7

POPULAR IDEAS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING: FACTS AND OPINIONS

In che Introduccin, wepresented a numberofcommonlyex'pfessedopinions abouc how languages are iearned. We asked yon co indicace how scrongly you agreed wich chese opinions. Now chac you have read abouc some of che cheory and research in second language acquisicion, cake anocher look ac chose ideas. Have you changed your mind abouc che imporcance of imicacion or groupwork, or whecher scarcing second language instruccin early is really che bese approach? Or do you reel chac your views abouc SLA have only been confirmed by che discusson in che precedng chapters? To conclude chis incroduccion co SLA research, here are our own resc nses co chese popular ideas abouc language learning.

1 Languages are learned mainly through imitation

It is difficult co find supporc for che argumenc chac languages are iearned mainly chrough imicacion. For one thing, learners produce many novel sencences chat they could not have heard before. These sentences are frased on che learners' developing understanding of how che language system works. This is particularly cvidenc wich chidrcn who say chings like: Tm hiccing up and I can't stop' and 'It was upside down but I turned it upside righc' or wich second language learners who say 'The cowboy rided inco cown' or 'The man chac I spoke co him is angry.' These examples and many others provide evidence chat language learners do noc simply incernalze a greac Use of imicated and memorized sentences. This does noc mean, however, chat imitacin has no role co play in anguage learning. Some chidren imicace a great deal as chey acquire their first language. Yet their language does noc develop fascer or becccr chan chat of chidren who rarely imicace. Furchermore, chidren do not imicaceeverything chey hear, buc often selecciveiv imtate certain words or scruccures which they are in the process of learning.

Second language learners Aso produce many sentences that they could not have heard. In this way, they are ke children learning their frst language. Some second language earners may find that they benefc from opportunities to imtate samples of the new language, and imitacin is clearly imporcanc in developing proficiency in pronunciacin and intonation. For some advanced learners who are determined to improve their pronunciation, careful liscening and imitacin in a language laboracory can be very valuablc. But For beginning learners, the savish imitacin and rote n morizarion that characcerized audiolmgual language approaches co language teaching ted many earners co a dead end. They could recice bies of perfecrly accurace language, but che lack of praccice in truggling to understand and make chemselves underscood in genuineiy meaningful nceraction leh many earners with little more than a colection orsentences, watingfor che moment when thosesentences would be useful!

The case for second language learners is more complex. Whiie it is clear thac older children and adults can acquire a great deal of language withouc any formal instruction, the evidence suggescs chat, withouc correcrive feedback and guidance, second language learners may persisc in using certain ungrammatical forms foryears.

3 People with high IQs are good language learners

The kind of inceligence which is measured by IQ ceses is a good predictor cor suecess in classrooms where che emphasis is on iearning about the language (for exampe, grammar rules and vocabulary iteras). In addicion, peope who do well on IQ ceses may do well on ocher kinds of ceses as well. However, in natura] language learning settings and in classrooms where language acquistion chrough ineeracrive anguage use is emphasized, research has shown that learners with a wide varieey of ncellectual abilicies can be successfu language learners. This is espedally crue if che skills which are assessed are oral communication skills rarher than mecalinguistic knowledge.

2 Parents usually correctyoung children when they make grammatical errors

There is considerable variation in the extenc to which parencs correcc their children's speech. The variation is based party on che children's age. When children are very young pre-schoolers, parents rarely commenc on grammacica errors alchoughmey may correcclapsesinpolieenessor che choiceof a word chat doesn'c make sense. As children reach school age, parencs often correct the kinds of non-standard speech thac they hope their children will outgrow, for exampe, 'Me and Fred are going outside now.* The parents' own sociotinguistic background is also a source of variacin in the amounc and kind of correction they engage in. Some parents hcar nothing wrong in the grammar of Thac's che boy who I gave my books to' v.'Kile ochers will insist on Lto whom'. Nevertheess, extensve observations of parencs and chiidren show that, as a rule, parents cend co focus on meaning rather than form when chey correct children's speech. Thus, chey may correcc an incorrect word choice, an incorrecr stacemenc of the faces, or a rude remark, but chey either do not notice or do not react to errors which do not interfere with successful communication. Whac this tells us is that children cannoc depend on consistenc corrective feedback in order to learn the basic structure (the word order, the grammatical morphemes, che intonacion patterns) of cheir anguage. Forcunacely, they appear to be able co acquire che adule form of che language wich little or no explcit feedback.

4 The most important factor in second language acquisition suecess is motivation

Everyone agrees chac earners who wanc co learn tend eo do becter chan chose who don'c. But we muse guard against too scrong an inrerprecation of chis. Somecimes, even highy mocivaced learners encouncer greac difficulcies in improving their masteryof che language. Weknow, for exampe, ehac learners who begin learning a second language as adults rarely achieve the fiuencyand accuracy chac children do in firsr anguage acquisicion.This failure co achieve naeive-like abiicy cannoc be caken as evidence chac adule second Unguage learners are not moeivaced co iearn che anguage. \Ve also know chat in a group of highy motivated second language learners, thcre are always chose who are more successful chan oehers. This is somecimes due co difrerences in language learning apccude and in how the instruction interacts weh individual learners' styles and preferences for learning. Clearly, ceachers have no influence over a learners incrinsic mocivacion for learning a second language. Learners come inco our classrooms from dfferenc backgrounds and life experiences, al of which have contribuced co cheir arcicudes roward and motivation eo learn che cargec language. The principal way chat teachers can influence learners' motivation is by making the classroom a suppbrtive envronment in which students are stmulaced, engaged n acrivicies which are appropriace co cheir age, intereses and culcura! backgrounds, and, most importantly, where seudencs can experience suecess. This incurr can contribuce to positive mocivacion, eading co scill greaeer suecess.

/ 64

Popular ideas about anguage learning: facts and opinins

Popular ideas about language learning:facts and opinin*

5 The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, thegreater the likelihoodof success in learning
The decisin about whenco introduce second ororeign language instruccin muse depend on the objectives of the language program in the particular social context or che school. When the objeccive is nativc-lke pf ormance in the second language, then it may be desirabe to begn exposure to the language as early as possible. The research evidence is fairly strong that only those who begin second ianguage learning at an early age will eventually be indistinguishable from native speakers. However, even in cases where such high levis of skill are targeted, it is importanttorecognizecerraindisadvantagesofan early start, especialy when an early start in second language means that children have little upportunicy to continu to develop their knowledge of their first ianguage. Subtracrive bilingualism may have lasting negative consequences. For children from minority-language backgrounds, programs promoting the development of che frst language at home and at school may be more important for long-term success in the second language than an early start in the second language icself Research shows that a eood foundation in the child's first lanouase, includine f O O O the development of literacy, is a sound base to build on. Children who can begin their schooing in a language they aready k-iow will have more selfconfidence, will be able to learn more effecciveiy in the early schoo years, and wil not lose valuable time in a period of limbo during which they struggle just to understand what is happening in the classroom. Clearly, for many children, there is no opportunity to have cheir eary schooing in their first language. They are members of a small minority group where it is not practical for schools to offer chem an educational program n their first language, or they Uve in jurisdictions where legislacin has mandared a single language of education for all children, regardless of their background. For chese children, it is crucial to have sensitive educators who respect the chdren's difficulty, who encourageparencs to maintain the home language, and who understand that second language Eearning takes time and effbrt. For foreign language instruccin or for second language instruction where the leve! of proficiency which is targeted is not native-like performance by al students, the situacin is quite different. V/hen the goal of the educacional program ^is basic communicative skil for ail students, and where there is a strong coimmitment to maincaining and developing the child s firsc language, it can be more efficient co begin second language teaching later. Oder children (for example, 10-year olds) are able to catch up very quickly on those

who began earlier (for example, at or 7 years od) in programs offering only a few hours a week of instruction. This is especialy true if the foreign language course includes a period of more intensive exposure to the new language. All school programs should be based on realistic estimates of how long it takes to learn a second language. One or two hours a week - even for seven or eighc years - will not produce very advanced second tanguage speakers. This 'dripfeed' approach often leads to frustration as learners feel chat they have been .studying'for years'withcK. - making much progress. Sadly, they are sometimes righc about this.

6 Most ofthe mistakes which second langiu:^e learners make are dte to interferencefrom their first language
The cransfer ot patterns from the native language is undoubtedly one of the major sources of errors in learner language. However, there are other causes for errors coo, one of which is overgeneralizadon oftarget-language rules. For example, research has shown chat second language learners from different first-language backgrounds often make che same kinds of errors when learning a particular second anguage. In such cases, secon<l-language errors are evidence of the learners'efforts to discover the strucr ir of the carget language itself racher than attempts to transfer pacterns from their first langua^e. nterestindv, some of chese errors are remarkably similar co che D O O / ' kinds of errors made by first ianguage learners. These observations are a strong indicacin chat second language learning is not simply a process of putting second-language words into first-language sencences. Research has also shown thac aspeccs of che second language which are differenc from the first language will not necessarily be acquired later or with more difficulcy chan those aspects which are similar. On the other hand, when errors are caused by the overextension of some parcial similarity becween the first and second languages, these errors may be difficult co overeme. This may be particularly problematic if learners are frequently in contact wich other learners who make the same errors.

7 Teachers shouldpresent grammatical rules one at a time, and learners shouldpractise examples of each one beforegoing on to another
Language learning is not simply linear in ics development. Learners may use a particular form accurately at stage x (suggescing thac chey have learned that form), fail co produce that form acscage Y, and produce it accurately agan ac

Popular ideas about language learning: facts and opinions scage z. The decline in accuracy may show chac learners are incorporacing new informacin abone che language inco cheir own incernal system of rules. An example of chis vvouid be when learners who have learned rhe pase cense form 'wenc' as a memorized 'chunk' learn co use che regular -ed infeccion for pase cense marking. Ae chis poinc, they stop using'wenc'and produce'goed'. Once learners become aware of che excepcions co che -ed pase cense rule, ehey be<*in co use 'wenc'correceiy again. This provides evidence chae language devetopmenc s noc juse adding rule afeer rule, bue eegracing new rules inco an exiscing syseem of rules, readjusring and rescruceuring uneil all che pieces fie. Some seructure-based approaches co teaching are based on che false assumpti rhac second language developmene is linear. This can be seen in che organizark ; i of cexcbooks whch incroduce a particular language feaeure in che firsc unic and reinforce t in severa! subsequent unies before rnoving onco che nexc feature.This isolated presentacin and praccice of one structure aca time does noc provde learners with an opporcuniey eo discover how differenc language features compare and concrasc in normal language use.

9 Learners errors skould be corrected as soon as they are made in order toprevent theformation of badhabits
Errors are a natural pare of language fearning. This is crue of the development of a chiid's firsc language as well as ofsecond language earning by children and adults. The errors revea! che paccerns of learners' developing interia uage syscems - showing where they have overgeneralized a second language rule or where they have inappropriacely transferred a first language rule to the second laneuaee. 3 O When errors are persistene, especially when they are shared by almost all scudencs in a class, ic is useful co bring the problem to rhe learners' ateencion. This does noc mean earners should be expected co adopc che correcc form or scruccure immediacey or consistencly. If che error is based on a developmen tal paeeern, che correccin may only be useful when the learner is ready for it. c may thus require many repecitions. Teachers have a responsibilicy to help learners do cheir bese, and chis someeimes means drawing their attencion eo persistene errors. Excessive feedback on error can have a negacive effecc on mocivaeion, of course, and ceachers muse be sensitive co the way their scudenes reacc co correccin. The kindof correccin which is offered will also vary according to che specific characeeriscics of che scudenes. Children and adults with lictle education in their firsc language wil! not benefit greatly from sophiscicaced mecalingustic explanations, but unversity studencs who are advanced learners of che language may find such explanaeions of greac valu, mmediace reaccin to errors in an oral communicaeionseccing may embarrass some studencs and discourage chem from speaking, whie for others, such correccin is exactly whac is needed to help them noticc a persiscenc error at juse che momene when ic occurs. The research on corrective feedback does show chac, n classroms which are concenc basec (for example, immersion classes), feedback which is given exclusively or principally in che form of conversacional 'recascs' passes unnociced. Learners may not recognize it as correction unless the teacher has a method of signaling to che scudenc- chrough tone of voice, agescure, or facial expression - which says co che seudent, 1 think I understand whac you are saying andTm cellingyou how you can say ic better.'

8 Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones

Research has shown chac no maccer how language is presenced to learr ?rs, certain structures are acquired before ochers. This suggescs chac it is neicher necessary or desirable co resericc learners' exposure to certain lnguistic struccures which are perceived in linguiscic cerms co be 'simple' - parcicularly when chis nvoves che isolated presentation, orderng, and praccice of 'simple' co 'complex' feacures. At the same time, chere s no doubt chac second lan^uas-c learners benefie from o o che efforts of native speakers and fluenc bilinguals co modiry their speech to help second language learners underscand. This modified speech contains a variety of linguiscic scruceures, but omics compex forms. c also incudes a range of conversacional adjuscments which enable second language learners co engage in inceractions wich native and more advanced speakers of the second ianguage more easily. Teachers, like parents, appear co be able co increase the complexicy of cheir language intuicively as che learners proficiency increases. Teachers must also be aware, however, chac some linguiscic forms are so rare in cheir everyday speech chac learners have very litcle opportunicy eo hear, use, and learn them f che teacher does noc make a point of providing chem. These are not necessarily difficult or compiex forms, however. As we saw in Chapcer tpages 131-2), n study 13 carrted out in incensve communicative ESL classes in Quebec, ceachers almost never used adverbs!

10 Teachers shoud use materials that expose students only to language structures which they have already been taught
Such a procedure can provide comprehensible inpuc ofcourse, bucgiven a meaningfulcontextlearners can comprehend che general meaningof many forms which chey cercanly have not 'mastered' and, indeed, may never have produced. Thus, resrricting classroom second languar macerials co those which coatain ltele or noching which is new may have several negarive consequences. There will undoubcedly be a loss or mocivacion if scudencs are not sufficienrly challenged. Scudents also need co deal wich 'real' or 'authencic' macerial if chey are evencually gong co be prepared for ianguage use oucside che cassroom. They do chis HSC with che ceacher's guidance and chen independencly. Restricting studencs co scep-by-step exposure co che language excends cheir dependency. When a parcicular form is incroduced for the first time, or when che teacher feels chere s a need for correccin of a persiscenc problem, it is appropriace co use narrow-focus macerials which isolace one elemenc in a concexc where ocher chings seem easy. Buc ic would be a disservice to studencs co use such macerials exclusively or even predominantly. We shoud remember chac learners who successfully acquire English outside ciassrooms cercainly are exposed co a varety of forms and scruccures which chey have nocmascered.

Group work is a valuable addicion co che variety or accvicies which encourage and promote second language devetopment. Used in combinacin wich individual work and teacher-centred activices, ic plays an imporcanc role in communicacive laneuaee ceachne. O O C>

12 Students learn what they are taught

Clearly, second language learners can only iearn the language chey are exposed co. Butitisccrtaii. ./not the case chac students learn everyching chey are taught or chat chey evencually know only whac chey are taught. Some teaching mechods cypically give learners che opporcunicy co lea r :. only a very restricted number or words and sentence cypes. Even when le language ceaching method provides much richer language input, che race thac someching is taught or made available in che inpuc does not mean learners will acquire it right away. For example, so me aspeccs of che second language develop according co 'natural' sequences of development and learners may be more likely to learn cercain language reatures when chey are developmentally 'ready', Thus, actempts co ceach aspeccs of anguage which are too far away from che learners current stage or developmenc will usualy be rruscracing. Ocher aspeccs of language, however, ror example, vor-ibulary, can be taughc ac any time, as longas che learners are inceresced in che ppporcunity co learn and che teaching methods are appropriace co che leat ner's age, incerescs, and learning scyles. Foccunately, research has also shown chat learners can learn a greac deal chac no-one ever ceaches chem. They are able co use cheir own incernal learning mechanisms co discover many of che complex rules and relationships which underle the language they wish to learn. Studencs, in chis sense, may be said to learn much more than they are caughc.

11 When learners are allowed to interactfreely (for example, ingroup orpairactivities), they learn each others* mistakes
There is good evidence that, if the casks are we designed, learners working in groups gec far more practice in speaking and participating in conversations in group work chan they ever could in a teacher-centred class. Somewhac surprisingly, the research has also shown thac learners do or produce any more errors in cheir speech when calking to learners ac similar levis of proficiency than chey do when speaking co learners ac more advanced levis or co native speakers. This research also shows, however, that learners at similar levis cannot provide each other wich informacin which would help to corrccc those errors. Some other studies show that tasks can be devised in such a way rhat learners working cogecher can discover informacin or knowledge about the second language chey didn't know they had. In order ror chis co happen, the tasks must be carefully planned and che earners muse have access to che correct language forms they are crying to discover.

Conclusin
Knowing more about second language acquisirion research will not cell yo u whac co do in your classroom tomorrow morning. We hope, however, thac chis book has provided you wich informacin which encourages you to reflect on your experience in teaching. We hope, in addicion, chac chis reeleccin will contribute to a becter underscanding of your responsibilicies as a teacher and those of your scudencs as language learners. As we have seen, language learning is afFected by many faccors. Among chese are che personal characteristics cf che learner, che scructure of the nacive and target languages, opportunicies for inceraccion with speakers of the carget language, and access to correction and form-focused instruccin. It is clear that ceachers do not have control over all chese faccors. However, a beccer

*3&itMiHiwffMSSi&i&

Thts series is designed fo provide a spuree of reference for both 'language teachcrs and teacher trainers. Each titfe is ntended to serve bothas a basisfqrcourss and seminars, and asa longer-

termrefefeocetfxtfprtneworkingteacher'sbookshelf.

"'

&-i..z&Sfc'
REV1SED EDITIO

'

^^iTO^omp!ete^revsed^itd updated editroiteHhir^r*j~.*jeeadable introduclion to the sttdy of language acquisiKmT" ^;r By"mdrstaiuinglioiwlaf|.gages'are Ieamed,teachers will ' ^ b^nvbB^ibltojui3ttiemeilts of differentteachng S'?laetlbpesa^te^^oojt^andmaketheniostpfthe;: ;^r /^me.^ey,spieridwth lamela /ow a ngages areteamed ^;&^^;jap^ ?; ahd questionaires, discussfes their bractcal implicatiori? for
- ." -*5*" ' " ...- , ' ... ' . -

'"." ',f '"-V ".'f'W&v -WSt - '

LTSYUGcrBOWNsPlofessorErneritusofApplieil gLiit^'r^roi^4ia,U.ni^ tiA SPADA is Prof ess or in the Modern Language Centre at IS^/Ura^rsitjr qflbrnjti;Toronto, Canad.

'*'

-t*|

complexities.of language acqusition.'

.. 'A sensible book mercifullyfreeof argn,'

The cleaclywrrttenfindings will

tefterjudgesofthepotehtiafei - .- ' * . - - " . * * *'*^-c . .' *^ i . i ..
i. ,

'metnodologiea'prpoisats;', . EtGqzette - --,

OXPORD
TJNIVERSITY PRESS QJ flj^

www.oup.com/elt

Il780194';i3'7aoa4