kp Integral time Ki Proportiona l Constant Kp1 Maximum overshoot Mp Peak Rise time tp (in sec) time tr (in sec)

65

MODEL GRAPH: Output Input & Output Voltage In V Mp Reference Input Voltage

td tr tp ts

t in sec

Fig (3). Transient response of DC servo motor position controller

66

MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT: The transient response of DC servo motor position controller was studied.

67