THE SKELETAL SYSTEM I. OBJECTIVE: To identify the parts of the human skeleton and their distinctive features. II.

MATERIALS: Fresh beef bones sawed longitudinally, dissection instruments, model of the human skeleton, models of various joints, colored pencils. III. PROCEDURE: A. Examine the cut surface of a split beef bone and identify the following parts. Structure of a Long Bone: a. diaphysis- an elongated shaft b. epiphyses- the expanded terminal portion of the shaft c. epiphyseal disk- a plate of hyaline cartilage present at the junction of the epiphyses and diaphysis during the growing years d. cancellous bone- the interior of the epiphyses and ends of the diaphysis e. compact bone- forms the rigid tube of the diaphysis and is reduced in thickeness where it covers the underlying cancellous bone f. medullary cavity- the hollow chamber in the diaphysis; lined with a thin epithelial membrane, the endosteum g. yellow marrow- fills the medullary cavity h. red marrow- which forms the blood cells, occurs in cancellous bone in the epiphyses of femur and humerus; most red marrow in adults is found in cancellous bone of the ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and vertebrae i. periosteum- a tough, fibrous membrane covering that tightly adheres to the bone surface except for the articular surfaces j. articular cartilage- covers the articular surfaces of the bone; reduces the friction and protects the ends of the bone

Identify the parts of a long bone

B. Using the model of the human skeleton identify the following parts. Division of the Skeletal System 1. AXIAL SKELETON A. Skull- composed of the cranial and facial bones; a firm covering or case of the brain; contain numerous foramina for passage of cranial nerves and blood vessels. Bones of the cranium begin to develop in early fetal life, ossification is gradual and not completed at birth, hence membrane-filled bones are found between these spaces called fontanels. 1.) Bones of the Cranium a. frontal (1)- forms the anterior superior portion of the cranium, including the forehead, upper parts of the eye orbits, and roof of the nasal cavity.

Above each eye orbit is a supraorbital foramen that is reduced in some skulls to a supraorbital notch. b. parietal bones (2)- form the roof and sides of the cranium posterior to the frontal bone, to which they are joined by coronal sutures. The parietal bones are joined to each other at the superior midline by the sagittal suture. c. occipital bone (1)- the posterior inferior portion of the skull. It joins to the parietal bones by the lambdoidal suture. The floor of the occipital bone contains the large foramen magnum, which surrounds the brain stem. On each side of the foramen are the occipital condyles that articulate with the atlas. d. temporal bones (2)- located just below the parietal bones on each side of the skull. Each joins to the parietal bone above it by a squamosal suture and articulates posteriorly with the occipital bone by the lambdoidal suture. The ear components are located within the temporal bones. The external auditory (acoustic) meatus, which leads inward toward the middle ear, is located near the inferior margin. Just anterior to the auditory meatus is the mandibular fossa (depression). The mandibular condyle fits into this fossa to form the temporomandibular joint. 3 major processes on each temporal bone 1. zygomatic process- anterior extension that articulates with the cheekbone (zygomatic) 2. styloid process- slender spinelike process that extends downward below the auditory meatus; serves as an attachment site for some tongue and pharyngeal muscles 3. mastoid process- rounded eminence inferior and posterior to the auditory canal; attachment site for certain neck muscles jugular foramina- located medial to the styloid processes at the junction of the temporal and occipital bones; allow passage of the jugular veins from the brain to the neck carotid canals- located anterior to the jugular foramina; through which the carotid arteries pass to the brain e. sphenoid bone (1)- consists of a central body and two winglike structures that extend laterally; forms part of the floor of the cranium, the sides of the cranium in the temple areas, and the posterior walls of the eye orbits. foramen ovale- an oval opening on each side of the sphenoid bone; it is where the mandibular nerve passes through

sella turcica (Turks saddle)- the saddle-shaped structure of the central body deep hypophyseal fossa- located within the sella turcica is occupied by the hypophysis (pituitary gland) which hangs downward from the brain optic foramina- passageways for the optic nerves; located on each side in the anterior portion of the sella turcica superior orbital fissure- is the opening medial to the sphenoid inferior orbital fissure- is located below the sphenoid f. ethmoid bone (1)- forms part of the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the medial surface of the orbit and closes the anterior portion of the cranium. cribriform plates- contain numerous olfactory foramina for the passage of olfactory nerves from the brain to the nasal cavity crista galli- projects upward into the cranial cavity between the cribriform plates; membranes enclosing the brain are attached to the crista galli 2.) Bones of the face a. maxillae (2)- upper jaw bones alveolar process- portion of each maxillary bone containing teeth; together these processes form the alveolar, or dental arch. Each tooth occupies an alveolus (socket) in the dental arch. b. palatine bones (2)- L-shaped, situated at the back of the nasal cavity. They help form the back potion of the roof of the mouth, part of the floor and outer wall of the nasal cavity, and a small potion of the floor of the orbit. c. zygomatic bones (2)- cheekbones; form the prominences of the cheeks and the lateral walls of the orbits d. lacrimal bones (2)- located between the ethmoid and maxilla on the medial wall of each eye orbit. Each lacrimal bone has a small groove for a tear duct that carries tears from the eye into the nasal cavity e. nasal bones (2)- thin bones fused at the midline to form the bridge of the nose f. vomer (1)- a thin, flat bone located on the midline of the nasal cavity; forms part of the central septum g. inferior nasal conchae (2)- scroll-like bones that extend from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity inferior to the middle nasal conchae of the ethmoid bone; support mucous membranes in the nasal cavity h. mandible (1)- lower jaw bone consists of a horseshoe-shaped, horizontal body with an upward-projecting ramus at each end; the posterior inferior jumction of each ramus with the body is called the angle; the strongest bone of the face. mandibular foramina- located on the medial surfaces of a rami; blood vessels and nerves supplying the teeth enter these openings and later emerge through the smaller mental foramina, which are located on

the anterolateral external surfaces of the mandibular body, to supply the lips and chin. Identify the bones of the skull.

3.) The Paranasal Sinuses- cavities in some of the skull bones that reduce the weight of the skull without appreciably weakening it. The sinuses are lined with a mucous membrane and have passageways leading into the nasal cavity. They are named after the bones in which they are located. a. b. c. d. frontal sinuses- occur in the forehead above the eyes maxillary sinuses- large sinuses below the eyes sphenoidal sinuses- centrally located under the sella turcica ethmoidal sinuses- consist of a number of small, air-filled spaces

Identify the paranasal sinuses.

4.) Fontanels- membranous areas at the junction of several cranial bones, allow the compression of the skull during childbirth and growth of the brain after birth; there are 6 fontanels a. large anterior fontanel- lies on the midline at the junction of the parietal and occipital bones b. smaller posterior fontanel- is on the midline at the junction of the parietal and occipital bones c. anterolateral fontanel- occurs on each side of the skull at the junction of the frontal, parietal, zygomatic, sphenoid and temporal bones d. posterolateral fontanel- is on each side of the skull at the junction of the temporal, parietal and occipital bones Identify the fontanels.

B. Hyoid bone- horseshoe-shaped, consists of a central portion called the body and two projections on each side, the greater and lesser cornua respectively. This can be felt in the neck, just above the Adams apple. It supports the tongue and for muscles attachment. C. Vertebral Column- forms a flexible but sturdy vertical axis extending from the skull to the pelvis. It is composed of 24 movable vertebrae, the sacrum and the coccyx. They are all abound together by ligaments and muscles to form a unified structure; exhibits four defined spinal curvatures the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and pelvic curvatures. Parts of a typical vertebra

1. body or centrum- anterior structural mass, that is the major load-bearing contact between adjacent vertebrae 2. pedicles- two processes projecting posteriorly from each side of the vertebral body 3. laminae- processes connecting the pedicles below and meet mid-dorsally to form the neural arch 4. neural arch- encloses the spinal foramen 5. spinal foramen- located at the center of neural arch; the spinal cord descends through this where it is protected by the surrounding neural arches of the vertebrae intervertebral foramina- small openings between pedicles of adjacent vertebrae where spinal nerves emerging from the spinal cord exit 6. seven processes a. 2 articular processes to connect with the bone above b. 2 articular processes to connect with the bone below c. 2 transverse processes where the lamina and pedicles join d. 1 spinous process projecting dorsally from the junction of the lamina Regions of the Vertebral Column 1. Cervical or neck region- composed of 7 vertebrae; the first- the atlas, the second- the axis transverse foramen- occurs in each transverse process only in cervical vertebrae; serve as passageways for the vertebral arteries and veins 2. Thoracic region- 12 vertebrae below the cervical vertebrae 3. Lumbar region (in the loins)- the next 5 vertebrae; they have a larger body than other vertebrae because of the greater stress that occurs in this region of the vertebral column 4. Sacral region (pelvis)- composes the posterior wall of the pelvic cavity; it consists of 5 fused vertebrae dorsal sacral foramina- one row on each side of the sacrum; through which blood vessels and nerves pass sacral canal- form from the neural arches of the fused vertebrae which continues to an inferior opening the sacral hiatus sacral superior articular surfaces- articulate with the inferior articular surfaces of the fifth lumbar vertebra 5. Coccygeal region (lower pelvis)- composed of 4 or 5 rudimentary vertebrae fused together to form the coccyx, of tailbone

Identify the parts of a typical vertebra, a sacral vertebra and the vertebral column.

D. The Thoracic Cage- the thoracic vertebrae, ribs, costal cartilages and sternum form the skeleton (rib cage) of the thorax. It protects the heat and lungs and provides support of the pectoral (shoulder) girdles. 1. Sternum or breastbone- is notched along the sides where the costal cartilages attach. It consists of three parts: an upper manubrium, a middle body or gladiolus and a lower xiphoid process 2. Ribs- there are 12 pairs attached to the thoracic vertebrae Kinds of Ribs as to Attachment a. vertebrosternal or true ribs- the first seven pairs of ribs attach directly fo the sternum by costal cartilages b. false ribs- the remaining 5 pairs of ribs, subdivided into: 1. vertebrochondral- the cartilage of the first 3 pairs of false ribs are fused to the costal cartilages of ribs above them 2. vertebral or floating ribs- last 2 pairs of false ribs are not attached anteriorly Parts of a Rib a. head- articulates with the vertebral column via two articular facets b. tubercle- consists of an articular portion and a nonarticular portion c. neck- the short segment between the head and tubercle d. body- the flattened, curved remainder of the rib Identify the parts of the thoracic cage.

Identify the parts of a rib.

B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON 1. The Pectoral Girdle or Shoulder Girdle- it supports the upper limbs and permits great freedom of movement. a. Clavicle or collar bone (2)- a slender S-shaped bone. Its lateral end articulates with the acromion process of a shoulder blade, and its medial end articulates with the superiolateral margin of the sternum. In the female, the clavicle is generally less curved, smoother, shorter and more slender than in male. b. Scapula or shoulder blade (2)- is a flat, triangular bone that does not articulate directly with the axial skeleton. Instead, it is held in place by muscles thus giving greater mobility to the shoulder. On its axillary margin is the shallow glenoid cavity which articulates with the head of the humerus. 2 large processes above the glenoid cavity 1. coracoid process- projects anteriorly under the clavicle 2. acromion process- projects posteriorly and articulates with the clavicle scapular spine- is a slender process on the scapulas posterior surface that runs diagonally from the medial vertebral margin to the acromion process scapular notch- occurs on the superior margin at the base of the coracoid

Identify the parts of the pectoral girdle.

2. The Upper Limb- consists of the upper arm, forearm and hand a. Humerus (2)- is the bone of the upper arm. The rounded head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. 2 processes inferior to the head 1. greater tubercle- on the lateral surface 2. lesser tubercle- on the anterior surface surgical neck- inferior to the tubercles and is so named because of the frequency of fractures in this area deltoid tuberosity- is a rough, raised area near the midpoint of the lateral surface of the shaft to which the deltoid muscle attaches 2 condyles at the distal end of the humerus 1. capitulum- the lateral condyle articulating with the radius 2. trochlea- the medial condyle, which articulates with the ulna lateral and medial epicondyles- located superior to the 2 condyles coronoid fossa- the depression on the anterior surface just superior to the trochlea olecranon fossa- is in similar location on the posterior surface of the humerus b. Radius (2)- found at the lateral side of the ulna; is shorter and smaller than the ulna. The disklike head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and enables the head to rotate when the position of the hand is changed from palm up to palm down.

radial tuberosity- a short distance below the head; the attachment site for the biceps brachii muscle, a major flexor of the arm neck- located between the head and the tuberosity styloid process- present at the distal end of the radius, at the articulation with the hand c. Ulna (2)- elbow bone, the largest bone of the forearm, located at the medial side of the radius olecranon process- proximal posterior prominence of the ulna, forms the point of the elbow and fits into the olecranon fossa when the arm is extended semilunar notch- a depression that articulates with the trochlea of the humerus coronoid process- a small eminence at the anterior margin of the trochlear notch head- knoblike, located at the distal end of ulna that articulates with the radius and a fibrocartilaginous disk that separates it from the hand. Styloid process- is the distal medial prominence d. Carpus or wrist (16)- composed of 8 small bones united by ligaments: arranged in two rows and closely joined together, yet they allow certain amount of motion e. Metacarpus or body of the hand (10)- composed of five bones curved longitudinally, behind, concave in front. They articulate at their bases with second row of carpal bones, and with the first row of phalanges. f. Phalanges (28)- bones of the fingers; 14 in number, 3 for each finger and 2 for its thumb

Identify the parts of the upper limbs.

3. The Pelvic Girdle or Pelvis- is formed by two coxal bones (hipbones), the sacrum and the coccyx. Parts of a coxal bone- consists of 3 separate parts in children 1. ilium- broad upper bone whose superior margin forms the iliac crest, the ridgelike prominence of the hip. The iliac crest extends between the anterior superior spine and the posterior superior spine. Just inferior to each of these prominences are smaller iliac spines: the anterior inferior spine and the posterior inferior spine. 2. ischium- is the lower posterior portion 3. pubis- the lower anterior part

symphysis pubis- anterior articulation of coxal bones articulate with each other sacroiliac joints- posterior articulation of the coxal bones with the sacrum acetabulum- a large cup-shaped fossa is located at the junction of the ilium, ischium and pubis on the lateral surface of each coxal bone; receives the head of the femur greater sciatic notch- between the posterior inferior spine and the ischial spine lesser sciatic notch- is just inferior to the ischial spine tuberosity of ischium- located at the posterior inferior angle of the ischium obturator foramen- the large opening surrounded by the ischium and pubis Identify the parts of the pelvic girdle.

4. The Lower Limb a. femur (2)- the bone of the upper leg; longest bone in the body; its rounded head fits into the acetabulum of a coxal bone. 2 large processes occur at the base of the neck 1. greater trochanter- lateral process 2. lesser trochanter- medial process lateral and medial condyles- enlarged lower terminal end of the femur, which have lateral and medial epicondyles just above them

b. patella or kneecap (2)- a small, flat triangular bone located in front of the knee joint, articulates with the femur and is surrounded by a large fluidfilled bursa c. tibia or shinbone (2)- lies at the front and medial side of the leg; it articulates with the talus or ankle bone and with both ends of the fibula. lateral and medial condyles- consists the upper end of tibia that articulate with the corresponding condyles of the femur tibial tuberosity- located on the anterior surface just inferior to the condyles anterior crest- a sharp ridge evident on the shaft medial malleolus- a process at the distal end of the tibia which forms the medial prominence of the ankle d. fibula or calfbone (2)- lies at the lateral side of tibia and parallel with it, smaller than the tibia and most slender of all the long bones in proportion to its length. The lower extremity articulates with the tibia and the talus. e. tarsus or ankle (14)- there are 7 tarsal bone, the most prominent are the talus, which articulates with the tibia and fibula and the calcaneus or heelbone. f. metatarsus (10)- is formed by 5 sole bones which articulates with the tarsus and first row of phalanges. The tarsal and metatarsal bones form 2 distinct rows of arches, that running from heel to toes of the medial side is the longitudinal arch, the other running across the foot in the metatarsal region, the transverse arch. g. phalanges (28)- 14 in number, 2 in the great toe and 3 in each of the other toes.

Identify the parts of the lower limbs.

Questions: 1. Clench your fist. What bones form the raised knobs of your knuckles? 2. Flex your arm. What bones form the elbow? What is a funny bone?

3. Use your left hand to hold your right forearm near the elbow. Now rotate your right wrist from palm up to palm down. What bone is stationary? Label the parts of the human skeleton and color red the axial skeleton and yellow the appendicular skeleton.

C. Examine the joint models and the major structures of each. The Basic Functional Types 1. Synarthrotic joints- are immovable because the bones forming the joint are tightly bonded to each other by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage

2 types of immovable joints 1. sutures- are irregular joints between immovable bones of the skull. The bones are bonded together by fibrous connective tissue that is continuous with the periosteum on the outer surface of the bones and with the dura mater on the inner surface of the bones. 2. sychondroses- have cartilage as the bonding tissue e.g. the bonding of the epiphyses to the diaphysis by the epiphyseal cartilages in the long bones of children 2. Amphiarthrotic joints- are slightly movable; also bound by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage but not as tightly as in immovable joints. 2 types of slightly movable joints 1. symphyses- have a cushioning pad of fibrocartilage between the bones e.g. symphysis pubis and intervertebral disc; adjacent to the cartilaginous pads, the articular surfaces of the bones are covered with articular cartilages that reduce friction in the joint. The joint is wrapped in a fibrous capsule formed of ligaments. 2. sydesmoses- lack fibrocartilage, but the bones are held together by fibrous connective tissue forming interosseous ligaments e.g. attachment of the fibula to the tibia 3. Diarthrotic- are freely movable; bones are bound together by a fibrous articular capsule formed of ligaments. A synovial membrane lines the inside of the capsule and secretes synovial fluid that lubricates the joint. The articular surfaces of the bones are covered by protective, friction-reducing articular cartilages. These joints may also contain bursae, sacs of synovial fluid that reduce friction. 6 kinds of synovial joints 1. gliding joints- occur between small bones with flat or slightly convex surfaces e.g. carpal and tarsal bones. 2. hinge joints- allow movement in only one plane e.g. elbow and knee 3. condyloid joints- allow movement in two planes; they are formed by a rounded condyle articulating with an elliptical depression e.g. between carpus and radius 4. saddle joints- occur where the ends of both bones are saddle-shaped, convex in one direction and concave in the other e.g. the joint between the trapezium (a carpal bone) and the metacarpal bone of the thumb, which permits a variety of movements 5. pivot joints- allow rotational movement around a pivot point e.g. atlas around the odontoid process of the axis 6. ball-and-socket joints- allow angular movement in all directions e.g. shoulder and hip joints

Identify the types of joints and label the parts.

Identify the parts of a shoulder joint.