A MINI LITERATURE REVIEW

REHABILITATION OF LOGGING GAPS AT PRA-ANUM FOREST RESERVE IN GHANA

ASIGBAASE MICHAEL (000683304)

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables........................................................................................................................................... iii Sections 1.1 General Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The problem of Deforestation............................................................................................................. 2 1.3 Logging in Natural Forests ................................................................................................................. 2 1.4 Impact of Logging on Forest and Forest Conditions ........................................................................... 3 1.5 Forest Rehabilitation .......................................................................................................................... 4 1.5.1 Enrichment Plantings .................................................................................................................. 5 1.6 Choice of Tree Species for Rehabilitation........................................................................................... 5 1.7 Native Tree Species ........................................................................................................................... 7 1.8 Growth Requirement of the Indigenous Species ................................................................................. 7 1.8.1 Water .......................................................................................................................................... 8 1.8.2 Light ........................................................................................................................................... 8 1.8.3 Soil Characteristics...................................................................................................................... 9 1.8.4 Spacing/Stand Stocking ............................................................................................................... 9 1.9 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 9 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 10

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List of Tables 1. Table 1: Logging Impact on Forest 2. Table 2: Competition Potential of Species 3. Table 3: Perceived Potential Benefits of Native Species 3 6 6

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1.0 Literature Review 1.1 General Introduction A forest is defined by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2010) as a community or association of trees and animals dominated by trees which are capable of generating forest products. These ecosystems produce valuable materials such as lumber, paper pulp, and domestic livestock that is important in human culture. They also play vital roles in regulating climate, controlling water runoff, providing wildlife habitat, purifying the air and a host of other ecological services. In addition, these terrestrial biomasses have cultural, historic and scenic values and hence are usually protected (Lamb and Gilmour, 2003; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). However, forest is one of the most heavily disturbed resources by human activity. This work, therefore, is a review of literature on logging damage and the rehabilitation of forest after logging. It will focus on the rehabilitation of logging gaps using native species.

1.2 The Problem of Deforestation For the past two decades, Central and West Africa recorded the highest deforestation rates; annual rate change of 0.6% from 1990-2000 and 0.5% for 2000-2005 (FAO, 2006). Ghana was one West African country where deforestation was highest (Benhin and Barbier, 2001). Therefore, precise figures describing the current total forest cover and deforestation are difficult to give (Hansen et al., 2009), though FAO, 2006 reported 24% of total land cover as Ghanas forest cover in 2005. The forests of Ghana are grouped into off-reserves and on-reserves. The Forestry Commission manages the on-reserve areas. There are 266 forest reserves in Ghana, out of this, 216 occur in the high forest zone which is the timber production zone (Damnyag et al., 2011). However, most of these reserves were already degraded in the mid 1990s as a result of over-harvesting (over-logging) for timber, forest fires, and farming (Hawthorne and AbuJuam, 1995). The situation, currently, may even be worse, because in 2006, the annual allowable cut had increased from 1 million m3 in 1989 to 2 million m3 (Blackett and Gardette, 2008), without an equivalent replanting of trees (Damnyag et al., 2011). In Ghana, timber is extracted from the forest through selective logging (Palo and Yirdaw, 1996), involving periodic entries into a given area of a forest for the removal of selected commercial timber trees using heavy extraction machines such as bull dozers, skidders and sometimes
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tractors, which cause much damage to the residual forest. The method allows the removal of only the current commercial trees while retaining those with potential commercial value for future use. This method of harvesting (selective logging) is one of the leading causes of Ghanas forest loss through degradation and deforestation (Palo and Yirdaw, 1996). Therefore, the government of Ghana over the years have been concerned about the extent of forest degradation in the country (Damnyag et al., 2011). Rehabilitation measures, including tree planting is one tactical effort being made to combat deforestation and to achieve sustainable management (Damnyag et al., 2011). The 1994 Government policy therefore recommends that degraded forest reserves should be put under reforestation and/or rehabilitation (Ministry of Lands and Forestry, 1994). 1.3 Logging in Natural Forests Logging is described by Stoddard and Stoddard (1987), as the process of harvesting and hauling rough forest products from stump areas to the points of processing or sale. Felling and extraction of trees are the main activities during logging. The major aspect of logging that may contribute to degradation and eventually to deforestation is that besides damage done due to felling some parts of the forests are cleared to construct tracks, roads, landings and loading bays. Though logging affects the forest (Lamb and Gilmour, 2003), with proper management, it can be useful as matured trees have to be removed so that young trees can grow to replace them. This however is not always the case, since it is dependent on proper management. Tree felling creates gaps in the forest canopy. This poses a serious threat to sustainability if no silvicultural intervention appropriate for easing the recovery of logged areas is carried out (Asabere, 1987). The cumulative effect of these gaps together with skidding, road construction, and loading bay operations can be very serious. The impact, however, varies with logging intensity, frequency and spatial extent. The physical impact of logging operations, however, creates a structurally heterogeneous residual forest consisting of different micro-sites such as log landings, logging roads, logging gaps, loading bays and skid trails (Stoddard and Stoddard, 1987; Demir et al., 2005). 1.4 Impact of Logging on Forest and Forest Conditions The two main anthropogenic impacts on the tropical rain forests are deforestation and logging (Johns, 1997). Stoddard and Stoddard (1987) stated that harvesting timber from forested areas

has both direct and indirect environmental effects. The level of impact as it relates to these are, however, dependent on factors such as logging intensity, forest structure, terrain condition, harvesting methods and skill of machine operators (Johns, 1997 ; Stoddard and Stoddard, 1987). Table 1 gives a summary of the impact of logging on forest and its environment. Rehabilitation is therefore necessary to ease forest recovery after logging. Table 1: Logging Impact on Forest CONDITION Increased erosion CAUSE (S) Compaction, Top soil removal for road and loading bays construction, Reduced rainfall interception CITATION Kobayashi et al. (2001); Batmanian (1990); Demir et al. (2005); Sessions and Heinrich (1993)

Nutrient loss

Erosion, Top soil removal for Sophie et al. (2002); Demir, loading bay and road et al (2005); Buckley et al construction (2003) Degradation and erosion Kobayashi et al. (2001); Sophie et al. (2002); Sessions and Heinrich (1993) Kobayashi et al. (2001); Batmanian (1990); Demir et al, (2005); Sessions and Heinrich (1993) ter Steege et al. (1996) Agyeman et al. (1999a); Hawthorne et al. (2001) Wallace (1988); Burslem (2004); Agyeman et al. (1999b)

Reduced regeneration and growth Reduced infiltration and increased soil bulk density

Compaction by machines

Low porosity and moisture retention characteristics Residual stand damage

Loss of soil structure and surface litter Felling operations, Absence of pre- and/or post- harvest treatment Increased solar radiation reaching forest floor due to canopy openings

Higher minimum and maximum ground surface temperature, Lower mean relative humidity, Greater wind speed Biodiversity loss Forest Fires

Habitat loss and competition for food Logging residual served as fuel bed

Johns (1997); Gilliam (2002); Rab (2000) Swaine et al. (1997)

1.5 Forest Rehabilitation Gomez-Pompa and Burley (1991) observed that the natural regeneration process can be assisted or directed to increase representation of any particular species. Forest rehabilitation is the human intervention to counter forest degradation processes e.g., promotion of the recovery process in large gaps or conversion of shrub forest to high storey plantation forest (Kobayashi et al., 2001). Forest rehabilitation therefore promotes measures that maximise forest functions especially after logging to satisfy human aims. It involves reestablishment of a more intact canopy that is found in undisturbed forest (Kobayashi et al., 2001). Replanting of commercial species has been a widespread means of supplementing inadequate natural regeneration and can be employed in rehabilitation projects after logging (Johns, 1997). For example, during the 1960s, areas of the West Mengo Forest Reserve, Uganda, which had been heavily damaged by logging and charcoal burning, were replanted with selected timber species, including exotic hardwoods and it resulted in a considerable improvement in timber increment (Johns, 1997). The seedlings are planted in natural forest gaps along regularly placed lines, or on heavily damaged open areas such as roads and loading areas (Johns, 1997). This implies that rehabilitation or enrichment planting may be costly and difficult to implement. 1.5.1 Enrichment Plantings Enrichment can conserve the soil and the forest environment, protect potential crop trees, and produce additional wood or other forest products, leaf-fodder and fruits (Pancel, 1993). Some forests are damaged by heavy logging and harsh conditions such as low nutrient status, high irradiance, invasion of grasses and low soil moisture due to high evaporation are prevalent at the gaps (Wallace, 1988; Burslem, 2004; Agyeman et al., 1999b). This poses problems to regeneration and the growth of young trees because germination and growth is dependent on such conditions as soil moisture content, invasive species, soil nutrient level and light (Gerhardt, 1993; Nepstad et al., 1990; Honu and Dang, 2000; Anning and Yeboah-Gyan, 2007). Sometimes commercially attractive timbers may be lost because they were not represented in any advanced growth (i.e. saplings and trees smaller than the felling limit) or because the advanced growth was damaged by the logging operation hence enrichment planting has been suggested to assist natural regeneration (Weaver, 1987; Kopelainen et al., 1995; Sips, 1993).

Enrichment planting is a way to enhance commercial productivity whiles maintaining the sites as essentially natural as in natural forests (Weaver, 1987; Aide et al., 2000; International Tropical Timber Organization, 2002; Lamprecht, 1990). Planting fast growing and commercially attractive species can speed up the forest recovery rate and enhance the capacity of the forest to maintain commercial or social productivity by promoting the growth of economically desired species (Kobayashi et al., 2001). Enrichment planting also conserves any residual advanced growth or natural regeneration of timber trees and this in effect will maintain much of the residual biodiversity that is still present in the forest (Kobayashi et al., 2001). However, since species suitability may vary with certain sites, the choice of native species for rehabilitation should be carefully considered. 1.6 Choice of Tree Species for Rehabilitation The decisive factors in choosing tree species for rehabilitation are usually both ecological and economic in nature (Pancel, 1993). Almost all the energy in the tropical forest ecosystem originates from solar radiation and trees differ in their tolerance to shade and light to such degrees that, ecologically, they are put them into two main classes: pioneer species and nonpioneer species (Swaine and Whitemore, 1988). The pioneer species are light demanders and fail to establish in deep forest shade. Examples are Fromager (Ceiba pentandra), Iroko (Milicia excelsa) and Framire (Terminalia ivorensis). These species are good for rehabilitation projects since they are able to grow in gaps (Longman and Jeniks, 1992). The non-pioneer species are further grouped into non pioneer light demanders and nonpioneer shade demanders. In moderate gaps, the non-pioneer light demanders such as Entandrophragma species, Khaya species, Bete (Mansonia altissima) and Ako (Antiaris toxicaria) perform appreciably better than the non-pioneer shade demanders (Longman and Jeniks, 1992). This implies that these species may be extremely difficult to plant where gaps are large such as loading bays since they require some shading. Therefore, for effective growth they should be established under some shade. The choice of species for rehabilitation projects after logging should therefore be carefully considered and the appropriate species should be used. Some species can better compete in logging gaps than others (Longman and Jeniks, 1992). If species whose competition potential is not known are considered for planting, it is advisable to observe their silvology in their natural environment (Pancel, 1993). The checklist in Table 2 can be used to broadly evaluate a native species competitive potential is not known.
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Table 2: Competition Potential of Species; adapted from Pancel (1993) Characteristics Pioneer Species Competition Behaviour Rapid initial growth, competes successfully with weeds and climbers Opportunist Species Light Demanders Moderately tolerant to competition Sensitive to competition from weeds and climbers Shadow-tolerant May not be necessary or desirable to remove the indigenous forest growth Occurs in association with grasses Tolerates allelopathetic effects of grasses

1.7 Native Tree Species A native tree species is one that grows naturally in the country concerned, though not necessarily in all parts and certainly not suited to all sites (Evans, 1992). In comparison to the tree species in the temperate regions, many tropical tree species possess natural properties which make them practically useful. Such properties include natural durability, mechanical stability and decorative appearance (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Therefore, cultivation of indigenous timber species has both economic and ecological advantages over exotic species which yield a high profit after a few years and are not slow growing as earlier thought (Foli et al., 1996). Table 3 presents the perceived potential benefits of native species. Table 3: Perceived Potential Benefits of Native Species Perceived Potential Benefits Restore biological diversity Sequester carbon Combat soil erosion Improve soil conditions Enhance rural livelihoods Citation Lamb and Gilmour (2003) Silver et al. (2000) Scott et al. (2005) Fisher (1995); Butterfield (1996) Murray and Bannister (2004)

However, limited availability of information on native species has resulted in few of them being actually used in forest restoration programs. Understanding the growth characteristics of forest trees will enhance their usage in rehabilitation programs. 1.8 Growth Requirement of the Indigenous Species The growth of planted species is dependent on: y environmental site conditions (soil, temperature, precipitation, distribution of precipitation and light) (Blatchford, 1978; Pancel, 1993); y y stocking of the stand (Pancel, 1993); silvicultural treatment (weeding, soil working, climber cutting, thinning) (Pancel, 1993 ), and, y endogenous growth characteristics of the species (Johns, 1997; Assman, 1970; Blatchford, 1978). 1.8.1 Water The supply of water is justifiably considered to be the key factor in tree growth and plays an important role in determining the success of plantations, especially in the tropics (Longman and Jeniks, 1992). Rainfall is the primary source of water and can be a limiting factor to tree growth. For instance, according to Swaine et al. (1997), for adequate growth, M. altissima requires a high rainfall of 2032 mm yr-1. Species like Cynometra anata and Tarrieta utilis cannot tolerate the dry season drought. The use of these species for rehabilitation should be restricted to the Evergreen Forest Zone where the seasonal drought is about four months (Swaine et al., 1997). In seasonally dry forest, growth is probably reduced owing to water shortage during the dry season, unless the trees can tap water deep in the soil. At La Selva, Costa Rica, a detailed study of growth patterns on a day-to-day basis by Turner (2001) showed an annual periodicity in growth in most of species on well-drained soils. Most species showed reduced growth in the mild dry season at La Selva. Similarly, during a severe drought in 1983 on Barro Colorado Island, there was considerably higher mortality among trees than normal, with large-diameter stems suffering the greatest increase in mortality (Turner, 2001). The case is not different in Ghana, the significant seasonal drought occurring each year in the drier forest types, notably the Moist and Dry Semi-deciduous Forest types, have been found to halt the growth of the trees. On the other hand, trees, which tolerate long drought periods,
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example Terminalia mollis (ongo), Khaya senegalensis, and Afzelia africana can survive in these areas (Swaine et al., 1997). 1.8.2 Light Though tree species, ecologically, has been grouped into pioneer species and non-pioneer species, tree species growth is greatly influenced by light levels even within the same group. Turner (2001) observed that shading results in most forest trees growing at rates well below their potential maximum. Also, studies in a deciduous dry forest in Mexico resulted in increased growth when light was increased (Rincon and Huante, 1993). Therefore differences in growth response to light conditions exist among species and affect the composition of forest stand (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Liebetman and Li (1992) found out that seedling density was higher in well-shaded areas than exposed, open sites in a dry forest in Ghana. This may be due to the fact that light may be excessive in gaps in dry seasons therefore creating higher desiccation hence increasing seedling mortality in large gaps. Therefore, species such as M. altissima will prefer moderate shade for the initial stages and subsequently become a light demander requiring overhead light. 1.8.3 Soil Characteristics An interaction of several soil factors influence the growth of trees because changes in one factor may bring about corresponding changes in the other factors. For instance, soil compaction increases bulk density or strength of the soil, commonly called its mechanical impedances, and reduces its conductivity, permeability and diffusivity to water and air (Greenland, 1997). Soil characteristics such as texture, bulk density, compaction, moisture, penetration, thickness of the A horizon, organic matter and nutrient content can therefore promote or retard the establishment and growth of forest trees (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1979). However, Evans (1992) notes that luxuriance and richness of much tropical forests does not primarily depend on fertile soil but on efficient recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem. 1.8.4 Spacing/Stand Stocking Stand stocking and spacing are inversely related (Kuuluvainen, 1991). Relatively wide spacing of individual trees and their resultant crown development affect the rate of diameter growth and the quality of the lumber or their products they yield (Nketia, 2002; Nkyi, 2007).

Crowding of trees in dense stands however has slightly stimulating effects on the height growth which may exceed that of open grown trees.

1.9 Conclusion The current rapid deforestation rates, the dominance of non-commercial pioneers in logging gaps, lack of adequate regeneration for most commercial species, and current projections of dramatic declines in the volume of future harvests calls for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation of logged areas, loading bays, skid trails and road verges as well as landings is the most urgent matter requiring enrichment plantings. With proper planning, site and species selection and management, logging gaps can be rehabilitated after logging. This will ease forest function recovery through early canopy closer.

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