1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Revolution in telecom
The telephone has long been important in modern living, but it use has been constrained by connecting wires. The advent of mobile radio telephony and particularly the cellular radio has removed this restriction and led to explosive growth in mobile throughout the world. The phone is really on move now. With the phenomenal and unprecedented growth of more than forty fold in just ten years, a strong demand for mobile cellular services has created an industry which now accounts for more than one third of all telephone lines. It is expected that mobile phone will soon exceed the traditional fixed line phones. In fact the trend of fixed and mobile convergence is already being talked about.

1.2 Concept of mobile communication

Fixed telephones, using wired access network, are meant to be used at a particular location only. We can have telephones at our office/business and our residence. The fixed telephones are linked to a place but the modern day life style demands that we should have telephone facility while on move also. Mobile communication facilitates telephonic conversation in a fast moving vehicle. This means that phones moves along with a person thereby moving telephone is linked to a person and not to a place. In these words our reach becomes broader and world shrinks into a Global village. Wireless communication is all around us. The day is not far off; the future generations will wonder as to why wires are required for a telephone to work!!!

1.3 Mobile communication objectives

The important objectives of the mobile communication are Any time anywhere communication Mobility & Roaming High capacity & subs. density

2 Efficient use of radio spectrum Seamless Network Architecture Low cost Innovative Services Standard Interfaces

1.4 History of mobile communication

1946 1960 1970 1979 1985 1986 1990 Appeared in St .Louis USA (By AT & T) at 150 MHz band FM 120 KHz BW 450 MHz Band FM 30 KHz BW

BELL LAB introduced Cellular Principle Advanced Mobile Phone System in US Total Access Communication System (TACs in UK) Nordic Mobile Telephony Systems (NMT) Digital Systems

1.5 Different generations Analog and digital systems

1946- 1960s Appearance 1980s 1G Analog Multi Standard . Terrestrial 1990s 2G Digital Multi Standard Terrestrial Unified Standard Terrestrial Satellite & 2000s 3G Digital

1 G I st Generation --Analog (cellular revolution) -only mobile voice services 2 G - 2 nd Generation -- digital (breaking digital barrier) - Mostly for voice services & data delivery possible 3 G - Voice & data (breaking data barrier) mainly data

INTERNATIONAL MOBILE TELECOM 2000. (IMT-2000) THIRD GENERATION (3 G) STANDARD

A future standard in which a single inexpensive mobile terminal can truly provide communications any time and any where. INTERNATIONAL MOBILE TELECOM 2000. (IMT-2000)
INTERNATIONAL MOBILE TELECOM 2000. (IMT-2000)

is an initiative of ITU that

seeks to integrate the various satellites, terrestrial, fixed and mobile systems currently being deployed and developed under a single standard to promote global service capabilities and interoperability.

1.6 DEVELOPMENT AND INTRODUCTION OF THE GSM STANDARD

The chronological development of GSM standard is given below. YEAR 1982 EVENTS/DECISIONS/ACHIVEMENTS CEPT (CONFERENCE EUROPEAN POSTS
AND TELEGRAPHS)

Decides to establish Grouped

special mobile (the initial origin of the GSM) to develop a set of common standards for future pan European cellular mobile network. 1984 Establishment of three working parties (WP1-3) to define and describe the services offered in a GSM PLMN (GSM Public Land Mobile Network) the radio interface, transmission, signaling protocols, interfaces and network architecture. 1986 A so called permanent nucleus is established to continuously coordinate the work, which is intensely supported by industry delegates. 1987 Initial memorandum of understanding (MOU) signed by network operator organizations (representing 12 countries) with major objectives as: * coordinating the introduction of the standard and time scales.

4 *Planning of service introduction *Routing, billing, and tariff coordination. 1988/89 To 1991/92 with the establishment of the European telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), the specification work was mooted to this international body.GSM becomes a technical committee within ETSI and splits up to into GSM groups 1-4, later called Special Mobile Groups (SMG) 1-4, which are technical sub Committees. GSM finally stands for Global system for Mobile Communications 1990 The GSM specifications for 900 MHz band are also applied to a Digital cellular system on the 1800 MHz band (DCS1800), a PCN application initiated in the United Kingdom. 1991 The GSM Recommendations comprise more than 130 single documents including more than 5000 pages. 1992 1993 1993 Official commercial launch of GSM service in Europe. The GSM- MOU has 62 members (signatories) in 39 countries worldwide. The end of 1993 shows one million subscribers to GSM networks, however more than 80% of them is to be found in Germany alone. 1993 First commercial services also start outside Europe: Australia, Hongkong.

The features and benefits expected in the new system were Superior speech quality Low terminal, operational, and service costs A high level of security (confidentiality and fraud prevention) International roaming Support of low terminal hand portable terminals A variety of new services and network facilities.

1.7 CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTATION

A host of services viz., teleservices, supplementary services, and value added services are being promised by GSM networks. There are certain impairments in realizing an effective mobile communication system which has to meet the twin objectives of quality and capacity. The following are the some of the problem areas in deploying a GSM net work, which demand extensive planning and engineering. (a) Radio frequency Utilization: High spectrum efficiency should be achieved at reasonable cost .The bandwidth on radio interface i.e. between the user equipment and the Radio transceiver, is to be managed effectively to support ever increasing customer base with very limited number of radio carriers. For high BW services e.g. MMS, as the GSM evolves towards 3G, more spectrums is demanded. Bandwidth management success or otherwise of a mobile operator. (b) Multipath radio environment: The most significant problem in mobile radio systems is due to the channel itself. In mobile radio systems, indeed, it is rare for there to exist one strong line of sight (LOS) path between transmitter and receiver. Usually several significant signals are received by reflection and scattering from buildings, etc...And then there are multiple paths from transmitter to receiver. is the key area, which decides the

Radio transceiver

Mobile eqpt

Figure 1: Multipath Radio environment The signals on these paths are subject to different delays, phase shifts, and Doppler shifts, and arrives at the receiver in random phase relation to one another. The interference between these signals gives rise to a number of deleterious effects. The most important of these are fading and dispersion .Fading is due to the interference of multiple signals with random relative phase that causes variations in the amplitude of the received signal. This will increase the error rate in digital systems, since errors will occur when the signal-tonoise ratio drops below a certain threshold. Dispersion is due to differences in the delay of the various paths, which disperses transmitted pulses in time. If the variation of the delay is comparable with the symbol period, delayed signals from an earlier symbol may interfere with the next symbol, causing Inter-symbol interference (ISI). The countermeasures for fading include diversity reception and equalization. Mobility management: The principal characteristic of mobile networks, which distinguishes them from conventional fixed networks, is that the identity of calling and called subscribers is not associated with a fixed geographical location. The subscribers establish a wireless connection with the nearest base station, and can make or receive calls as they roam.

7 Mobility management is concerned with how the network supports this function. When a call is made to mobile customer, the network must be able to locate the mobile customer. Network attachment process which includes a location updation process is the answer for the mobility management. In the location update process, the network databases are updated dynamically, so that the mobile can be reached to offer the services. If this process is not done efficiently, it will result in poor call management and network congestion. (d) Services International roaming shall be provided. Advanced PSTN services should be provided consistent with ISDN services albeit at limited bit rates only. Encryption should be used to improve security for both the operators and the customers. (e) Network aspects: ITU identification and numbering plans should be used an international signaling system should be utilized. There should be a choice of charging structure and rates. No modification shall be required to the PSTN due to its interconnection to GSM signaling and control information should be protected. (f) Cost: The system parameters should be chosen to limit costs, particularly mobiles and handsets. In a competitive environment, cost is the deciding factor for the survival of an operator.

CHAPTER-2
BANDWIDTH MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Radios move information from one place to another over channels, and radio channel is an extraordinarily hostile medium to establish and maintain reliable communications. The channel is particularly messy and unruly between mobile radios. All the schemes and mechanisms we use to make communications possible on the mobile radio channel with some measure of reliability between a mobile and its base radio station are called physical layer, or the layer 1 procedures. The mechanisms include modulation, power control, coding, timing, and host of other details that manage the establishment and maintenance of the channel. The radio channel has to be fully exploited for maximum capacities and optimum quality of service. Band width is a scarce natural resource. The bandwidth has to be managed for maximum capacity of the system and interference free communications. The spectrum availability for an operator is very limited. The up link or down link spectrum is only 25 MHz, Out of this 25 MHz, 124 carriers of each 200 KHz are generated. These carriers are to be shared amongst different operators. And as a result each operator gets only a few tens of carriers; making spectrum management a challenging area. The following figure shows the radio connectivity between the mobile equipment and the Radio

9 transmitter/receiver.

Radio interface

Mobile switch

Radio Controller

Radio Transceiver

Mobile

Figure 2: Radio Communication between mobile and Tx/Rx

For effective management of bandwidth, for conservation of spectrum and quality of radio link; the following access techniques are implemented on the radio interface. (1) Cellular structures and Frequency Reuse (2) Multiple access Technologies (3) Voice coding technologies (4) Bandwidth effective Modulation scheme.

2.2 Cellular structures and Frequency Reuse

Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting: One very powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in a radius of up to fifty kilometers. The scenario changes as the mobile density as well as the coverage area grow. The answer to tackle the growth is coverage extensions based on addition of new cells. The Cellular concept structured the mobile telephone network in a

10 different way. Instead of using one powerful transmitter many low-powered transmitter were placed through out a coverage area. For example, by dividing metropolitan region into one hundred different areas (cells) with low power transmitters using twelve conversations (channels) each, the system capacity could theoretically be increased from twelve to thousands of conversations using one hundred low power transmitters while reusing the frequencies. The cellular concept employs variable low power levels, which allows cells to be sized according to subscriber density and demand of a given area. As the populations grow, cells can be added to accommodate that growth. Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells. Conversations can be handed over from cell to cell to maintain constant phone service as the user moves between cells.

Cells:
A cell is the basic geographic unit of cellular system. The term cellular comes from the honeycomb areas into which a coverage region is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending upon landscape. Because of the constraint imposed by natural terrain and man-made structures, the true shape of cell is not a perfect hexagon. (a) Cellular System Characteristics The distinguishing features of digital cellular systems compared to other mobile radio systems are: Small cells A cellular system uses many base stations with relatively (on the order of a 100 m to 30 km). Clusters and Frequency reuse The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is limited. As a result there is a limit to the number of channels or frequencies that can be used. A group of cells is called a cluster. All the frequencies are used in a cluster and no frequency is reused with in the cluster. And the total set of frequencies is repeated in the adjacent cluster. Like that the total service area, i.e may be a country or a continent, can be served with a small group of frequencies. Frequency reuse is possible because the signal fades over the distance and small coverage radii

11 hence it can be reused .For this reason each frequency is used simultaneously by multiple base-mobile pairs; located at geographically distant cells. This frequency reuse allows a much higher subscriber density per MHz of spectrum than other systems. System capacity can be further increased by reducing the cell size (the coverage area of a single base station), down to radii as small as 200 m. Small, battery-powered handsets In addition to supporting much higher densities than is lower than the large mobile units used in earlier systems. Performance of handovers In cellular systems, continuous coverage is achieved by executing a handover (the seamless transfer of the call from one base station to another) as the mobile unit crosses cell boundaries. This requires the mobile to change frequencies under control of the cellular network. previous systems, this approach enables the use of small, battery-powered handsets with a radio frequency that

(b) Co channel cells and interference Radio channels can be reused provided the separation between cells containing the same channel set is far enough apart so that co-channel interference can be kept below acceptable levels most of the time. Cells using the same channel set are called Cochannel cells. Co-channel cells interfere with each other and quality is affected. The following figure shows an example. Within the service area (PLMN), specific channel sets are reused at a different location (another cell). In the example, there are 7 channel sets: A through G. Neighboring cells are not allowed to use the same frequencies. For this reason all channel sets are used in a cluster of neighboring cells. As there are 7 channel sets, the PLMN can be divided into clusters of 7 cells each. The figure shows three clusters. Co-channel interference Frequencies can be reused throughout a service area because radio signals typically attenuate with distance to the base station (or mobile station). When the distance between cells using the same frequencies becomes too small, co-channel Interference

12 might occur and lead to service interruption or unacceptable quality of service. As long as the ratio Frequency reuse distance = D Cell radius R is greater than some specified value, the ratio Received radio carrier power = C Received interferer radio carrier power I will be greater than some given amount for small as well as large cell sizes; when all signals are transmitted at the same power level. The average attenuation of radio signals with distance in most cellular systems is a reduction to about 1/16 of the received power for every doubling of distance (1/10000 per decade). The frequency reuse distance known as separation distance is also known as the signalto-noise ratio. The figure on the opposite page shows the situation. At the base station, both signals from subscribers within the cell covered by this base station and signals from subscribers covered by other cells are received. Interference is caused by cells using the same channel set. The ratio D/R needs to be large enough in order for the base station to be able to cope with the interference. A co-channel interference factor Q is defined As Q=D/R = 3K where D is Frequency reuse distance ,R is the cell radius and K is the reuse factor or the number of cells in a cluster.

13

cluster 1
Cluster 2 cluster 3 D R

K=reuse factor=No of cells in a cluster Q=D/R = 3K

Q is more Sys quality high -- K is more -- No of cells in a cluster more -- No of channels per cell less -- Traffic handling capacity low

Figure 3: Illustration of cellular frequency concept Capacity / performance trade-offs When engineering a cellular network, the most important trade-off to make is the one between call capacity and performance: Relationship between K and Performance The performance of a cellular network can be expressed in quality of service. That is the value of Q shall be higher to achieve an acceptable quality of service. This means a low (co-channel) interference level in the network. The relationship between the reuse factor K and the network performance is: if K increases, then the co-channel interference decreases, and so the performance increases (note that there is a fixed relationship between K and ratio D/R). Relationship between K and Cell Capacity The other key relationship in cellular networks is the one between the reuse factor K and call capacity. First of all, call capacity depends on the number of available channels. In GSM, a limited number of frequencies is available (for GSM: 124 frequencies, and for GSM-1800: 374 frequencies). The frequencies are grouped into

14 frequency sets. If K increases, the number of frequencies per set (and so per cell) decreases, and so the call capacity per cell. The value of K in GSM cellular networks varies between 4 and 21. Note that in real networks, K is not a constant within the whole PLMN area, but varies depending on the traffic capacity needed in certain regions. Typically, K is high in urban regions and low in rural regions. If K increases, then performance increases If K increases, then call capacity decreases per cell The number of sites to cover a given area with a given high traffic density, and hence the cost of the infrastructure, is determined directly by the reuse factor and the number of traffic channels that can be extracted from the available spectrum. These two factors are compounded in what is called spectral efficiency of the system. Not all systems allow the same performance in this domain: they depend in particular on the robustness of the radio transmission scheme against interference, but also on the use of a number of technical tricks, such as reducing transmission during the silences of a speech communication. The spectral efficiency, together with the constraints on the cell size, determines also the possible compromises between the capacity and the cost of the infrastructure. All this explains the importance given to spectral efficiency.

2.3 DIGITAL MODULATION OF GSM RADIO : GMSK

The radio connectivity between the mobile station and the Radio transceiver is made by transmitting carrier .The digital information generated by the system or the network is to be imparted to the radio carrier by suitable digital modulation technique. If the amplitude of a carrier is shifted with binary information, it is said ASK is employed, wherein the amplitude of the carrier is switched between their full-on and full-off conditions. If the carrier frequency is shifted with the binary information, this is equivalent to shifting between two or more carriers of diff frequencies. This is FSK and is widely used in analog cellular systems for signaling functions. There is no limit to the number of carrier frequencies that can be shifted, but the use of two frequencies, quite close together, is the universal implementation of FSK. As with FSK ,the shift between various carriers differing from each other only in their relative phase(PSK).There are

15 many varieties of PSK ,and each is broadly distinguished from the others by the number of allowed phases .

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

The modulation specified for GSM is GMSK with BT=0.3 and rate 270 5/6 kbauds. GMSK is a type of constant envelope FSK, where the frequency modulation is a result of a carefully contrived phase modulation .The most important feature of GMSK is that it is a constant envelope variety of modulation. This means there is a distinct lack of AM in the carrier with a constant limiting of the occupied bandwidth. The constant amplitude of the GMSK signal makes it suitable for use with high efficiency amplifiers. An easy way to understand the GMSK signal is to first investigate its precursor, MinimumShift Keying (MSK).The following figure indicates the steps in generating an MSK signal. How the data is treated in GMSK is explained below: The waveforms are all aligned together in phase. Little scales are placed are placed in the figure to help make the phase relationships between the waveforms clearer. 10 bits of the data stream {1101011000} is considered for analysis. The data stream is divided into odd and even bit streams:(odd bits and even bits).In creating odd bits and even bits ,each alternate odd and even bit in data is hold for two bit times. Staggering odd bits and even bits already helps to create a waveform with minimal AM. For convenience odd bits and even bits are made to take the values 1or -1. In GSM case ,if the data rate (in waveform data) is 270.833 kbps, then the staggered odd bits and even bits will have half the rate135.4 kbps .The fourth and fifth wave forms in the following figure are the high freq and the low freq versions, respectively ,of the carrier. Since MSK is a form of FSK, finally modulated carrier needs two diff. frequency components (low and high).the MSK signal is created by shifting between these two frequencies. The MSK signal is created starting with bit number 2, with the help of the truth table given below along with the waveforms. At any instant the odd and even bit values are taken from the table and follow the rules as given in the truth table to obtain the MSK waveform at that instant. Either the high or the low freq versions of the carrier is picked corresponding to the instant under consideration and also according to the sense instructions(+or-) as given in the table ,the wave form is to be turned up or down.

16

10

data

odd bits

even bits

high freq

low freq MSK wave

Generating Minimum Shift Keying

MSK truth tableDigital inputMSK OutputBit ValueFrequency senseOdd bitEven BitHigh or Low+ or -11High--11Low-1-1Low+1-1High-

The resulting MSK waveform appears in waveform as MSK; which is the fifth waveform in the figure. Smooth phase transitions can be noticed, as the MSK waveform

17 changes its frequency one from the other. These high and low frequencies shall be as close together as possible in the freq domain. To make a GMSK signal from an MSK signal ,the stretched data waveforms (each135.4 kbps) have to be filtered with a Gaussian filter of an appropriate bandwidth defined by the BT product(Bandwidth*Time).In GSM case ,BT is 0.3,which makes B=81.3 kHz when T is 3.7 micro sec (T=1/270.833).

2.4 SPEECH

CODING IN

GSM

Due to the restricted transmission capacity on the radio channel, it is desirable to minimize the number of bits we need to transmit. The information is transmitted within pulses, so that the content, the representation of the originally continuous audio signal, is compressed in the time domain when it is transmitted over the radio path. Inside the receiver, the information is decompressed, or expanded, in order to regenerate the continuous audio signal. The device that transforms the human voice into a digital stream of data suitable for transmission over the radio interface and regenerates an audible analog representation of the received data (voice) is called a speech codec.

2.4.1 How the speech coding works in GSM

Sound (human voice) is converted to an electrical signal by the microphone. To digitize this analog signal, it is sampled at 8 KHz rate. The signal is sampled after filtering. Every 125 micro seconds, a value is sampled from the analog signal and quantized by a 13 bit word. The 125 micro sec sampling intervals are derived from a sampling frequency of 8 KHz, which is 8000 samples per second. A sampling rate of 8000 samples per second means that the output of Analog to Digital converter delivers a data rate of 8000x 13bps=104 Kbps.104 Kbps data is far too high to be economically transmitted over the radio interface; considering the Bandwidth scarcity. Band width has to be shared by number of users for costing advantages. The speech coder will have to do something to significantly reduce this rate by extracting irrelevant components in the data stream. The speech coder has to search for excess baggage we can safely remove from the bit stream scheduled for transport over the radio path. GSM uses to processes to strip redundant fat from the data representing voice traffic. The compression algorithm used in GSM is a procedure called RPE-LTP ,explained below.

18

2.4.2 REGULAR PULSE EXCITATION PREDICTION (RPELTP)

AND

LONG TERM

Every 20ms, 160 sampled values from the ADC are taken and stored in an intermediate memory. An analysis of a set of data samples produces eight filter coefficients and an excitation signal for a time-invariant digital filter. This filter can be regarded as a digital imitation of the human vocal tract, where the finer coefficients represent vocal modifiers(e.g., teeth, tongue, pharynx)and the excitation signal represents the sound(e.g., pitch , loudness) or the absence of sound that we pass through the vocal tract(filter). A correct setting of filter coefficients and an appropriate excitation signal yields a sound typical of the human voice. The procedure, so far, has not performed any data reductions. The reductions come in further steps, which take advantage of certain attributes of the human ear and vocal tract .The 160 samples, transformed into filter coefficients, are divided into four blocks of 40 samples each. Each block represents a 5-ms period of voice. These blocks are sorted into four sequences. Where each sequence contains very forth sample from the original 160 samples. Sequence number 1 contains samples 1, 5, 9, 13., 37, sequence number 2 contains samples 2, 6, 10, 14, .38, Sequence number 3 contains samples3, 7, 11, 15,39, and Sequence number 4 contains samples 4, 8, 12, 1640. The first reduction in data comes when the speech encoder selects the sequence with the most energy. This linear predictive coding (LPC) and regular pulse excitation (RPE) analysis has a very short memory of approximately 1ms. A more long-term consideration of neighboring (or adjacent) blocks in time is not performed here, There are numerous correlations in the human voice, especially in long vowels such as the in car, where the same sound recurs in succeeding 5-ms samples. Taking the similarity of sounds between adjacent samples (Adjacent 5-ms blocks) into account can significantly reduce the amount of data required to describe the human voice. This second reduction task is performed by a LTP Function.

2.4.3 LONG-TERM PREDICTION ANALYSIS (LTP)

19 The LTP function accepts a sequence selected by the LPC/RPE analysis. Upon accepting sequence, it then looks among all the previous sequences passed to it (which will reside in another intermediate memory for 15ms) for the earlier sequence that has the highest correlation to ( bears the greatest resemblance to ) the current sequence. It can be said that the LTP function looks for the one sequence from among those already received that is most similar to the sequence just received from the LPC/RPE. Now it is only necessary to transmit a value representing the difference between the two sequences, along with a pointer to tell the receiver on the other end of the radio channel, which sequence it should select among its recently received sequences for comparison. The receiver knows which differential values it has to apply to which sequences. The transmission of the whole sequence is not necessary, only the difference between sequences, This further reduces the data on the channel. The speech coder issues a block of 260bits (a speech frame) once every 20ms. This corresponds to net data rate of 13kbps, a data reduction of a factor of eight. Speech transcoding is a task that requires a large number of calculations at high speeds. It is, therefore, an ideal application for digital signal processing (DSP) techniques.

CHAPTER-3

20

GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network subsystem, (NSS) the radio subsystem, (RSS) and The operation support subsystem. (OSS) In order to ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and an Um interface between the BTS and MS.

3.2 GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE

Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers [1-4]. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas. GSM service area; PLMN service area; MSC service area; Location area; Cells.

The GSM service is the total area served by the combination of all member countries where a mobile can be serviced. The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be several within a country, based on its size. The links between a GSM/PLMN network

21 and other PSTN, ISDN, or PLMN network will be on the level of international or national transit exchange. All incoming calls for a GSM/PLMN network will be routed to a gateway MSC. A gateway MSC works as an incoming transit exchange for the GSM/PLMN. In a GSM/PLMN network, all mobile-terminated calls will be routed to a gateway MSC. Call connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, must be routed through certain designated MSCs called a gateway MSC. The gateway MSC contains the interworking functions to make these connections. They also route incoming calls to the proper MSC within the network. The next level of division is the MSC/VLR service area. In one PLMN there can be several MSC/VLR service areas. MSC/VLR is a role controller of calls within its jurisdiction. In order to route a call to a mobile subscriber, the path through links to the MSC in the MSC area where the subscriber is currently located. The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an MSC. The next division level is that of the LAs within a MSC/VLR combination. There are several LAs within one MSC/VLR combination. A LA is a part of the MSC/VLR service area in which a MS may move freely without updating location information to the MSC/VLR exchange that control the LA. Within a LA a paging message is broadcast in order to find the called mobile subscriber. The LA can be identified by the system using the Location Area Identity (LAI). The LA is used by the GSM system to search for a subscriber in a active state. Lastly, a LA is divided into many cells. A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS distinguishes between cells using the Base Station Identification code (BSIC) that the cell site broadcast over the air.

3.3 MOBILE STATION (MS)

The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system.

22 Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common model for describing these different MS configuration, reference configuration for MS, similar to those defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined. Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon request, the MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used to identify mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly. Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used to identity the mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in different phases of call setup. The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the calling party dials in order to reach the subscriber. It is used by the land network to route calls toward an appropriate MSC. The international mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function of the subscriber within the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him. The GSM system can also assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) to identity a mobile. This number can be periodically changed by the system and protect the subscriber from being identified by those attempting to monitor the radio channel.

3.3.1 Functions of MS
The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data over the air interface of the GSM system. MS performs the signal processing function of digitizing, encoding, error protecting, encrypting, and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse functions on the received signals from the BS. In order to transmit voice and data signals, the mobile must be in synchronization with the system so that the messages are the transmitted and received by the mobile at the correct instant. To achieve this, the MS automatically tunes and synchronizes to the frequency and TDMA timeslot specified by the BSC. This message is received over a dedicated timeslot several times within a multiform period of 51 frames. We shall discuss the details of this in the next chapter. The exact synchronization will also include adjusting the timing advance to compensate for varying distance of the mobile from the BTS.

23

OSS

HL

B T S BS BSC B T S

MSC/VL
R

A-bis interface

A Int
MSC VLR

PST N
ISDN

Air interface
B T S

Dat a
Netwo rks

Figure 4: Network Architecture The MS monitors the power level and signal quality, determined by the BER for known receiver bit sequences (synchronization sequence), from both its current BTS and up to six surrounding BTSs. This data is received on the downlink broadcast control channel. The MS determines and send to the current BTS a list of the six best-received BTS signals. The measurement results from MS on downlink quality and surrounding BTS signal levels are sent to BSC and processed within the BSC. The system then uses this list for best cell handover decisions.

24 MS keeps the GSM network informed of its location during both national and international roaming, even when it is inactive. This enables the system to page in its present LA. The MS includes an equalizer that compensates for multi-path distortion on the received signal. This reduces inter-symbol interference that would otherwise degrade the BER. Finally, the MS can store and display short received alphanumeric messages on the liquid crystal display (LCD) that is used to show call dialing and status information. These messages are limited to 160 characters in length. Power Levels These are five different categories of mobile telephone units specified by the European GSM system: 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W, and 0.8W. These correspond to 43-dBm, 39-dBm, 37-dBm, 33-dBm, and 29-dBm power levels. The 20-W and 8-W units (peak power) are either for vehicle-mounted or portable station use. The MS power is adjustable in 2-dB steps from its nominal value down to 20mW (13 dBm). This is done automatically under remote control from the BTS, which monitors the received power and adjusts the MS transmitter to the minimum power setting necessary for reliable transmission.

3.3.2 SIM Card

As described in the first chapter, GSM subscribers are provided with a SIM card with its unique identification at the very beginning of the service. By divorcing the subscriber ID from the equipment ID, the subscriber may never own the GSM mobile equipment set. The subscriber is identified in the system when he inserts the SIM card in the mobile equipment. This provides an enormous amount of flexibility to the subscribers since they can now use any GSM-specified mobile equipment. Thus with a SIM card the idea of Personalize the equipment currently in use and the respective information used by the network (location information) needs to be updated. The smart card SIM is portable between Mobile Equipment (ME) units. The user only needs to take his smart card on a trip. He can then rent a ME unit at the destination, even in another country, and insert his own SIM. Any calls he makes will be charged to his home GSM account. Also, the

25 GSM system will be able to reach him at the ME unit he is currently using. The SIM is a removable SC, the size of a credit card, and contains an integrated circuit chip with a microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and read only memory (ROM). It is inserted in the MS unit by the subscriber when he or she wants to use the MS to make or receive a call. As stated, a SIM also comes in a modular from that can be mounted in the subscribers equipment. When a mobile subscriber wants to use the system, he or she mounts their SIM card and provide their Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is compared with a PIN stored within the SIM. If the user enters three incorrect PIN codes, the SIM is disabled. The PIN can also be permanently bypassed by the service provider if requested by the subscriber. Disabling the PIN code simplifies the call setup but reduces the protection of the users account in the event of a stolen SIM.

3.4 IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS

3.4.1 International Mobile Subscriber Identity.(IMSI)
An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country code (MSC), mobile network code (MNC), and a PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is not hardware-specific. Instead, it is maintained on a SC by an authorized subscriber and is the only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI consists of the MCC followed by the NMSI and shall not exceed 15 digits.

3.4.2Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user confidentiality. It is assigned only after successful subscriber authentication. The correlation of a TMSI to an IMSI only occurs during a mobile subscribers initial transaction with an MSC (for example, location updating). Under certain condition (such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system), the MSC can direct individual TMSIs to provide the

26 MSC with their IMSI.

3.4.3 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

The MS international number must be dialed after the international prefix in order to obtain a mobile subscriber in another country. The MSISDN numbers is composed of the country code (CC) followed by the National Significant Number (N(S)N), which shall not exceed 15 digits.

3.4.4 The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

The MSRN is allocated on temporary basis when the MS roams into another numbering area. The MSRN number is used by the HLR for rerouting calls to the MS. It is assigned upon demand by the HLR on a per-call basis. The MSRN for PSTN/ISDN routing shall have the same structure as international ISDN numbers in the area in which the MSRN is allocated. The HLR knows in what MSC/VLR service area the subscriber is located. At the reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.

3.4.5 International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)

The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN and is used to determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware. In conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to ensure that only authorized users are granted access to the system. An IMEI is never sent in cipher mode by MS.

3.5 BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS)

27

The BSS is a set of BS equipment consisting of a Radio transmitter/receiver called BTS (Base Transceiver Station)and a controller called BSC (Base Station Controller)The BSS is viewed by the MSC through a single A interface as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain area. The radio equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of one or more BTS. The interface between BSC and BTS is designed as an A-bis interface. The BSS includes two types of machines: the BTS in contact with the MSs through the radio interface and the BSC, the latter being in contact with the MSC. The function split is basically between transmission equipment, the BTS, and managing equipment at the BSC. A BTS compares radio transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas, and also all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same TDM frame. A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a BTS. A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is controlled by a BSC. BTS is typically able to handle three to five radio carries, carrying between 24 and 40 simultaneous communication. Reducing the BTS volume is important to keeping down the cost of the cell sites. An important component of the BSS that is considered in the GSM architecture as a part of the BTS is the Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU). The TRAU is the equipment in which coding and decoding is carried out as well as rate adoption in case of data. Although the specifications consider the TRAU as a subpart of the BTS, it can be sited away from the BTS (at MSC), and even between the BSC and the MSC. The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7 interface (Ainterface) that, as stated before, is fully defined in the GSM recommendations. This allows the system operator to purchase switching equipment from one supplier and radio equipment and the controller from another. The interface between the BSC and a remote

28 BTS likewise is a standard the A-bis. In splitting the BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle was that only such functions that had to reside close to the radio transmitters/receivers should be placed in BTS. This will also help reduce the complexity of the BTS.

3.5.1

Functions of BTS

As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. Trans-coding to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments. Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS. BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.

3.5.2 BTS-BSC Configurations

There are several BTS-BSC configurations: single site; single cell; single site; multicell; and multisite, multicell. These configurations are chosen based on the rular or urban application. These configurations make the GSM system economical since the operation has options to adapt the best layout based on the traffic requirement. Thus, in some sense, system optimization is possible by the proper choice of the configuration. These include omni directional rural configuration where the BSC and BTS are on the same site; chain and multidrop loop configuration in which several BTSs are controlled by a single remote BSC with a chain or ring connection topology; rural star configuration in which several BTSs are connected by individual lines to the same BSC; and sectorized

29 urban configuration in which three BTSs share the same site and are controlled by either a collocated or remote BSC. In rural areas, most BSs are installed to provide maximum coverage rather then maximum capacity.

3.6 Transcoder (TXCDR)

Depending on the relative costs of a transmission plant for a particular cellular operator, there may be some benefit, for larger cells and certain network topologies, in having the transcoder either at the BTS, BSC or MSC location. If the transcoder is located at MSC, they are still considered functionally a part of the BSS. This approach allows for the maximum of flexibility and innovation in optimizing the transmission between MSC and BTS. The transcoder is the device that takes 13-Kbps speech or 3.6/6/12-Kbps data multiplexes and four of them to convert into standard 64-Kbps data. First, the 13 Kbps or the data at 3.6/6/12 Kbps are brought up to the level of 16 Kbps by inserting additional synchronizing data to make up the difference between a 13-Kbps speech or lower rate data, and then four of them are combined in the transcoder to provide 64 Kbps channel within the BSS. Four traffic channels can then be multiplexed on one 64Kpbs circuit. Thus, the TRAU output data rate is 64 Kbps. Then, up to 30 such 64-Kpbs channels are multiplexed onto a 2.048 Mbps if a CEPT1 channel is provided on the Abis interface. This channel can carry up to 120-(16x 120) traffic and control signals. Since the data rate to the PSTN is normally at 2 Mbps, which is the result of combining 30-Kbps by 64-Kbph channels, or 120- Kbps by 16-Kpbs channels.

3.6.1 BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC)

The BSC, as discussed, is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally heavy demands

30 during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. The functions of BSC are as follows. The BSC may also perform traffic concentration to reduce the number of transmission lines from the BSC to its BTSs, as discussed in the last section.

3.7
3.7.1

SWITCHING SUBSYSTEMS:
MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER ( MSC) and GATEWAY SWITCHING CENTER (GMSC)
The network and the switching subsystem together include the main switching

functions of GSM as well as the databases needed for subscriber data and mobility management (VLR). The main role of the MSC is to manage the communications between the GSM users and other telecommunication network users. The basic switching functions of performed by the MSC, whose main function is to coordinate setting up calls to and from GSM users. The MSC has interface with the BSS on one side (through which MSC VLR is in contact with GSM users) and the external networks on the other (ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN). The main difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is that the MSC has to take into account the impact of the allocation of RRs and the mobile nature of the subscribers and has to perform, in addition, at least, activities required for the location registration and handover. The MSC is a telephony switch that performs all the switching functions for MSs located in a geographical area as the MSC area. The MSC must also handle different types of numbers and identities related to the same MS and contained in different registers: IMSI, TMSI, ISDN number, and MSRN. In general identities are used in the interface between the MSC and the MS, while numbers are used in the fixed

31 part of the network, such as, for routing.

3.7.2 Functions of MSC

As stated, the main function of the MSC is to coordinate the set up of calls between GSM mobile and PSTN users. Specifically, it performs functions such as paging, resource allocation, location registration, and encryption. Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by MSC. MSC coordinates the set up of call to and from all GSM subscribers operating in its areas. The dynamics allocation of access resources is done in coordination with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel identity and related radio parameters are the responsibility of the BSS, The MSC provides the control of interworking with different networks. It is transparent for the subscriber authentication procedure. The MSC supervises the connection transfer between different BSSs for MSs, with an active call, moving from one call to another. This is ensured if the two BSSs are connected to the same MSC but also when they are not. In this latter case the procedure is more complex, since more then one MSC in involved. The MSC performs billing on calls for all subscribers based in its areas. When the subscriber is roaming elsewhere, the MSC obtains data for the call billing from the visited MSC. Encryption parameters transfers from VLR to BSS to facilitate ciphering on the radio interface are done by MSC. The exchange of signaling information on the various interface toward the other network elements and the management of the interface themselves are all controlled by the MSC. Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery system.

3.7.3 VLR (VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER)

The VLR is collocated with an MSC. A MS roaming in an MSC area is controlled by the VLR responsible for that area. When a MS appears in a LA, it starts a registration procedure. The MSC for that area notices this registration and transfers to the VLR the identify of the LA where the MS is situated. A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC LAs. The VLR constitutes the databases that support the MSC in

32 the storage and retrieval of the data of subscribers present in its area. When an MS enters the MSC area borders, it signals its arrival to the MSC that stores its identify in the VLR. The information necessary to manage the MS is contained in the HLR and is transferred to the VLR so that they can be easily retrieved if so required. Data Stored in VLR The data contained in the VLR and in the HLR are more or less the same. Nevertheless the data are present in the VLR only as long as the MS is registered in the area related to that VLR. Data associated with the movement of mobile are IMSI, MSISDN, MSRN, and TMSI. The terms permanent and temporary, in this case, are meaningful only during that time interval. Some data are mandatory, others are optional.

3.7.4

HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR)

The HLR is a database that permanently stores data related to a given set of

subscribers. The HLR is the reference database for subscriber parameters. Various identification numbers and addresses as well as authentication parameters, services subscribed, and special routing information are stored. Current subscriber status including a subscribers temporary roaming number and associated VLR if the mobile is roaming, are maintained. The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs home based in its MSC area, even when they are roaming out of area or in other GSM networks. The HLR provides the current location data needed to support searching for and paging the MSSIM for incoming calls, wherever the MS-SIM may be. The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM authentication and encryption parameters needed by the MSC where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from the AUC. The HLR maintains record of which supplementary service each user has subscribed to and provides permission control in granting services. The HLR stores the identification of SMS gateways that have messages for the subscriber under the SMS until they can be transmitted to the subscriber and receipt is knowledge. Some data are mandatory, other data are optional. Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in the same equipment in an MSC (collocated). A PLMN may

33 contain one or several HLRs.

3.7.5

AUTHENTICATION CENTER (AUC)

The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through

the air interface against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure and access. In the authentication procedure, the key Ki is never transmitted to the mobile over the air path, only a random number is sent. In order to gain access to the system, the mobile must provide the correct Signed Response (SRES) in answer to a random number (RAND) generated by AUC. Also, Ki and the cipher key Kc are never transmitted across the air interface between the BTS and the MS. Only the random challenge and the calculated response are transmitted. Thus, the value of Ki and Kc are kept secure. The cipher key, on the other hand, is transmitted on the SS7 link between the home HLR/AUC and the visited MSC, which is a point of potential vulnerability. On the other hand, the random number and cipher key is supposed to change with each phone call, so finding them on one call will not benefit using them on the next call. The HLR is also responsible for the authentication of the subscriber each time he makes or receives a call. The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a separate GSM entity that will often be physically included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use separate processing equipment for the AUC database functions.

3.7.6 EQUIPMENT IDENTIFY REGISTER (EIR)

EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or originating call. There are three

34 classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each group has different characteristics. White List: -contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This is the category of genuine equipment. Black List: - contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen. Gray List: - contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, and wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring. INTERWORKING FUNCTION GSM provided a wide range of data services to its subscribers. The GSM system interface with the various forms of public and private data networks currently available. It is the job of the IWF to provide this interfacing capability. The IWF, which in essence is a part of MSC, provides the subscriber with access to data rate and protocol conversion facilities so that data can be transmitted between GSM Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and a land-line DTE. ECHO CANCELER (EC) EC is used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits. The EC is required at the MSC PSTN interface to reduce the effect of GSM delay when the mobile is connected to the PSTN circuit. The total round-trip delay introduced by the GSM system, which is the result of speech encoding, decoding and signal processing, is of the order of 180 ms. Normally this delay would not be an annoying factor to the mobile, except when communicating to PSTN as it requires a two-wire to four-wire hybrid transformer in the circuit. This hybrid is required at the local switching office because the standard local loop is a two-wire circuit. Due to the presence of this hybrid, some of the energy at its four-wire receive side from the mobile is coupled to the four-wire transmit side and thus retransmitted to the mobile. This causes the echo, which does not affect the land subscriber but is an annoying factor to the mobile. The standard EC cancels about 70 ms of delay.

35 During a normal PSTN (land-to-land call), no echo is apparent because the delay is too short and the land user is unable to distinguish between the echo and the normal telephone side tones However, with the GSM round-trip delay added and without the EC, the effect would be irritating to the MS subscriber.

3.8

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER (OMC)

The OMC provides alarm-handling functions to report and log alarms generated

by the other network entities. The maintenance personnel at the OMC can define that criticality of the alarm. Maintenance covers both technical and administrative actions to maintain and correct the system operation, or to restore normal operations after a breakdown, in the shortest possible time. The fault management functions of the OMC allow network devices to be manually or automatically removed from or restored to service. The status of network devices can be checked, and tests and diagnostics on various devices can be invoked. For example, diagnostics may be initiated remotely by the OMC. A mobile call trace facility can also be invoked. The performance management functions included collecting traffic statistics from the GSM network entities and archiving them in disk files or displaying them for analysis. Because a potential to collect large amounts of data exists, maintenance personal can select which of the detailed statistics to be collected based on personal interests and past experience. As a result of performance analysis, if necessary, an alarm can be set remotely. The OMC provides system change control for the software revisions and configuration data bases in the network entities or uploaded to the OMC. The OMC also keeps track of the different software versions running on different subsystem of the GSM.