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Potential Reef-Reservoir Facies: Lower Cretaceous Deep-Water Thrombolites, Onshore Central Gulf Of Mexico

Mancini, Ernest A.;1 Llins, Juan Carlos;1 Scott, Robert W.;2 and Llins, Ruben3

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for Sedimentary Basin Studies and Department of Geological Sciences, Box 870338, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0338 2 Precision Stratigraphy Associates and Tulsa University, RR 3, Box 103-3, Cleveland, Oklahoma 74020 3 Independent Consultant, Cra. 13A # 89-38 of 504, Bogot, Colombia

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Abstract
Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian) thrombolite boundstone and doloboundstone are proven hydrocarbon reef reservoirs in the onshore northeastern Gulf of Mexico. These Oxfordian thrombolite buildups attained a thickness of 190 ft (58 m) and are as much as 2.4 mi2 ( 6.2 km2) in area. They developed in a shallow water setting in less than 30 ft (10 m) of water. Thrombolite buildups also occur in Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian to Barremian) strata in the onshore central Gulf of Mexico. A representative thrombolite is observed in the well log signatures and core samples from the Lawrence L. McAlpin #1 well, Vernon Parish, Louisiana, which attains a thickness of 35 ft (11 m). Seismic data show that this thrombolite buildup developed in a fore-reef slope setting in up to 300 ft (90 m) of water on the upper part of the continental slope. The thrombolite boundstone has a micritic fabric and is interbedded with fossiliferous wackestone. Although this thrombolite boundstone facies could have high reservoir potential where dolomitized, the geographic distribution of this facies has not been delineated. These thrombolites were formed by eurytopic organisms, which were not restricted by water depth, salinity, temperature, or light penetration. Their origin and growth typically corresponded to times of rising sea level under low background sedimentation rates and low-energy conditions. The demise of the thrombolites resulted from the development of stenotopic, higher-energy paleoenvironmental conditions that supported metazoan communities. These conditions are associated with times of reduction in the rate of sea-level rise.

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Introduction
Microbes are abundant and widespread in carbonate and siliciclastic sediments (Riding and Awramik, 2000). They are microscopic and include bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoans. They range in geologic age from the Proterozoic to the present (Riding, 1991; Leinfelder and Schmid, 2000). Kennard and James (1986) proposed a field classification of lower Paleozoic microbial structures based on the dominant type of constructive mesoscopic constituents (Fig. 1). The three end members in this classification were stromatolites, thrombolites, and undifferentiated microbial boundstone. Stromatolites (Fig. 2A) were described as laminated organosedimentary structures built by episodic sedimenttrapping, sediment-binding and/or carbonate-precipitating activity of microbial communities. Thrombolites were described as lacking lamination and characterized by a mesoscopic clotted fabric (Fig. 2B). Braga et al. (1995) classified the microbial boundstone as structureless and dense (leiolite). Thrombolites have been recognized in the Upper Jurassic of the northern Gulf of Mexico by Baria et al. (1982), Crevello and Harris (1984), Powers (1990), Markland (1992), Benson et al. (1996), Kopaska-Merkel (1998, 2002), Hart and Balch (2000), Mancini et al. (2000), Parcell (2000, 2002, 2003), Mancini and Parcell (2001), Llins (2002, 2003, 2004), and Mancini et al., (2004). Baria et al. (1982), Powers (1990), Markland (1992), and Benson et al. (1996) described these Upper Jurassic buildups as blue-green algal. Crevello and Harris (1984) referred to these buildups as stromatolitic algal mounds dominated by laminated stromatolites with pelleted thrombolite growth forms. Mancini et al. (2000) described these as cyanobacterial. Parcell (2000), Mancini and Parcell (2001), and later authors
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Stromatolites (laminated) Leiolites (dense) Thrombolites (clotted)
Figure 1. Microbial textures: Classification of microbial textures is based on the dominant type of constructive mesoscopic constituents proposed by Kennard and James (1986) and Braga et al. (1995).

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Figure 2. Core photographs of microbial textures: (A) stromatolite found in Vocation Field, Monroe County, Alabama, well Permit #3739 at a depth of 14,066 ft (4,287 m), and (B) thrombolite buildup in Little Cedar Creek Field, Conecuh County, well Permit #13472 at a depth of 11,553 ft (3,521 m).

referred to these buildups as thrombolitic. Lower Cretaceous thrombolite mounds are well developed both on the platform margins and on the upper slope in northern Spain (Garca-Mondjar and Fernndez-Mendiola, 1995). The purpose of this paper is to characterize Lower Cretaceous (Berriasian to Barremian) preSligo (Hosston) thrombolite buildups from the subsurface of west-central Louisiana. These buildups were observed in core from the Lawrence McAlpin #1 well, Vernon Parish, Louisiana (Fig. 3A). 506

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Figure 3. Lawrence L. McAlpin #1 well , Vernon Parish, Louisiana, (A) Location map including the position of the Aptian shelf margin, and (B) South-North migrated seismic section with the location of the McAlpin well and illustrating the Upper Cretaceous, Albian, and Aptian shelf margins. Notice the progradation of the preAptian shelf margin expressed by high amplitude south-dipping reflectors (modified from Tyrrell and Scott, 1987). TBI = Lower Cretaceous thrombolite buildup interval.

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Thrombolite Characterization
The thrombolite in the McAlpin #1 well was identified in the lithologic core. The suite of logs available for this well consisted of spontaneous potential (SP) and resistivity (ILD) curves (Fig. 4). No distinctive pattern was recognized in these curves as indicative of the presence of the thrombolite. However, there is an interval of approximately 80 ft (24 m) thick, containing the thrombolite buildup and the beds directly above it, which shows relatively low SP values coupled with high resistivity readings. Above the cored interval, a thick section characterized by low SP values in conjunction with high resistivities, suggests the presence of massive limestone beds. Below the cored interval, the SP curve has a steady pattern in the high range, while the ILD curve shifts toward lower readings indicating a predominantly shaley section. The cored section that includes the thrombolites is 200 ft (61 m) (Fig. 4) and consists largely of dark gray bioturbated wackestone and mudstone characterized by concoidal fractures. Some thin oncoidal packstone beds are also present. The microbial buildup attains a total thickness of 35 ft (11 m) and consists of dark gray thrombolite boundstone interbedded with moderately gray wackestone. The thrombolite buildup shows the characteristic clotted fabric formed by microbial colonies and finely crystalline carbonate sediment (Figs. 5A, C, and D). A thin breccia (Fig. 5B) is interbedded with the calci-microbial deposit. The breccia is formed by irregular and angular wackestone fragments floating in fine grained dark gray micritic matrix rich in fossil fragments. Much of the cored section is moderately bioturbated; Thalassinoides and Planolites burrows are quite common. Wispy organic-rich laminae and microstylolites are also present. In thin section, the microbial framework consists of a peloidal texture with diverse types of arrangements (Fig. 6). Very fine calcite crystals (microsparite) fill the space between the dark peloidal clusters. No open pore spaces were observed. Sparse fossil fragments of echinoids, bivalves, including pycnodont oysters, microsolenid corals, stromatoporoids, sponge debris, ostracods, and benthic foraminifera, including miliolids, lenticulinids, trocholinids, and uniserial and biserial foraminifera forms. Thin section analysis reveals a small amount of silt-size terrigenous grains (1-3%), which is concentrated in burrows and other interstices and secondary quartz crystals in matrix and fossils. 507

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Echinoids Stromatoporoids Oyster Bioclasts & indetermined shells Limestone

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Dark gray homogeneous wackestone, rare wispy lamination, few fractures.

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Lime mudstone grading upward to wackestone.

Dark gray lime mudstone, closely spaced concoidal fractures.

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Moderate to dark gray, homogeneous wackestone interbedded with oncoidal packstone. Moderate to dark gray homogeneous wackestone, local patches of replacement calcite. Horizontal and long vertical fractures. Gray, homogeneous wackestone, stromatoporoids encrusting indeterminate nodular spar colonies.

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Dark gray thrombolite boundstone with mottled fabric of dark gray irregular hemispherical mud and interareas (cavities) of gray argillaceous lime mudstone , wackestone interbedded.

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Dark gray mudstone to wackestone, fractures forming 2-10 cm disks, Thalassinoides, sparse horizontal fractures. Lime mudstone grading downward to dark gray calcareous shale, fractures forming disks. Horizontal fractures increasing in abundance. Moderate to dark gray, calcareous shale with concoidal fracture, abundant horizontal fractures. Moderate to dark gray, calcareous shale with concoidal fracture, abundant horizontal fractures.

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Figure 4. Core description and wireline log for the Lawrence L. McAlpin # 1 well, Louisiana.

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Figure 5. Core photographs of the thrombolite interval in the Lawrence L. McAlpin #1 well: (A) 17,693 ft (5,393 m), thrombolitic structure with fragments of stromatoporoids and caprinid shells, (B) 17,697 ft (5,394 m), interbedded brecciated layer formed by irregular wackestone fragments embedded in a micritic matrix rich in fossil debris, (C) 17,709 ft (5,398 m), non-porous thrombolite with the characteristic clotted texture. (Notice that the lighter colored areas correspond to fine sediment precipitated among the microbial colonies that are expressed by darker colors), and (D) 17,710 ft (5,398 m), highly, bioturbated thrombolite. (Notice the lack of porosity in the samples).

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Figure 6. Photomicrographs of thrombolitic textures found in the pre-Sligo section of the Lawrence L. McAlpin #1 well: (A) 17,693 ft (5,393 m), peloidal clusters (dark brown) and microsparite crystals, (B) 17,697 ft (5,394 m), peloidal clusters are widely separated, (C) 17,710 ft (5,398 m), peloidal clusters are less defined, (D) 17,710 ft (5,398 m), peloidal clusters with individual peloids, (E) 17,709 ft (5,398 m), terrigenous silt-size grains within the peloidal clusters, and (F) 17,709 ft (5,398 m), peloidal clusters amalgamated and individual peloids (Notice the lack of porosity in the examples).

At a burial depth of 17,700 ft (5,395 m) and with a thickness of 35 ft (11 m), the thrombolite buildup is not seismically resolvable. However, the seismic interval containing the microbial buildup is characterized by a change in seismic pattern. Moderately continuous, south-dipping clinoform reflectors alternating between high and low amplitudes reflect a progradational shelf margin (Fig. 3B). In contrast, the shallow shelf seismic facies above the slope buildup facies are horizontal, discontinuous, with moderate amplitudes suggesting a lithologic variation of thick massive limestone beds. Based on seismic data, the thrombolite buildup developed in a fore-reef setting. The breccias described above (Fig. 5B) 510

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might be the result of slumps triggered by gravity, which is a common occurrence in this unstable depositional setting. Tyrrell and Scott (1987) reported Nannoconus steinmanni at a depth of 17,550 (5,351 m) ft in the core. This calcareous nannoplankton species ranges in age from Berriasian to Barremian, which indicates that the thrombolite found in the McAlpin #1 well is age-equivalent to the Hosston Formation.

Discussion
The Upper Jurassic Smackover thrombolite buildups described from the eastern Gulf Coastal Plain developed in shallow water environments (below wave base in settings of less than 30 ft (10 m) in water depth (Mancini et al., 2004). These Upper Jurassic buildups attained a thickness of 190 ft (58 m) and are as much as 2.4 mi2 (6.2 km2) in area. Based on seismic data, the Lower Cretaceous thrombolites described from the McAlpin well developed in deeper water (300 ft or 90 m), less oxygenated, fore-reef slope setting (Fig. 7). In Western Europe, Upper Jurassic bioherms of pure thrombolite occur in normal marine settings of greater than 230 ft (70 m) and as deep as 1,300 ft (400 m) (Leinfelder and Schmid, 2000; Leinfelder, 2001) (Fig. 7). Therefore, bathymetry is not a limiting factor for thrombolite growth. However, key factors for thrombolite development have been reported to include depositional conditions inherent to a period of overall rise in sea level and lower energy settings, characterized by a hard substrate for nucleation, zero to low background sedimentation for initial growth, and low to moderate sedimentation rate for continued growth to support the calcification process (Leinfelder, 1993). Also, important is a paleoenvironment typified by eurytopic environmental conditions, such as fluctuations in salinity, temperature, oxygen content and/or nutrient supply that limit the growth of other reefal organisms (Mancini et al., 2004). Based on the well log and seismic data, the Lower Cretaceous thrombolites are interpreted as being deposited during a transgressive pulse within an overall progradational carbonate shelf margin consisting largely of shale and lime mudstone. Variations in the environmental conditions, including an overall shallowing upward, which provided improved oxygen contents and higher energy levels, contributed toward the demise of the Lower Cretaceous thrombolite buildups and the accumulation of a thick interval of massive, shallower water limestone.
sea level
intertidal microbial mats Smackover stromatolite mats (GOM) lagoonal microbial oncoids Smackover microbial oncoids (GOM) Smackover thrombolite buildups (GOM)

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10 m (~30 ft)
coral-thrombolite reef

thrombolite reef pinnacles (Spain)

50 m (~160 ft) 70 m (~230 ft)

Smackover microbial laminites (GOM)

sponge-microbolite mud mound

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Lower Cretaceous thrombolite in McAlpin #1 (GOM)

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aphotic microbolite mud mound

Figure 7. Profile of a carbonate shelf margin illustrating the paleogeographic location of thrombolite buildups in the Upper Jurassic Smackover Formation in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, in the Upper Jurassic strata in Spain, and in the Lower Cretaceous strata in the Lawrence L. Mc Alpin #1 well (modified from Leinfelder, 1993, Leinfelder and Schmid, 2000, Mancini et al., 2004).

Exploration Strategies
In the eastern Gulf Coastal Plain, the exploration strategy for drilling a successful wildcat well in the Upper Jurassic thrombolite reservoir play is to identify and delineate paleohighs (generally basement structures) associated with thrombolite buildups. Although the primary control on reservoir architecture and geographic distribution of these reservoirs is the fabric and texture of the depositional facies, diagenesis (chiefly dolomitization and/or leaching) is a critical factor that enhances and creates reservoir quality. Porosity in these boundstone reservoirs is mostly secondary dolomite intercrystalline 511

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and vuggy porosity that overprints primary shelter and fenestral porosity. The lithology of the high quality reservoirs is thrombolite doloboundstone and leached thrombolite boundstone. The Lower Cretaceous thrombolites encountered in the McAlpin core do not overlie basement rocks, but rather these thrombolites probably grew on a localized winnowed surface. Such deeper water thrombolite development is not unusual. The deeper water thrombolites observed in outcrop in Western Europe formed pinnacles (Figs. 8A and B) with a height of as much as 52 ft (16 m) that nucleated on local cemented packstone and grainstone (Fig. 8C). Also, shallow water thrombolite buildups of 25 ft (8 m) in thickness have been recently discovered in southwest Alabama (Fig. 2B). These thrombolites apparently developed on a local hard substrate. Bioherms attaining a thickness of 98 ft (30 m) and an areal extent of 0.9 mi2 (2.3 km2) are present in the northeastern onshore Gulf of Mexico (Mancini et al., 2004). Therefore, the presence of a thrombolite facies of reasonable developmental thickness is common. The McAlpin well log and core indicate a thrombolite buildup of 35 ft (11 m). However, in the McAlpin core, the thrombolite boundstone is not dolomitized or leached, and has no reservoir quality. The principal issue, therefore, in formulating an exploration strategy for potential deeper water (slope) pre-Sligo thrombolite reservoirs in the western and central Gulf of Mexico is to determine where the thrombolite boundstone would be leached and/or dolomitized in this area. Dolomitization processes that improved the reservoir properties of the Jurassic thrombolite buildups (i.e., brine reflux and evaporative pumping) occur in association with shallow marine environments. However, hydrothermal dolomitization and late stage dissolution processes have the potential to enhance porosity in the pre-Sligo rocks. The challenge is, therefore, to identify and delineate thrombolite buildups along the Lower Cretaceous shelf margins that have been affected favorably by diagenetic processes. Because of the depth of burial of the thrombolite boundstone in this area, natural gas would be the expected hydrocarbon to be encountered.

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Conclusions
A microbial buildup consisting of an alternation of thrombolite boundstone and wackestone has been recognized in the pre-Sligo (Hosston equivalent) cored section of the Lawrence L. McAlpin #1 well located in the onshore central Gulf of Mexico area. The thrombolite buildup attains a thickness of 35 ft (11 m) and was deposited during a transgressive pulse on the fore-slope of an overall progradational carbonate shelf margin. These microbial deposits accumulated in about 300 ft (90 m) of water during times of anoxic conditions. The demise of the buildups was due to a change from deeper and anoxic conditions to a shallower, better oxygenated, and higher energy depositional environment. Unlike the reservoir-quality microbial doloboundstone and leached boundstone reef reservoirs found in the Upper Jurassic Smackover section of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, the Lower Cretaceous thrombolite boundstone is not dolomitized or leached and displays no porosity. The exploration strategy to find reservoir-quality rocks associated with the Lower Cretaceous shelf margin is to identify and delineate thrombolite buildups with dimensions comparable to the Smackover buildups, and that have been affected by mesogenetic processes that have resulted in dolomitization and/or leaching of the thrombolite boundstone facies creating adequate secondary porosity.

Acknowledgments
This research was funded, in part, by the U.S. Minerals Management Service. However, opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Minerals Management Service. 512

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Coral-Thrombolite Reef Thrombolite-Coral Reef

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Thrombolite Encrusted and Cemented Surface

Encrusted and Cemented Surface

Figure 8. Outcrop photographs of thrombolite-bearing buildups at Arroyo Cerezo, Spain: (A) overview of the outcrop showing two pinnacle reefs, (B) close up of the smaller pinnacle (left side) in photograph (A), and (C) close up of the base of the thrombolite pinnacle in photograph (B) and the encrusted and cemented surface on which the thrombolite growth was initiated. Notice the thrombolite pillow growth structures in photograph (C).

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References
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