Rayleigh scattering

(Lecture 2)

Lecture prepared for course in laserbased combustion diagnostics by Joakim Bood and Per-Erik Bengtsson

Why is the sky blue?

Daytime sky looks blue on a clear day The sky looks red at sunrise and sunset Blue light is scattered more efficiently than red

Why?

Elastic scattering (scattered light = incoming light) Mie scattering: Dparticle >> Rayleigh scattering: Dparticle
Joakim Bood

Electric dipole moment

+q d -q Heteronuclear diatomics and asymmetric triatomics: CO NO H2O Homonuclear diatomics: O2 N2 For a single dipole with a distance, d, between charges q and +q, the dipole moment is: p = qd

Have permanent dipole moment

No permanent dipole moment

Joakim Bood

Induced dipole moment

A dipole moment may be created through: electronic excitation the polarizability of the molecule in the presence of an electric field (e.g. from a light wave of a laser) - + E=0

Induced dipole moment: + pE

p = E

: molecular polarizability : electric field

(polarization = vector sum of the dipole moments per unit volume)

Joakim Bood

Electric dipole radiation

Incident oscillating electric field: Induced oscillating dipole moment: Accelerating charges can emit radiation the oscillating dipoles will radiate at the same frequency as the applied field. This is the Rayleigh scattering.

Ei (t ) = E0 cos 0t

p (t ) = Ei (t )

I s ( ) =

p 2 4 sin 2 = 32 2c3 0 r 2
(1)

z y x

2cp 2 sin 2 2 04 r 2

Note that there is no radaition In the z-direction!

Joakim Bood

Electromagnetic waves
y

The Poyntings vector, S , gives the direction of the power flow.

S=

E B

0 = 410-7 Vs/Am vacuum permeability (the magnetic constant)

By time-averaging the Poynting vector we obtain the irradiance, I, i.e. power flow per unit area [W/m2] c x

I=

c 0 2 E 2

0 = 8.85419 10-12 As/Vm

vacuum permittivity (the electric constant) 00 = 1/c2 c = 299792458 m/s
Per-Erik Bengtsson

Rayleigh scattering cross section

Substituting p = Ei
2 2 2

and I i =

c 0 2 Ei into (1) gives: 2

2 2 Ii I s ( ) = 2 4 sin 2 2 0 r
3 0 n 2 1 N n2 + 2

2 2 2 = 2 4 sin Differential scattering cross section 0

The polarizability is related to the index of refraction, n:

(N is the number density of molecules in the gas)

2

4 2 n 1 2 = 4 sin N

(for n close to 1)

The cross section is dependent on: , N, n, and

Joakim Bood

Differential Rayleigh cross sections

Differential Rayleigh cross sections for some different gases (for =90 at =532 nm, T=273 K, and p=1.013105 Pa): O2 N2 H2 CO CO2 H2O C3H8 5.08 10-28 cm2/sr 6.13 10-28 cm2/sr 1.34 10-28 cm2/sr 7.87 10-28 cm2/sr 13.8 10-28 cm2/sr 4.43 10-28 cm2/sr 79.8 10-28 cm2/sr
Per-Erik Bengtsson

2 2 = 4 (n j 1) 2 j N 0 4

Rayleigh scattering for diagnostics (1)

For a mixture of gases:

= x i mix i i
xi: mole fraction of species i

Rayleigh scattered power:

Ps = Pi N l mix
The scattered power depends on both the total number density and the composition.
Pi: N: : l: : incident laser power number density solid angle length of probe volume collection efficiency
Joakim Bood

Rayleigh scattering for diagnostics (2)

1. Composition known Number density can be measured Composition can be measured for binary mixtures

2. Number density known

For a binary mixture: xA can be determined from:

Ps x A + (1 x A ) A B
3. Composition and pressure known
Temperature can be determined from:

Temperature can be measured

P: Pressure N: Number density k = 1.380710-23 J/K (Boltzmanns constant)
Joakim Bood

P T= Nk

(ideal gas law)

2-D Rayleigh scattering measurements

Laser beam Flame

Cylindrical lens Lens

2D-detector

2-D temperature map as a result of data interpretation

Per-Erik Bengtsson

Example of Rayleigh thermometry

If the pressure is known, then the density can be used to determine the temperature (T = P/(kN)).
z Incident planar laser beam y x

CH4 +air

Air flow

Experimental setup

Final 2-D temperature plot

Per-Erik Bengtsson

Signal strength comparison

Incoherent techniques
Process
Mie scattering (D10 m) Mie scattering (D0.1 m) Atomic fluorescence Molecular fluorescence (simple molecules) Rayleigh scattering N2 (488 nm) Rotational Raman scattering N2
(All lines, 488 nm)

Cross section (cm2/sr)

10-7 10-13 10-13 10-18 10-19 10-24 10-27 10-29 610-31 510-31
Joakim Bood

Rotational Raman scattering N2

(strong line, 488 nm)

Vibrational Raman scattering N2

(Stokes Q-branch, 488 nm)

Summary: Rayleigh scattering

A laser technique based on elastic scattering of radiation, i.e. with no frequency change of the scattered radiation. The technique offers no selectivity between atoms/molecules. Can be used for concentration measurements in binary mixtures. Suffers from Mie scattering interferences and spuriously scattered light. Can be used for temperature measurements only in particle-free flames.

Per-Erik Bengtsson & Joakim Bood

Filtered Rayleigh Scattering (FRS)

A way to separate molecular from particle scattering

Particulate scattering is spectrally narrower than molecular Rayleigh scattering Apply narrow filter and narrowband laser
Transmission curve (measured) of Hg filter

Laser

Dashed area is Rayleigh scattering from gas molecules in the flame (much broader than the laser)
(Figure from J. Zetterberg)

Joakim Bood

The spectral line profiles are important

Knowledge about the spectral line shapes at different temperatures and pressures are needed in order to determine the temperature from FRS

The Rayleigh-Brillouin profile for temperatures between 300 K and 2900 K with 200 K steps.The blue line is at 300 K.

(Figure from J. Zetterberg)

Joakim Bood

Experimental setup for Filtered Rayleigh Scattering

Frequency doubling and tripling Alexandrite laser Measurement region Hg cell Reference measurement

Hg cell ICCD Camera

(Figure from J. Zetterberg)

Joakim Bood

FRS close to a surface

Laser sheet is brushing a metal surface With filter (Hg) Without filter

(Figure from J. Zetterberg, Z.S. Li, M. Afzelius and M. Aldn, ECM 2003 in Orleans.)
Joakim Bood

2-D FRS thermometry in sooty flame

Measurements in acetylene/air flames at different fuel/air equivalence ratios =1.6 2551 K (adiabatic flame temp )

=2.4 2298 K (adiabatic flame temp )

(Figure from J. Zetterberg, Z.S. Li, M. Afzelius and M. Aldn, ECM 2003 in Orleans.)
Joakim Bood

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