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3.0 HEREDITY AND VARIATION

3.1 CELL DIVISION

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3.1.1 Genes, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Chromosomes

Chromosomes are a long, fine, thread-like structures found in the nucleus It builds from molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Every species has its own number of chromosomes per cell to store their heredity information

Example humans possess 46 chromosomes 2 types of chromosomes: 1. Autosomes controls all somatic traits (blood group, body weight & skin colour) 2. Sex chromosomes determine gender

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In human: 44 autosomes + 2 sex chromosomes = 46 chromosomes 2 types of sex chromosomes: XY chromosomes in males XX chromosomes in females

Male Chromosomes

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Genes are basic heredity unit Genes control the development of traits (e.g. genes that control body height and skin texture) Each gene controls one trait that are inherit from parents Inherited characteristics are passed from parents to offspring through the genes in sperms and ova Different individual possesses different number and types of genes

Relationship between gene, chromosomes & DNA

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Genes in a chromosome

Male Chromosomes

Exercise
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What are chromosomes? What are genes? What is DNA stand for? Name the two types of chromosomes. Give the two types of sex chromosomes.

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Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Chromosomes are a long, thread-like structure found in the nucleus that store heredity information. Genes are section of DNA that code for the production of protein and are a basic heredity unit. DNA stand for deoxyribonucleic acid. The two types of chromosomes are autosomes and sex chromosomes The two types of sex chromosomes are XY for male chromosomes and XX for female chromosomes.

3.1.2 LIFE CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

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Life Cycle
Life cycle started from a cell (a sperm from the male & an egg from the female) Fusion of an egg and a sperm produce fertilize egg. Fertilize egg undergoes cell division hundreds of time to form embryo and undergoes cell division hundreds of time again to form baby Baby grows by cell division into an adult Cell division continue to maintain the body

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Cell Division
Has important roles in growth, repair & reproduction in an organism Two types: 1. Mitosis cells in different parts of human body, root tips and shoot tips in plants (somatic cells) 2. Meiosis cells in the sex organ to produce sex cells/gametes - in human & animals: ovary female, testes in male - in plants: ovary female, anther - male

1. Mitosis
Cell division that produces genetically identical cells Produce 2 new cell, each containing an exact copy of the DNA as in the parent cell The division continued, producing trillions of genetically identical cells that make up your body The basis of asexual reproduction Replacement of cells and repairs of tissues

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Stages in Mitosis
Stage 1 - Chromosomes duplicated but remain elongated - Centrioles also duplicate

Stage 2 - Chromosomes begin to condense and become shorter, thicken and visible - Nuclear membrane disappear

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Stage 3 - Chromosomes arrange themselves at the equatorial plate - Each chromosomes is attached to a spindle fibre through the centromere

Stage 4 - Chromatids of each chromosomes separates become individual chromosomes which moves towards opposite poles of the cell due to contraction of the spindle fibres

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Stage 5 - Nuclear membrane reform - Cytoplasm divided along the equator - Formation of 2 daughter cells

Division of cytoplasm after completion of mitosis in plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell

Animal cell

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Division of cytoplasm after completion of mitosis in plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell cell wall will form between two daughter nuclei to form two daughter cells Animal cell cell membrane constricting inward to form two daughter cells

Exercise
Do activity 3.3 on page 29 in your practical book

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Exercise
Give a brief summary of life cycle. What are the importance of cell division? What are the types of cell division? What is mitosis? In which cell does the mitosis occur in plants?

Answers
Life cycle started from a cell, the fertilize egg that produce from the fusion of sperm and egg. This fertilize egg will undergoes cell division to form embryo. The embryo undergoes cell division again to form baby and the baby will grow by cell division to become an adult. Have roles in growth, repair and reproduction process. Mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is cell division that produce two genetically identical cells. At the root tips and shoot tips of the plant.

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Things we learn today

About life cycle Importance of cell division Types of cell division The meaning mitosis The stages in mitosis

2. Meiosis
Cell division that produce 4 cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes of the mother cell The cell produced are genetically different to the parent cell and to each other Nuclei are haploid (n) Take place in sex organ to produce sex cell/gametes Can be divided into 2 main stages: - First stage: the separation of homologous chromosomes - Second stage: separation of chromatids

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First Meiotic Division

Stage 1 - Chromosomes replicated, visible as long and coiled threads - Gradually become shorter and thicker - Centriole also duplicate

Stage 2 - Pair of homologous chromosomes lie side by side - Nuclear membrane disappears

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Stage 3 - The paired of homologous chromosomes line up the middle of the cell - The homologous chromosome attached to spindle fibre

Stage 4 - Two members of each pair of homologous chromosomes separate - Moves towards opposite ends of cell due to contraction of spindle fibre

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Stage 5 - Nuclear membrane reform - Cell membrane constrict inward - Formation of two daughter cells

Second meiotic division

Stage 6 - Each chromosomes appears as a pair of chromatids - Nuclear membrane disappear - Chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell

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Stage 7 - Each pair of chromatids separate from each other - Moves towards the opposite end of the cell due to contraction of spindle fibre

Stage 8 Nuclear membrane reform Cell membrane constrict inward Each chromatid become a daughter chromosomes

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Stage 9 - Formation of four daughter cell each containing the haploid (n) number of chromosomes

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Importance of Meiosis
Produces haploid cells that contain half number of chromosomes of body cell to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in offspring produced by sexual reproduction Produce genetic variation due to crossing over between homologous chromosomes, independent assortment and random fusion of two gametes during fertilisation.

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Exercise
Do the Activity 3.3 on page 34 in the Science Process Skills

Exercise
What is meiosis? Where does meiosis occur in a) plant? b) animal? State the importance of meiosis. What is the importance of crossing-over during meiosis?

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Comparison Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
Maintain the chromosome number Has one division cycle Produce two daughter nuclei Does not involve crossing over and independent assortment Produce two daughter nuclei that are genetically identical to one another and to the parent nucleus

Meiosis
Halves the chromosome number Has two division cycle Produce four daughter nuclei Involve crossing over and independent assortment Produces four daughter nuclei that are genetically different from one another and from the parent nucleus

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The Similarities and Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

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Similarities
Both are a type of cell division

Differences
Mitosis To produce new cells for growth and to replace damaged cells In somatic cells Occurs One Two Function Meiosis To form gametes

Place where In sex cells it occurs Duplication process Number of cell division Number of daughter cells produced Genetic content Duplicate in Meiosis 1 but not in Meiosis 2 Two Four

Identical to one another and to the parent nucleus

Different from one another and from the parent nucleus

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3.2 The Principal and Mechanism of Inheritance

Inherited characteristics - characteristics that are passed from parents to offspring through the genes in sperms and ova During fertilisation of an egg, 23 chromosomes comes from the father in the sperm and 23 chromosomes come from the mother in the ova

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3.2.1 Dominant Genes and Recessive Genes

Dominant gene gene that can show its trait or characteristic controlled by it although it exist with a recessive gene (strong gene) Recessive gene gene that only shows its trait or characteristic when a dominant gene is absent (weak gene) Dominant gene control dominant characteristic/trait whereas recessive gene control recessive characteristic/trait

What are the types of characteristics that we can inherited from our parents?

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Characteristics Tongue rolling Ear-lobe Eye colour Skin pigment Hair colour Hair type Chin Nose

Dominant characteristics Ability to roll the tongue Free earlobe Brown eye Normal skin colour Black hair Curly hair Projecting chin Straight nose

Recessive characteristic Inability to roll the tongue Attached earlobe Blue eye Absence of skin pigment (albino) Brown hair Straight hair Receding chin Upturned nose

Activity
In pairs, list down your friends characteristics. Determine whether your friend have dominant characteristics or recessive characteristics. Present your findings to the class.

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Conclusion
More students have the dominant characteristics than the students with recessive characteristics.

Exercise
1. What is the meaning of inherited characteristics? 2. What is dominant gene? 3. What is recessive gene? 4. Give two types of dominant characteristics. 5. Give two types of recessive characteristics.

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Answers
1. Inherited characteristics are characteristics that are passed from parents to offspring through the genes in sperms and ova 2. Dominant gene is gene that can show its trait or characteristic controlled by it although it exist with a recessive gene. 3. Recessive gene is gene that only shows its trait or characteristic when a dominant gene is absent. 4. Ability to roll the tongue, free ear-lobe, brown eyes, normal skin pigment etc. 5. Inability to roll the tongue, attached ear-lobe, blue eyes, absence of skin pigment (albino) etc

3.2.2 The Mechanism of Trait Inheritance

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Heredity - The study of inherited characteristics Gregor Mendel the first person who studied heredity in a scientific way The body characteristics of organism are inherited in different ways Monohybrid inheritance (simplest pattern of inheritance) inheritance controlled by a single pair of genes.

Character is determine by two contrasting traits (dominant and recessive) Example: Height tall (dominant) and dwarf (recessive) Dominant trait represent by capital letter (T tall) and recessive trait represent by small letter (t dwarf) Gene is made of allele Homozygous same allele (TT and tt) Heterozygous different allele (Tt)

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Genotype genetic composition of particular characteristic Phenotype actual appearance of a particular characteristic Phenotype Tall (pure strain) Tall (monohybrid) Dwarf (pure strain) Genotype TT (homozygous dominant) Tt (heterozygous) tt (homozygous)

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Activity
Discuss Activity 3.3 on page 62 and 63 in your text book.

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3.3. Sex Determination and Occurrence of Twins in Human Beings

Sex Determination in Human Being

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3.3.1 Sex Chromosomes

1. 2. Determine the sex of an individual Two types: XX in female XY - male In female an ovum contain 22 autosomes and an X chromosome In male there are two types of sperm produced, each contain either 22 autosomes and an X chromosome or 22 autosomes and a Y chromosome

Chromosomes In Human

Male

Female

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The sex of a baby is determine by the type of sperm that fuses with the ovum during fertilisation: a) When an ovum is fertilised by a sperm containing an x chromosomes, the resulting zygote has a genotype of XX and will develop into a girl b) When an ovum is fertilize by a sperm with a Y chromosomes, the zygote has a genotype of XY and will develop into a boy

Parents: Gametes: Offspring genotype: Offspring phenotype:

Male 44+XY 22+X 22+Y

Female 44+XX 22+X 22+X

44+XX

44+XX

44+XY

44+XY

Girl

Girl

Boy

Boy

Genotype ratio 2XX : 2XY Phenotype ratio 2 Girl : 2 Boy

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Occurrence of Twins in Human

What are twins?

A type of multiple birth. Two foetus develop in the womb at the same time Two types of twins: 1. Identical twins 2. Non-identical twins

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1. Identical Twins
Formed when one egg is fertilised by one sperm After fertilisation, the zygote splits into two Two embryos are formed from one zygote, and each develops as a separate baby Both children inherit the same genes Alike in appearance Same sex Share a common placenta

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2. Non-identical Twins
Also known as fraternal twins Form when two separate eggs are fertilised by two sperms Two embryos are formed from two separate zygote, and each develop as a separate baby Both children inherit different genes Not alike Sex maybe the same or may be different

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Siamese Twins
A type of identical twins Form when two embryos do not separate completely during the development stage Attached to each other at the stomach, head, or even share the same internal organs (liver, heart or brain)

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Which picture show the identical twin and non-identical twins?

A Identical twins

B Non-identical twins

Activity
In your group, discuss to complete the graphic organizer shown on page 66 in your text book. Copy the complete graphic organizer into your note book.

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Answers
Similarities A type of multiple birth Two fetus develop in the womb at the same time

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Differences
Identical Twins One One One One Same Same Number of ova involved Number of sperms involved Number of zygotes produced Number of placenta formed Sex of twins Genotype of twins Non-identical Twins Two Two Two Two Same or different Different

Exercise
1. What are twins? 2. Explain in brief how identical twins occur in human. 3. Give a similarity between identical twins and non-identical twins. 4. Give two differences between identical twins and non-identical twins.

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3.4 MUTATION

What is mutation?

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A sudden change of chromosomes or genes that can change human traits Change in the amount or the chemical structure of DNA Occur in somatic or gamete cells Mutation in somatic cells cannot be passed but mutation in gamete cells are inheritable A permanent process Occur spontaneously under natural condition or induced by substances called mutagens Organism that have undergone mutation are called mutants.

Types of Mutation

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Two types: 1. Chromosome mutation occurs when changes take place to the structure of the chromosomes or to the number of chromosomes changes in the structure may caused by deletion (lost of genes), inversion, translocation and duplication changes in the number of chromosome may caused by additional or deletion of one or more extra sets of chromosomes

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2. Gene mutation change to the chemical structure of a gene causes some inherited diseases such as albinism, sickle-cell anaemia, haemophilia and colour blindness

Examples of Mutation

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1. Male with genotype 44+XXY (Klinefelters syndrome) is sterile, mentally handicapped and has female characteristics due to the extra X chromosome 2. Male with genotype 44+XYY usually has high level of testosterone, have severe acne and tall in height due to the extra Y chromosomes 3. Female with genotype 44+XO (Turners syndrome) is sterile because her reproductive organs are not functional due to the fact that she has only one X chromosome
4. Female with 44+XXX tendency to be tall and a higher incidence of below- normal intelligence due to the extra X chromosome

5. Downs Syndrome (Mongolism) extra chromosomes to the 21st have a short and stocky body, slanting eye, broad face and stubby nose mentally retarded and have heart defects

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6. Haemophilia the blood fails to clot therefore suffers prolonged bleeding from cuts caused by gene mutation at the X chromosome 7. Colour blindness cannot identify colours due to the mutation at the X chromosome which cause defects in one or more of the three types of cones in the retina

8. Sickle-cell anaemia mutation that changes the shape of the red blood cell to become sickle-shaped which have low efficiency in transporting oxygen and leading to anaemia

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9.Albinism mutation that cause the gene 9. Albinism which controls the skin pigment fails to produce pigment melanin therefore will cause a person have pale skin, light hair and pink eyes

Albinism in human

Albinism in animal

Exercise
Do the exercise in the Process Skill book page 42.

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Things that weve learned today

The meaning of mutation. The types of mutation. Examples of mutation.

Causes of mutation
Spontaneously or induced by mutagens Types of mutagens 1. Industrial chemical benzene, formaldehyde, mustard gas, nitrous acid, diphenylamine and bromouracil 2. Radiation ultraviolet light, X-rays and nuclear waste (alpha, beta and gamma) The higher the dosage of radiation, the higher rate of mutation 3. Increase of temperature outside the normal temperature range

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Mutation

Advantages 1.

Disadvantages

1.

2.

2.

3.

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Advantages 1. Lead to variation

Disadvantages 1. Physical deformities - polydactyl traits extra fingers or toes 2. Genetic disease - gene mutation colour blindness and albinism - chromosome mutation Downs Syndrome and Turners Syndrome

2. Creation of new species

3. Precursor to the evolution process

Exercise
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is mutation? Give types of mutation. Give two examples of mutation. What cause mutation? Give one advantage and disadvantage of mutation.

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