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by Payal Sampat
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Last Words
As cultural homogeneity spreads over the Earth, thousands
of human languages are headed for extension.
by Payal Sampat
MARATHI. GUJARATI. HINDI. ENGLISH. KUTCHI. extant languages, nearly half are now spoken by fewer
In Bombay, where I grew up, I used these languages than 2,500 people. At the current rate of decline,
every day. To get by on the streets, to get directions, experts estimate that by the end of this century, at
to interact with people—I had to be able to speak least half of the world’s languages will have disap-
Marathi. To go to a corner store to buy rice or toma- peared—a linguistic extinction rate that works out to
toes for dinner, I had to speak a little Gujarati, the one language death, on average, every two weeks.
language of many local shopkeepers. Kids in my And that’s the low-end estimate; some experts pre-
school came from so many different linguistic back- dict that the losses could run as high as 90 percent.
grounds that we conversed either in English, the lan- Michael Krauss, a linguist at the Alaskan Native Lan-
guage of instruction, or Hindi, India’s most guage Center and an authority on global language
widely-spoken tongue. And my grandparents spoke loss, estimates that just 600 of the world’s languages
Kutchi, the language of our ancestors, who came are “safe” from extinction, meaning they are still
from the deserts of western India. being learned by children.
Despite their best efforts, I did anything I could to
avoid responding to my grandparents in Kutchi. After t’s believed that the human faculty for language
all, they could converse fluently in a number of Bom-
bay’s working languages. And I sensed from a very
early age that Kutchi wasn’t useful in any obvious way.
I arose at some point between 20,000 and
100,000 years ago. Many languages have come
and gone since then, of course, but it’s unlikely that
the global fund of languages has ever before gone
It couldn’t help me make friends, follow what was on
TV, or get me better grades. So by default, I aban- into so extensive and chronic a decline. This process
doned the language of my ancestors, and chose seems to have originated in the 15th century, as the
instead to operate in the linguistic mainstream. age of European expansion dawned. At least 15,000
Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, and English are each languages were spoken at the beginning of that cen-
spoken by at least 40 million Indians. Kutchi, on the tury. Since then, some 4,000 to 9,000 tongues have
other hand, has perhaps 800,000 speakers—and that disappeared as a result of wars, genocide, legal bans,
number is declining as more and more Kutchi-speak- and assimilation. Many anthropologists see the
ing young people switch to Gujarati or English. This decline as analogous to biodiversity loss: in both
decline makes the language increasingly vulnerable to cases, we are rapidly losing resources that took mil-
other pressures. Last January, western India suffered lennia to develop.
a catastrophic earthquake, which had its epicenter in Today, the world’s speech is increasingly homoge-
Kutch. Kutchi lost an estimated 30,000 speakers. nized. The 15 most common languages are now on
India is a densely polyglot country. Estimates of the lips of half the world’s people; the top 100 lan-
the number of languages spoken there vary widely, guages are used by 90 percent of humanity. European
depending on where one draws the line between lan- languages have profited disproportionately from this
guage and dialect. But a conservative reckoning trend. Europe has a relatively low linguistic diversity—
would put the number of native Indian tongues at just 4 percent of the world’s tongues originated
roughly 400; of these, about 350 are rapidly losing there—yet half of the 10 most common languages are
speakers. The same is true for thousands of other lan- European (see figure, page 36). Of course, as a first
guages all over the world. And most of these fading language, the world’s most common tongue is not
tongues don’t come anywhere near Kutchi in terms European but Asian: Mandarin Chinese is now spoken
of the number of speakers: of the world’s 6,800 by nearly 900 million people. But English is rapidly
✦
gali
ian
bic
se
ese
Chi andari
lish
di
rma
ane
Hin
replaced by Portuguese.
Russ
Ara
Spa
ugu
Eng
Ben
) Ge
nese
Jap
M
Port
(4)
(2)
(3)
(5)
(8)
(10
(1)
(9)
number of “isolates”—
(7)
ISU ITALIAN ITAWIT ITELMEN ITENE ITERI ITIK BINONGAN INLAOD MASADIIT ITO ITOGAPÚK ITONAMA UZO ITUTANG ITZÁ MIEN IVATA
JEBERO JEH JEHAI JEMEZ JENG JERE JERUNG JIAMAO JIARONG JIBBALI JIBU JIIDDU JIJI JILBE JILIM JIMAJIMA JIMI JINA JINGPHO
RORUSZUKSUN KAGOMA KAGORO KAGULU KAHAYAN KAHE KAHUA KAIAN KAIBOBO KAIDIPANG KAIEP KAIKADI KAIKE KAIKU DAA LED
KANGEAN KANGO KANIET KANIKKARAN KANINGDONNINDEM KANINGI KANINGRA KANITE KANJARI KANJU KANKANAEY KANNADA KANOÉ
Africa: Birthplace of
30 percent of the
Hawaii:
INAWÁ Hawaiian, with just KAPORI
KAPINGAMARANGI KAPRIMAN KAPYA KARA KARACHAYBALKAR KARADJERI KARAGAS KARAHAWYANA KARAIM KARAJÁ KARAKA
world’s languages.
1,000 native speakers, has
an extensive vocabulary for
GEKO LAHTA MANUMANAW PADAUNG PAKU PAO THAILAND PHRAE SGAW YINBAW YINTALE ZAYEIN KAREY KARI KARINGANI KARIPÚNA
fish species based on breed-
ing seasons, medicinal uses,
and methods
KARORE of capture.KASEM KASHAYA KASHMIRI KASHUBIAN KASIGURANIN KASKA KASSENG KASUA KATAANG KATABAGA KATAWIXI KATBOL
KASANGA
Cameroon: 286
SHESHI TAKALE KHAMS KHAMTI KHAMYANG KHANA KHANDESI KHANG KHANTY KHAO KHARIA THAR KHASI KHE KHEHEK KHENGKHA
KHVARSHI KIBET KIBIRI KICKAPOO KIKAI KIKAPÚ KILI KILIVILA KILIWA KILMERI KIM MUN KIMAAMA KIMARAGANG KIMBU KIMKI KIMRÉ
Peru: 106 languages, of
which 14 are extinct.
Brazil: 234
KIRE KIRGHIZ KIRIBATI KIRIKE KIRIKIRI Chamicuro and
KIRIRÍXOKÓ Taushiro, KIS KISANKASA KISAR KISI KITJA KITSAI KITUBA KLAMATHMODOC KLAO KN
KIRMANJKI
Of these, 42 have recently
both spoken in the Peruvian
gone extinct. Few Amazon-
Amazon, have fewer than
KOFYAR KOGBE KOGUMAN INDUS KOHO KOHOROXITARI KOHUMONO KOI MOUNTAIN GRASS KOIRENG
ian languages KOITABU
have more KOIWAT BOROK KOKATA
10 speakers each.
than 500 speakers
KOMBAI KOMBIO KOMERING KOMINIMUNG KOMIPERMYAK KOMIZYRIAN KOMO KOMO KOMODO KOMPANE KOMSO KOMUTU KEU KONA
KONOMALA KONONGO KOONZIME KOORETE KOPAR KOPKAKA KORAFE KORRA MUDU KORAK KORAKU KORANA KORANDJE KOREAN KO
KORUPUNSELA KORWA KORYAK KOSADLE KOSENA KOSKIN KOSORONG KOSRAEAN KOTA TALANTANG TINAGAS KOTI KOUYA KOVAI KOV
LAGHUU LAGWAN LAHA LAHANAN LAHU SHI LAIMBUE LAIYOLO LAK LAKA LAKALEI LAKHA LAKKIA LAKONA LAKOTA LALABISA LALARO
38 WORLD•WATCH May/June 2001 LAMENU LAMET LAMJADENGSATOLA LAMKANG LAMMA LAMNSO LAMOGAI LAMPUNG LAMULAMU L
IRAQW IRARUTU IRAYA IRESIM IRIGWE IRULA ISABI ISANZU ISCONAHUA ISEBE ISEKIRI ISINAI ISIRAWA ISNAG ISOKO ISTRIOT ISU
AN ThereIWAIDJA
OKPELAARHE are 6,800 dots on
IWAK IWALthis IWAM
map—one
SEPIK forIWUR
each of the world’s
IXCATECO extantNEBAJ
CHAJUL languages. EachIYAYU
COTZAL language
IYIVE has its dotIZIEZAAIKWOMGBO
IZERE IZON
roughly in its place of origin (English for example, is represented by the dot in the center of England). A
E JAPRERÍA striking
JAQARUfeature
JARA ofJARAI JARAWA
the world’s JARAWA
linguistic JARNANGO
diversity JARU toJARUÁRA
is the degree JAUNSARI
which it correspondsJAVANESE CARIBBEAN
with the world’s CALEDONIAN
biodi- JAWE JAYA
versity (see inset). Over all, more than half of all languages occur in just eight countries, indicated here with
BUYUAN YOULE JIREL JIRU JITA JJU JOBA JOLAFOGNY JOLAKASA BOURMATAGUIL JORÁ JORTO JOWULU JU JUANG JUDEOBERBER TATAR
green labels, which give the country language totals. In the background is a sampler of language names.
JURCHEN JURÚNA JUTISH JWIRAPEPESA KAAN KAANSA KABA DEME NA KABADI KABALAI KABARDIAN KABATEI KABIXÍ KABIYÉ KABOLA
KANOWIT KANSA KANTOSI KANU KANUFI BÄDI NGKLMPW SMÄRKY SOTA MANGA TUMARI KANYOK KAO KAONDE KAPIN KAP-
ALPAK KARAMI KARAMOJONG KARANG KARANGA KARAO KARAS KARATA KARAWA KARE KARE KAREKARE KARELIAN BREK BWE GEBA
Sarawak, Malaysia:
A KARIPUNÁ FRENCH KARIRIXOCÓ KARITINA KARIYA KARIYARRA KARKARYURI KARKINPenan languageKARO
KARKO speakersKAROK
are KAROLANOS KARON DORI
endangered by the clearcutting
of their forest homes.
KATCHAKADUGLIMIRI KTE KATI KATINGAN KATKARI KATLA KATO KATUA KATUKÍNA PANOAN KAULONG KAUR KAURE KAUWERA KAVALAN
KAYAPÓ KAYELI KAYONG KAYORT KAYTETYE AGUNG KAYUPULAU KAZAKH KAZUKURU KEDANG KEDER KEHU KEINew
Papua KEIGA KEKCHÍ
Guinea: 832 KELA
India: 398 Many PNG languages are
India has 15 official “isolates”—they are unrelated to
AN KENDEJE KENDEM KENGA languages—more
MURUT KENINJAL
than KENSIU NSEI KENUZIDONGOLA RIVER BAKUNG RIVER KELINYAU MAHAKAM SEBOB TUTOH
any other contemporary tongue.
any other nation. Only a dozen or so have been
KET KETANGALAN KETE KETENGBAN KEURU KEYAGANA KGALAGADI KHAKAS : KHALAJ KHALAJ KHALING studied in MAIKOTI
GAMALE any detail. NISI
UPPER KINALAKNA KINARAYA KINGA KINNAURI BHOTI CHITKULI HARIJAN KINTAQ KINUKU KIOKO KIONG KIORR KIOWA KIPUT KIRBALAR
PYE TEPO KRYTS KUAN KUANHUA KUANUA KUBE KUBI KUBO KUBU KUDIYA KUDMALI KUDUCAMO KUGAMA KUGBO KUI KUIJAU
BONDOUKOU BOUNA KULERE KULFA KULISUSU KULUN KULUNG KUMAK KUMALU KUMAM PAHARIA KUMAUNI KUMBA KUMBAINGGAR
OKA KUNGGARA KUNGGARI KUNI KUNIGAMI KUNIMAIPA KUNJA KUNJEN KUNYI KUNZA KUO KUOT KUPA KUPIA KUPSABINY KUR
U MULLU KURUX NEPALI KUSAAL KUSAGHE KUSHI UPPER KUSU KUSUNDA KUTENAI KUTEP KUTHANT KUTTO KUTU KUTURMI KUUKUYAU
KWAMERA KWAMI KWANDANG KWANG KWANGALI KWANJA KWANYAMA KWARAAE KWATAY KWATO KWAVI KWAYA KWEGU KWER
A KYERUNG Main
LAALsources:
LABABarbara
LABELF. Grimes,
LABI ed., Ethnologue:
LABIR LABO Languages
LABU of the World,
LACANDÓN 14th ed.,
LACHI WHITECD-ROM versionLADIN
LADAKHI (Dallas,LADINO
TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics,
LAEKOLIBUAT LAFOFA LAGHU
2000); Michael Krauss, “The World’s Languages in Crisis,” Language, vol. 68, no. 1 (1992); Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Romaine, Vanishing Voices:
OBA LALIA The Extinction
LALUNG of the LAMAHOLOT
LAMA World’s Languages (New York:
LAMALERA OxfordLAMANG
LAMAM University Press, 2000). LAMBA
LAMATUKA Base mapLAMBADI
© SIL International, used by permission.
LAMBICHHONG LAMBOYA LAMBYA LAME
LANDOMA LANGALANGA LANGAM LANGBASHE LANGO LANGUEDOCIEN LANOH LANTANAI LAO WORLD•WATCH May/June 2001 39
(continued from page 37) ian—the first to do so in the century since U.S. annex-
ation. Their achievement was made possible largely by
from 400 to 1,600. India may be an extreme case in Punana Leo, a nonprofit organization dedicated to
this regard, but it’s hard to say how extreme because reviving the language, which now has 1,000 speakers.
most other centers of linguistic diversity have Cornish, the language of Cornwall (southwestern
received even less attention. In Papua New Guinea, England), has been revived since its last “natural”
for example, only about a dozen of the 830 or so lan- speaker died in 1777; it now has 2,000 speakers.
guages have been studied in any detail. And despite Nationalism has been a powerful force for such
their proximity to each other, many of these lan- revivals, as in the case of Gaelic or Hebrew. During the
guages are isolates. Diamond writes of his travels last century, Hebrew has grown from a purely written
through the island: “Every 10 or 20 miles I pass language to Israel’s national tongue, with 5 million
between tribes with languages as different as English speakers. In Mexico, the Zapatistas are urging a revival
is from Chinese.” of Mayan languages as part of their campaign for local
A second general consequence of the declines autonomy. Efforts are also under way to revive Welsh,
involves our ability to understand our past. Languages Navajo in the United States, New Zealand’s Maori,
hold important clues to the history of our species. For and several native Botswanan languages.
example, by analyzing words for various crops and Most languages, of course, aren’t going to get
farm implements, the Berkeley linguist Johanna that kind of attention. (Fewer than 4 percent of the
Nichols has traced the modern people of the Cauca- world’s languages have any official status in their
sus back to the ancient farmers of the Fertile Crescent. country of origin.) Many experts believe that the best
Similarly, the distribution of Austronesian languages is way to conserve linguistic wealth is to foster multilin-
being used to map the prehistoric migration out of gualism. Certainly, different peoples need to under-
Taiwan and onto the islands of the open Pacific. stand each other, which is why some languages have
always served as linguae francae. But among minori-
ty language speakers, multilinguilism has always been
No language is an exact map of any the norm—my grandparents in Bombay are a good
example. And despite the wide linguistic variations
other; each is, in a sense, its own world. found in Papua New Guinea, it’s believed that most
of the country’s people speak five or more languages.
Even today, it’s estimated that two thirds of all
Finally, by relinquishing our linguistic diversity, children are still growing up in multilingual environ-
we are also diminishing our understanding of biolog- ments. Removing the fetters that have been placed
ical diversity. Native inhabitants of regions with high on minority languages in the last two or three cen-
biodiversity have developed elaborate vocabularies to turies might help revive the linguistic heritage of
describe the natural world around them—collective many countries. Norway’s Saami Language Act of
“field guides” that reflect the ecological knowledge 1992, for example, is an effort to preserve the culture
of, in some cases, hundreds of generations. Native of the people most commonly known as “Laplan-
Hawaiians, for example, named fish species for their ders” (a term they themselves view as pejorative). Or
breeding seasons, medicinal uses, and methods of again, why shouldn’t Breton, Caló, and Corsican
capture. When the marine biologist R.E. Johannes become officially recognized languages in France, the
interviewed a Palauan fisherman born in 1894, he country where their speakers traditionally reside? The
found that the Pacific islander had names for over revival of these tongues would hardly threaten the
300 different species of fish, and knew the lunar status of French as the national language, but it could
spawning cycles of several times as many species as be a substantial help in preserving the country’s cul-
had then been described in the scientific literature. tural vibrancy.
Many of these treasure houses of local knowledge are Millennia of human experience are wrapped up in
being replaced by more simplified forms of speech. the planet’s many languages, and this linguistic diver-
For instance, New Guinean pidgin English, which is sity may be as essential to our cultural health as bio-
popular with young people, has just two names to logical diversity is to our physical health. No language
describe birds—pisin bilong de (bird seen by day) and is an exact map of any other; each is, in a sense, its own
pisin bilong nait (bird seen by night)—whereas native world. By allowing so many of these worlds to slip
Papua New Guinean languages have an extensive away, we may be forfeiting a lot more than just words.
vocabulary for the island’s many bird species.
A few languages are slowly making a comeback, Payal Sampat is a research associate at the World-
with the help of community groups, governments, watch Institute.
and linguists. In 1999, four students in Hawaii gradu-
ated from high school educated exclusively in Hawai-
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