1.

Pascal's law states that pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its interior surfaces and equally upon equal areas. Practical applications of the law are seen in hydraulic machines.

A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid to the walls of its container. Pascals principle put more simply, basically means that an incompressible fluid transmits pressure. This is the basis to hydraulic lever. In a hydraulic lever, for example, you apply a force to the left-hand piston over a given area, this force is then transformed in to a pressure which is transmitted through the hydraulic fluid or oil. This pressure then transforms back in to an output force over another given area for the right-hand piston.Pascal's law developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container. Definition of pressure: If F is the magnitude of the normal force on the piston and A is the surface area of a piston, then the pressure, P, of the fluid at the level to which the device has been submerged as the ratio of the force to area. Since the pressure is force per unit area, it has units of N/m2 in the SI system. Another name for the SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) An important application of Pascal's law is the hydraulic press. A force F1 is applied to a small piston of area A1. The pressure is transmitted through a liquid to a larger piston of area A2. Since the pressure is the same on both sides, we see that P = F1/A1 = F2/A2. Therefore, the force F2 is larger than F1 by multiplying factor A2/A1. Hydraulic brakes, car lifts, hydraulic jacks, and forklifts all make use of this principle. Applications

The siphon The underlying principle of the hydraulic jack and hydraulic press Force amplification in the braking system of most motor vehicles. Used in artesian wells, water towers, and dams. Scuba divers must understand this principle. At a depth of 10 meters under water, pressure is twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level, and increases by about 100 kPa for each increase of 10 m depth.

Pascal's principle underlies the Hydraulic press.

2. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear or tensile

stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).[1] Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosityfelsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

The study of flowing matter is known as rheology, which includes viscosity and related concepts. in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the shear stress between the layers that ultimately opposes any applied force. The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained by considering two plates closely spaced at a distance y, and separated by a homogeneous substance. Assuming that the plates are very large, with a large area A, such that edge effects may be ignored, and that the lower plate is fixed, let a force F be applied to the upper plate. If this force causes the substance between the plates to undergo shear flow with a velocity gradient u/y (as opposed to just shearing elastically until the shear stress in the substance balances the applied force), the substance is called a fluid. The applied force is proportional to the area and velocity gradient in the fluid:

, where is the proportionality factor called dynamic viscosity.

This equation can be expressed in terms of shear stress . Thus as expressed in differential form by Isaac Newtonfor straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress between layers is proportional to the velocity gradient in the directionperpendicular to the layers:

Hence, through this method, the relation between the shear stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained.

Note that the rate of shear deformation is

which can be also written as a shear velocity,

The temperature dependence of liquid viscosity is the phenomenon by which liquid viscosity tends to decrease (or, alternatively, its fluidity tends to increase) as its temperature increases. This can be observed, for example, by watching how cooking oil appears to move more fluidly upon a frying pan after being heated by a stove. It is usually expressed by one of the following models:

Exponential model
where T is temperature and 0 and b are coefficients. See first-order fluid and second-order fluid. This is an empirical model that usually works for a limited range of temperatures. The model is based on the assumption that the fluid flow obeys the Arrhenius equation for molecular kinetics:

where T is temperature, 0 is a coefficient, E is the activation energy and R is the universal gas constant. A first-order fluid is another name for a power-law fluid with exponential dependence of viscosity on temperature. Kinematic vs Dynamic Viscosity Dynamic viscosity, which is also referred to as absolute viscosity, or just viscosity, is the quantitative expression of a fluids resistance to flow (shear). Fluid dynamicists, chemical engineers and mechanical engineers commonly consider the use of the Greek letter mu () as the symbol to denote dynamic viscosity. Chemists and physicists, on the other hand, normally use n as a symbol. Kinematic viscosity, on the other hand, is a ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force. Inertial force is characterized by fluid density (p). Kinematic viscosity is symbolized by the Greek letter nu (v). Kinematic viscosity is mathematically defined as: v = / p For SI units, it is expressed as m^2/s. Kinematic viscosity is also expressed in stokes (St) or centistokes (ctsk or cSt), for cgs units. It is named after George Gabriel Stokes. It should be noted that water (H2O) at 20 degrees centigrade is about 1 cSt. Kinematic viscosity is sometimes called the diffusivity of momentum, due to the fact that it has the same unit when compared to the diffusivity of mass and diffusivity of heat. Therefore, it is used in dimensionless numbers, which compares the ratio of the diffusivities. Summary: 1. Dynamic viscosity is the quantitative expression of fluids resistance to flow, while Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the fluids viscous force to the inertial force. 2. Dynamic viscosity is symbolized by either or n, while Kinematic viscosity is mathematically symbolized by v. 3. In a cgs unit system, dynamic viscosity is in a unit called poise, which is taken from the name of Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille, while Kinematic viscosity is expressed in stokes (St) or centistokes (ctsk or cSt), which are named after George Gabriel Stokes. 4. Dynamic viscosity is sometimes referred to as absolute viscosity, or just viscosity, while Kinematic viscosity is sometimes called the diffusivity of momentum.

3.
Bernoullis Theorem
It states that the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) of an incompressible and nonviscous fluid in steady flow through a pipe remains constant throughout the flow, provided there is no source or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe. This statement is based on the assumption that there is no loss of energy due to friction.

Mathematically, for unit mass of fluid flowing through a pipe. P/ + gh + 1/2 V2 = constant Proof of Bernoullis Theorem
To prove Bernoullis theorem, we make the following assumptions:

..... (i)

1. The liquid is incompressible. 2. The liquid is nonviscous. 3. The flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is less than the critical velocity for the liquid. Imagine an incompressible and nonviscous liquid to be flowing through a pipe of varying crosssectional area as shown in Fig. The liquid enters the pipe with a normal velocity v11 and at a height h1 above the reference level (earths surface). It leaves the pipe with a normal velocity v2 at the narrow end B of crosssectional area a2 and at a height h2 above the earths surface. at its wide end A of crosssectional area a If r is the density of the incompressible liquid, then in accordance with the equation of continuity, the mass m of the liquid crossing any section of the pipe is given by a1 v1 = a2 v2 = m (say) or a1 v1 = a2 v2 = m/

..... (ii)

Let P1 and P2 be the values of the pressure due to the liquid at the ends A and B respectively. If the liquid moves from the end A to B under the action of pressure difference P1 P2, then in accordance with energy conservation principle, the work done by the pressure energy of the liquid must appear as the increase in potential and kinetic energies of the liquid. The pressure energy exerts a force P1 a1 on the liquid at the end A. The liquid covers a distance v1 in one second at the end A and therefore Work done per second on the liquid at the end A =
1

a1 v1

The liquid reaches the end B against pressure P2 i.e. against a force P2 a2. At the end B, the liquid covers a distance v2 in one second and therefore Work done per second by the liquid at the end B =
2

a2 v 2

Hence, net work done by the pressure energy in moving the liquid from the end A to B in one second = a1 v1 2 a2 v2 Using the equation (ii), we have
1

Net work done by the pressure energy per second =

m/ p2 m/ = (

) m/

... (iii)

When the mass m of the liquid flows in one second from the end A to B, its height increases from h1 to h2. Therefore, increase in potential energy of the liquid per second = m g h2 m g h1 = m g (h2 h1) (iv)

Further, when the mass m of the liquid flows in one second from the end A to B, its velocity increases from v1 to v2.
Therefore, increase in kinetic energy of the liquid per second = 1/2 mv22 1/2 mv12 = 1/2 m(v22 v12)

...

(v)

According to work-energy conservation principle,

Work done by the pressure energy per second = increase in potential energy per second + increase in kinetic energy per second

Therefore (P1 P2) = m/? = mg (h2 h1) + 1/2 m(v22 v02) or P1/? P2/? = gh2 gh1 + 1/2 v22 1/2 v12 or P1/? + gh1 + 1/2 v12 = P2/? + gh2 + 1/2 v22 ..... (vi) or P/? + gh + 1/2 v2 = constant
It proves the Bernoulli's theorem. This is the most convenient form of Bernoulli's equation. However, it can be expressed in some other forms as explained below:

Multiplying both sides of the equation (vi) by ?, we have

P1 + ?gh1 + 1/2 ?v12 = P2 + ?gh2 + 1/2 ?v22

... (vii)

In this equation, each term has got dimension of pressure.

Again, dividing both sides of the equation (vi) by g, we have P1/?g + h1 + v12/2g = P2/?g + h2 + v22/2g
2

..... (viii)

In this equation, each term has got dimensions of length. The terms P/?g, h and v /2g are called pressure head, elevation (or gravitational) head and velocity head respectively. When the liquid flows through a horizontal pipe (h1 = h2), then the equation (vi) becomes
P1/ + 1/2 v12 + P2/ + 1/2 v22

1. In fluid mechanics, the statement that in a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one
part is transmitted without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container. The principle was first stated by Blaise Pascal, who also discovered that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions, and that the pressure would be the same on all planes passing through a specific point. A law of physics which states that a confined fluid transmits externally applied pressure uniformly in all directions. More exactly, in a static fluid, force is transmitted at the velocity of sound throughout the fluid. The force acts normal to any surface. This natural phenomenon is the basis of the pneumatic fire, balloon, hydraulic jack, and related devices. Pascal's law or the Principle of transmission of fluid-

pressure states that "pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure ratio (initial difference) remains the same."[1] The law was established by French mathematician Blaise Pascal.[2]

where

P is the hydrostatic pressure (given in pascals in the SI system), or the difference in pressure at
two points within a fluid column, due to the weight of the fluid; is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system); g is acceleration due to gravity

h is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in elevation between
the two points within the fluid column (in metres in SI). The intuitive explanation of this formula is that the change in pressure between two elevations is due to the weight of the fluid between the elevations. Note that the variation with height does not depend on any additional pressures. Therefore Pascal's law can be interpreted as saying that any change in pressure applied at any given point of the fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid. Equation: (P1)(V1) = (P2)(V2)

Applications The underlying principle of the hydraulic press Used for amplifying the force of the driver's foot in the braking system of most cars and trucks. Used in artesian wells, water towers, and dams. Scuba divers must understand this principle. At a depth of 10 meters under water, pressure is twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level, and increases by about 105 kPa for each increase of 10 m depth.

2. Resistance of a fluid to a change in shape, or movement of neighbouring portions relative to

one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to flow. It may also be thought of as internal friction between the molecules. Viscosity is a major factor in determining the forces that must be overcome when fluids are used in lubrication or transported in pipelines. It also determines the liquid flow in spraying, injection molding, and surface coating. The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature, while that of gases increases with an increase in temperature. The SI unit for viscosity is the newton-second per square metre (N-s/m2). The material property that measures a fluid's resistance to flowing. For example, water flows from a tilted jar more quickly and easily than honey does. Honey is more viscous than water, so although gravity creates nearly the same stresses in honey and water, the more viscous fluid flows more slowly. gradient or shear rate, = distance between plates."> Planar Couette flow. vx = fluid velocity at distance y above the stationary plate, = velocity gradient or shear rate, = distance between plates. The viscosity can be measured where the fluid of interest is sheared between two flat plates which are parallel to one another (see illustration). This is known as planar Couette flow. The shear stress is the ratio of the tangentialforce F needed to maintain the moving plate at a constant velocity V to the plate area A. The shear flow created between the plates has the velocity profile given by Eq. (1), 1. where vx is the velocity parallel to the plates at a perpendicular distance y above the stationary plate. The coefficient , called the velocity gradient or shear rate, is given by V/, where is the distance between the plates. It is expected that the shear stress increases with increasing shear rate but that the ratio of these two quantities depends only on the fluid between the plates. This ratio is used to define the shear viscosity, , as in Eq. (2). The shear viscosity may depend on temperature, pressure,

2. and shear rate.

1 absolute viscosity is the commulative resistance offered by fluid against flow while kinematic viscosity is the rate of flow of unit section(differential linear element) of flow........as the unit indicates cm.cm/sec
1. Kinematic is related to the cross section of fluid passing through an area in a unit of time.

Dynamic is related to the mass quantity per (meter * second) passing through a volume of space. 2. Dynamic viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear flow. Kinematic viscosity is a ratio of the dynamic viscosity and density of a fluid,
3. Dynamic viscosity is also called just viscosity, or the coefficient of viscosity and is . This is a measure of a fluid's resistance to shear flow, eg, how 'thick' it is.Kinematic viscosity is a ratio of the dynamic viscosity and density of a fluid,

where v is kinematic viscosity, n is viscosity, and p is density.

Proof of Bernoulli's theorem

Consider a fluid of negligible viscosity moving with laminar flow.

Let the velocity, pressure and area of the fluid column be v1, P1 and A1 at Q and v2, P2 and A2 at R. Let the volume bounded by Q and R move to S and T where QS = L1, and RT = L2. If the fluid is incompressible: A1L1 = A2L2 The work done by the pressure difference per unit volume = gain in k.e. per unit volume + gain in p.e. per unit volume. Now: Work done = force x distance = p x volume Net work done per unit volume = P1 - P2 k.e. per unit volume = mv2 = V v2 = v2 (V = 1 for unit volume) Therefore: k.e. gained per unit volume = (v22 - v12) p.e. gained per unit volume = g(h2 h1) where h1 and h2 are the heights of Q and R above some reference level. Therefore: P1 - P2 = (v12 v22) + g(h2 - h1) P1 + v12 + gh1 = P2 + v22 + gh2 Therefore:

P + v2 + gh is a constant
For a horizontal tube h1 = h2 and so we have:

P + v2 = a constant
6.(i) laminar flow is an ideal flow type in which all the liquid pariticles at a given point travelin a straight line and uniform velocity[mostly thoeretical], but turbulent is an zig-zag type of flow with varying velocity and phase used in flow analysis.. (ii) For laminar flow molecules move in an undisturbed Straight lines, Whereas in turbulent flow molecules move
in every direction and across the main flow stream.

(iii)In laminar flow the fluid moves in separate layers. The current lines are parallel to the pipe axis even when velocity remains unchanged and has low values. The flow is turbulent when there is intensive rearrangement of particles because of the existence of cross and some other vortices of particles. The difference between these two types of flow is the fluid velocity. In laminar flow the velocity of the fluid is comparatively low. It was found that the transition from laminar to turbulent motion is not a gradual process but occurs spontaneously and at a leap. The Reynolds number is used to determine the difference between the two regimes. (iv)To calculate this number we have to know the pipe diameter and the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. This is extremely important when channels, that convey air from one point to another, have to be estimated as well as for pipe networks, used to carry water or another fluid for the radiator heating system, water radiant, convector heating, etc. The velocity at which one of these regimes changes into the other is called critical or the Reynolds number is critical. (v)It was determined experimentally that all real flows with Reynolds number smaller than 2320 are laminar and if Re is between 2320 and 13800 then the two types of flow are possible. When the velocity of the fluid is greater than 13800, the flows are only turbulent. If the above characteristics are not met, the turbulence flow becomes much greater than normal. Consequently, a significant increase of the static pressure of the duct distributing system will occur and the preinstalled factory blower will not be able to keep up with CFM requirements, thereby causing the decrease of the COP rating of the unit itself.

6. Laminar flow is characterized by layers, or laminas, of air moving at the same speed and in the same direction. No fluid is exchanged between the laminas and the flow need not be in a straight line. The closer the laminas are to the airfoil surface the slower they move. 1. For an ideal fluid the flow follows the curved surface smoothly, in laminas. In turbulent flow, the streamlines or flow patterns are disorganized and there is an exchange of fluid between these areas. 2. Momentum is also exchanged such that slow moving fluid particles speed up and fast moving particles give up their momentum to the slower moving particles and slow down themselves. 3. All or nearly all fluid-flow displays some degree of turbulence. From the Dictionary of Technical Terms for Aerospace Use. 4.A boundary layer in fluid mechanics is defined as the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface or the layer affected by the viscosity of the fluid. 5. Boundary layer in terms of aerodynamics as; boundary-layer thickness is measured from the surface to an arbitrarily chosen point, e.g., where the velocity is 99 percent of the stream velocity.

Thus, in aerodynamics, boundary layer by selection of the reference point, can include only the laminar boundary layer or the laminar boundary layer plus all, or a portion of, the turbulent boundary layer. 6.the laminar boundary layer in the upper photo is shown separating from the crest of the convex surface, while the turbulent boundary layer in the second photo remains attached longer with the point of separation occuring further downstream.

7. Centrifugal vs Reciprocating Pump

Pumps are devices used for displacement of fluids from one place to another. There are many types of pumps out of which more popular ones are centrifugal and reciprocating pumps. Though they serve the same purpose of transportation of liquid, there are many differences in their features and working principle that will be made clear in this article. Pumps are mainly divided into kinetic and positive displacement pumps. Difference between these two types is the way liquid is transferred. While kinetic pumps impart energy to the liquid that converts into pressure energy, positive displacement involves imparting force to the amount of liquid inside the casing. While centrifugal pump belongs to the category of kinetic pumps, reciprocating pump is a type of positive displacement pump. How centrifugal pump works? Centrifugal pumps employ a fast rotating impeller to provide kinetic energy to the incoming liquid. Impeller results in a centrifugal force that draws in liquid and increases kinetic energy of the liquid causing it to move out fast of the pump. This accelerated velocity gets converted into pressure head when it is discharged from the pump. Centrifugal pumps can transport high volumes of liquid at a time, but the performance of a centrifugal pump gets reduced as the pressure rises. How reciprocating pump works? Reciprocating pumps cause transfer of liquid through a crankshaft, eccentric cam or alternating fluid pressure acting on a piston or a plunger that has a reciprocating motion, giving the pump its name. The plunger moves back and forth through a cylinder providing pulses of pressure as it moves. The pumps are ideally suited to conditions where short burst of high pressure are required. This is why centrifugal pumps can give a high follow rate but at a low pressure. Some examples of reciprocating pumps are bicycle pumps, well pumps, and the classic hand pumps that provide water to people where there is no electricity in remote areas. Difference Between Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pump While centrifugal pumps make use of fast rotating impellers, reciprocating pumps use cylinders that have back and forth moving plungers inside. Centrifugal pumps are better suited for liquids having high viscosity whereas reciprocating pumps are ideal for liquids having low viscosity Reciprocating pumps operate at low speeds of 1150 rpm, whereas centrifugal pumps operate at high rpm of 1750-3540. There is a problem of priming whenever there is a leakage in centrifugal pumps whereas there is no such problem in reciprocating pumps. Reciprocating pumps have a constant flow and head whereas centrifugal pumps have variable flow and head. In a centrifugal pump vacuum is created by the rotary motion of the Impeller. in a reciprocating pump vaccuum is created by to and fro or reciprocating motion of the piston inside a cylinder.

reciprocating pump is a positive displace ment pump and centrifugal pump is a forced vortex flow pump. forced vortex flow means when a certain mass of liquid is forced to rotate its head increases centrifugal pumps generate desired discharge head by applying centrifugal force on water through runner...they are used to generate high discharge with

low pressure.whereas reciprocating pumps generate discharge head by pressurising water in a cylinder through reciprocating piston..they are used for generating low discharge at high pressure.. Centrifugal pump principal is dynamic action between rotating impeller and fluid. reciprocating pump principal is mechanical action b/w moving piston and stationery fluid( more suitable is liquid).

9. All pumps create flow. They operate on the displacement principle. Fluid is taken in and displaced to another point. Pumps that discharge liquid in a continuous flow are nonpositive-displacement type. Pumps that discharge volumes of liquid separated by periods of no discharge are positive-displacement type. Nonpositive-Displacement Pumps. With this pump, the volume of liquid delivered for each cycle depends on the resistance offered to flow. A pump produces a force on the liquid that is constant for each particular speed of the pump. Resistance in a discharge line produces a force in the opposite direction. When these forces are equal, a liquid is in a state of equilibrium and does not flow.If the outlet of a nonpositive-displacement pump is completely closed, the discharge pressure will rise to the maximum for a pump operating at a maximum speed. A pump will churn a liquid and produce heat. Figure shows a nonpositive-displacement pump. A water wheel picks up the fluid and moves it. Positive-Displacement Pumps. With this pump, a definite volume of liquid is delivered for each cycle of pump operation, regardless of resistance, as long as the capacity of the power unit driving a pump is not exceeded. If an outlet is completely closed, either the unit driving a pump will stall or something will break. Therefore, a positive- displacement-type pump requires a pressure regulator or pressure-relief valve in the system. Figure 3-2, shows a reciprocating-type, positivedisplacement pump. Figure 3-3, shows another positive-displacement pump. This pump not only creates flow, but it also backs it up. A sealed case around the gear traps the fluid and holds it while it moves. As the fluid flows out of the other side, it is sealed against backup. This sealing is the positive part of displacement. Without it, the fluid could never overcome the resistance of the other parts in a system.

Characteristics. The three contrasting characteristics in the operation of positive- and non positive-displacement pumps are as follows:

Nonpositive-displacement pumps provide a smooth, continuous flow; positive displacement pumps have a pulse with each

stroke or each time a pumping chamber opens to an outlet port. Pressure can reduce a nonpositive pumps delivery. High outlet pressure can stop any output; the liquid simply recirculates inside the pump. In a positive displacement pump, pressure affects the output only to the extent that it increases internal leakage. Nonpositive-displacement pumps, with the inlets and outlets connected hydraulically, cannot create a vacuum sufficient for self-priming; they must be started with the inlet line full of liquid and free of air. Positive-displacement pumps often are selfpriming when started properly.

external gear pumps are a popular pumping principle and are often used as lubrication pumps in machine tools, in fluid power transfer units, and as oil pumps in engines.External gear pumps can come in single or double (two sets of gears) pump configurations with spur (shown), helical, and herringbone gears. Helical and herringbone gears typically offer a smoother flow than spur gears, although all gear types are relatively smooth. Large-capacity external gear pumps typically use helical or herringbone gears. Small external gear pumps usually operate at 1750 or 3450 rpm and larger models operate at speeds up to 640 rpm. External gear pumps have close tolerances and shaft support on both sides of the gears. This allows them to run to pressures beyond 3,000 PSI / 200 BAR, making them well suited for use in hydraulics. With four bearings in the liquid and tight tolerances, they are not well suited to handling abrasive or extreme high temperature applications.Tighter internal clearances provide for a more reliable measure of liquid passing through a pump and for greater flow control. Because of this, external gear pumps are popular for precise transfer and metering applications involving polymers, fuels, and chemical additives.
10. Hydraulic pumps are used in hydraulic drive systems and can be hydrostatic or hydrodynamic. Hydrostatic pumps are positive displacement pumps while hydrodynamic pumps can be fixed displacement pumps, in which the displacement (flow through the pump per rotation of the pump) cannot be adjusted, or variable displacement pumps, which have a more complicated construction that allows the displacement to be adjusted.

Gear pumps:Gear pumps (with external teeth) (fixed displacement) are simple and economical pumps.
The swept volume or displacement of gear pumps for hydraulics will be between about 1 cm3 (0.001 litre) and 200 cm3 (0.2 litre). They have the lowest volumetric efficiency ( vane and piston pumps)
[1]

) of all three basic pump types (gear,

These pumps create pressure through the meshing of the gear teeth, which forces

fluid around the gears to pressurize the outlet side.

Rotary vane pumps:Rotary vane pumps (fixed and simple adjustable displacement) have higher
efficiencies than gear pumps, but are also used for mid pressures up to 180 bars in general. Modern units can exceed 300 bars in continuous operation, although vane pumps are not regarded as "high pressure" components. Some types of vane pumps can change the centre of the vane body, so that a simple adjustable pump is obtained.

Screw pumps:Screw pumps (fixed displacement) are a double Archimedes' screw, but closed. This means that
two screws are used in one body. The pumps are used for high flows and relatively low pressure (max 100 bar).

Advantages: - It uses 'incompressible' fluid which results in a greater, more efficient & consistent work or power output.

This is due to the fact that hydraulic fluid molecules are able to resist compression under heavy load hence minimal energy loss is experienced and work applied is directly transferred to the actuating surfaces. - As opposed to pneumatic system which uses air, a leakage in a hydraulic system is easier to spot during ground maintenance operations. - Hydraulic fluid operates very well in a very hot working environment, it is able to sustain its airworthiness viscosity, density & fluid temperature even if it subjected under extreme heat. This is specially important on aircraft structures that is abundant of hot working conditions during flight operations. -it makes it easier for the pilot to operate the aircraft's ailerons, elevator, and rudder. If these were operated by cables, as in a small plane, it would be extremely difficult for the pilot to operate the plane.

-Allows actuation of large control surfaces with minimal input. Much more effective
than electrical systems at heavier load items like landing gear retraction. Disadvantages: - Hydraulic fluid is highly corrosive to most of the aircraft materials. - Due to the heavy loads experienced in a typical hydraulic system, structural integrity is a must which also means higher structural weight for the aircraft in addition to the weight of its hydraulic lines, pumps, reservoirs, filters, & etc. - Hydraulic system is susceptible to contaminations & foreign object damage (FOD). - Mishandling and constant exposure to hydraulic fluid and its gas fumes without proper equipment and precautions is a health risk. - If disposed improperly, a hydraulic fluid is an environmental risk.

- If the hydraulic system is ruptured, it will lose its needed pressure and will fail. This will cause the pilot to be unable to control the aircraft with the yoke and rudder. The only way to get the plane safely on the ground in this case is to use different thrust in different engines to turn, and to use less thrust to descend and more to climb. -Can break down, fluid in the larger aircraft is corrosive.