THE HORMANDER COMPANION

JENNIFER HALFPAP

As the title suggests, these notes are designed as a companion to Hrmanders o now-classic book An Introduction to Complex Analysis in Several Variables [Hr90]. o This book has survived for many decades because it is concise and ecient. On the ip side, these characteristics can make it hard for the student to read. It assumes considerable background and tends to leave details to the reader. Thus, in addition to being a graduate course in the analysis of functions of one and several complex variables, this is a course on learning how to learn mathematics. Sometimes it is tempting to abandon a hard book or paper because one doesnt have all the background. This book, for example, uses the language of dierential forms and the wedge product on the second page. If you havent met these ideas before and hear that they are taught in a course on manifolds, you might think you need to wait until after such a course to read this book. Similarly, this book uses theorems commonly rst encountered in a course on measure and integration theory. You might think that therefore such a course is also a prerequisite. My perspective is that if you wait to read a book or paper until you have mastered all the prerequisites, you wont progress. Instead, when you come up against material assumed as background with which you are unfamiliar, aim to develop enough of a working knowledge to be able to proceed with your main goal. As your interests develop, it will become clear which auxiliary areas require more attention on your part and which are peripheral. These notes are designed to help you learn to do this. They include some expository material that may make reading Hrmanders exposition easier, they include o exercises that allow you to practice using denitions and results, and they help you ll in some of the details left to the reader. 1. Analytic Functions of One Complex Variable Let be an open subset of C and consider f : C. Write f in terms of its real and imaginary parts, i.e., if z = x + iy, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) for real-valued functions u and v of the two real variables x and y. Hrmander denes f to be o 1 analytic on if f C 1 () and f = 0, where z := 2 ( x + i y ). It then follows z that for f analytic, df =
f z dz

for

:= 1 ( x i y ). 2

Exercise 1. Using this denition of analyticity, determine the system of (real) partial dierential equations satised by u and v. In most undergraduate texts on complex analysis, analyticity is dened as follows: Denition 1. f : C is analytic at z0 if (1)
zz0

lim

f (z) f (z0 ) z z0
1

JENNIFER HALFPAP

exists, in which case the value is denoted by f (z0 ). f is said to be analytic on the open set if it is analytic at every point of . Exercise 2. Consider a function f = u + iv for which the above limit exists for some z0 = x0 + iy0 . Show that at this point, u and v satisfy the same system of partial dierential equations identied in the previous exercise. (Hint: Consider restricted approaches to z0 .) Then show that this denition of f agrees with what Hrmander would write as f . o z The point of Hrmanders approach is that it reects the intuition that analytic o functions are those functions on C which are independent of z . Such intuition is reinforced by the following elementary exercises: Exercise 3. Dene ez := ex cos y + iex sin y. Show that this denes an analytic function on all of C. (Such functions are called entire.) Exercise 4. The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is its usual Euclidean distance from the origin and is denoted by |z|. Show that |z|2 = z z , and determine all points of C at which f (z) = |z|2 is analytic. Exercise 5. Show that f (z) = z n is entire for n N. This can be done in a number of ways. In particular, either denition of analyticity can be used. Try it both ways. 2. Stokes/Greens Theorem, the Cauchy Integral Formula, and Consequences Most undergraduate books in complex analysis take a long time working up to the Cauchy Integral Formula, and then usually only give partial proofs for rather special domains. Few of these presentations do what Hrmander does and obtain o the result from a version of Stokes/Greens Theorem using the language of dierential forms and the exterior derivative. Furthermore, these latter topics are often treated in a similarly incomplete manner in the undergraduate curriculum. Such pedagogical choices are appropriate and understandable; a thorough treatment of Stokes theorem is usually left to a course in dierential topology or smooth manifolds. We will commit similar sins here and neither prove Stokes theorem nor develop the underlying ideas fully. Such a development would be inappropriate here because what is really being used is the more elementary special case of Stokes Theorem known as Greens Theorem. On the other hand, consistent with the spirit of this exposition, we aim to move the reader one step closer to an understanding of this deep result by introducing, albeit informally, notions of manifold, tangent space, and dierential form, followed by two statements of Greens theorem and the proof of the Cauchy Integral Formula given in Hrmanders Section 1.2. o 2.1. What is a manifold? Roughly speaking, a k-dimensional manifold is a set which near every point resembles Rk . For example, consider the curve in the plane with equation y = x2 . This set is most certainly not a vector subspace of R2 . However, this curve is locally linear; at every point along the curve there is a well-dened tangent line. We mention two other (trivial) classes of examples of manifolds: open subsets U of R2 , and any nite set of points in R2 . For our purposes in this section, the three examples above are about all we need; we will consider curves in the plane which have a well-dened tangent line at all

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

but nitely many points (e.g., the unit circle or the boundary of some polygonal region in the plane), open sets in the plane whose boundaries are these sorts of curves, and nite collections of points in the plane. For any manifold, there is an associated notion of dimension, corresponding to the dimension of the Euclidean space it resembles locally. Thus an open set U in R2 is a manifold of dimension 2, the unit circle in R2 is a manifold of dimension 1, and a point or collection of points is a manifold of dimension 0. Also associated with any manifold is its tangent space at a point. In the case in which the manifold is also a subset of some Rn , this notion of tangent space corresponds closely to the notion developed in calculus, except that because we want to think of the tangent space to a manifold at a point as a vector space, we always think of our tangent spaces as going through the origin. Let us consider the three examples above. In all cases, since the manifold under consideration is a subset of R2 , we will also think of the tangent space as a subspace of R2 . If p is a point of an open subset U of R2 , the tangent space to U at p, denoted Tp (U ), is just a copy of R2 . For the point p = (1/ 2, 1/ 2) on the unit circle C, since the equation of the tangent line is y 1/ 2 = (x 1/ 2), the tangent space is given by Tp (C) = { (x, y) : y = x }. Finally, the tangent space to the manifold consisting of the single point p is Tp ({p}) = {(0, 0)}. Exercise 6. Look up the denitions of a dieomorphism, a smooth k-dimensional manifold M Rn , and the tangent space Tp (M ) to M at p. Using these denitions, show that the unit circle C in R2 is indeed a smooth 1-dimensional manifold and that (as claimed above) T(1/2,1/2) (C) = { (x, y) : y = x }. A good source is [GP74], p.3 and p.9. 2.2. Tangent vectors and forms on Rn . Consider Rn as an n-dimensional manifold, or, more generally, consider an open subset U of Rn . As discussed in the previous subsection, at any point p, the tangent space Tp (Rn ) (resp. Tp (U )) is just Rn itself. We could denote the standard basis for this vector space by {e1 , . . . , en }, but to stress that this copy of Rn arises as the tangent space to a manifold at a point, a more common notation for this basis is ,..., }. { x1 xn Denition 2. A 1-form at p Rn (or U ) is a linear map : Tp (Rn ) R. The set of all 1-forms at p is the dual space to Tp (Rn ) and is denoted Tp (Rn ). The above is a special case of a standard construction in linear algebra: Denition 3. Let V be a normed vector space over R. A linear functional is a linear map : V R. The set of all continuous linear functionals on V is called its dual space and is denoted by V . It is a standard result from linear algebra that the space dual to a vector space (equipped with the obvious operations) is itself a vector space, and when the original space has nite dimension n, so does the dual space. We denote by {dx1 , . . . , dxn } the basis dual to the standard basis, so that the following relations hold: dxi ( ) = i,j . xj More generally, we dene k-forms on Rn .

JENNIFER HALFPAP

Denition 4. A k-form on Rn (thought of as Tp (Rn ) or Tp (U )) is a function : (Tp (Rn ))k R that is multi-linear and anti-symmetric, i.e., (a) if L1 , . . . , Lk are vectors and Li = M 1 + M 2 , then (L1 , . . . , M 1 + M 2 , . . . , Lk ) = (L1 , . . . , M 1 , . . . , Lk ) + (L1 , . . . , M 2 , . . . , Lk ). (b) (L1 , . . . , Li , . . . , Lj , . . . , Lk ) = (L1 , . . . , Lj , . . . , Li , . . . , Lk ). We denote the space of k-forms by k (Tp (Rn )). The rst essential remark is that you are already quite familiar with one example of the above. Example 5. The determinant function det denes an n-form on Rn . Indeed, to every collection of n vectors in Rn , it assigns a real number. This function is linear in each entry, and if two vectors are interchanged, the determinant changes sign. In fact, det is the unique n-form on Rn for which det( x1 , . . . , xn ) = 1. Not only does the determinant provide a familiar example of a form, but also in some sense all k-forms on Rn can be thought of as generalizations of the determinant. We dene an operation that allows us to combine forms to obtain a new form. Denition 6. Let be a k-form on Rn and an l-form. We dene : (Tp (Rn ))k+l R by (2) (L1 , . . . , Lk , Lk+1 , . . . , Lk+l ) = sgn()(L(1) , . . . , L(k) )(L(k+1) , . . . , L(k+l) )
Sk+l

where the set Sk+l consists of all permutations of {1, . . . , k + l}. For example, if we consider the 1-forms dx1 and dx2 on R2 , their wedge product dx1 dx2 is a 2-form on R2 . If L1 = a x1 + c x2 and L2 = b x1 + d x2 , then dx1 dx2 (L1 , L2 ) = +dx1 (L1 )dx2 (L2 ) dx1 (L2 )dx2 (L1 ) = ad bc, which we recognize as the determinant of the 2 2 matrix a b . c d The following proposition contains properties of this wedge product.

Proposition 7. Let , be k-forms, let be an l-form, let be an r-form, and let , be scalars. (1) is a k + l-form (i.e., it is multi-linear and antisymmetric). (2) ( + ) = ( ) + ( ). (3) ( ) = ( ) . We may thus use the notation for either. Exercise 7. Use the above denition to describe (1) dx1 dx1 (2) the relationship between dx1 dx2 and dx2 dx1 . (3) 1 2 3 where each i is a 1-form on R2 . State propositions generalizing the above for wedge products of forms on Rn . We make a few nal comments in light of general results suggested by the above exercise. The only interesting spaces k (Tp (Rn )) are for k n, so henceforth when n we talk about k-forms on R , we will be thinking of k n. Furthermore, there is an obvious vector space structure on k (Tp (Rn )), and { dxI := dxi1 dxi2 . . . dxik : 1 i1 < i2 < . . . < ik n } is a basis.

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

2.3. Dierential forms and the exterior derivative. For an open subset of Rn , let E() be the space of innitely-dierentiable complex-valued functions on . Denition 8. A dierential 1-form or smooth 1-form on is an object
n

(3) where j E().

=
j=1

j dxj ,

One of the most familiar examples is the exterior derivative df of a function f E(). Denition 9. For f E(Rn ), p Rn , and L Tp (Rn ), dene df by df (L) := L(f ). Of course it would be nice to know how to express df in the form (3). Taking L f to be xj , one sees that j = xj , i.e.,
n

df =
j=1

f dxj . xj

More generally, Denition 10. A smooth dierential k-form on (or, more succinctly, a smooth k-form) is an object (4) =
|I|=k

f I dxI

where each f I E(), each I is an increasing k-tuple of elements from the set { i : 1 i n }, and the sum is taken over all increasing k-tuples. We denote by E k () the set of all smooth k-forms on . Since smooth 0-forms are identied with smooth functions, the notations E 0 () and E() may both be used for this space. Denition 11. We dene the exterior derivative d : E k () E k+1 () by d
|I|=k

f I dxI :=
|I|=k

df I dxI .

Exercise 8. (1) Let = x2 y dx + xy 3 dy and = ex (cos y + i sin y) dx + x e (sin y + i cos y) dy. Compute d and d. (2) Prove that for any smooth k-form , d2 = d(d) = 0. (3) In a multivariable calculus course, one often learns about exact dierential forms. Look up this denition and the connection between exact dierential 1-forms and line integrals. Discuss how these ideas relate to the earlier pasts of this exercise. (4) Look up the denition of a closed dierential form, and discuss the connection between closed and exact forms.

JENNIFER HALFPAP

2.4. The theorems. The result you know as Greens Theorem is probably something close to the following: Theorem 12 (Greens Theorem, First Version). Let R2 be an open, connected, and bounded set whose boundary is piece-wise smooth and positively-oriented (i.e., as one traverses the boundary in the positive sense, lies to ones left). If P and Q are smooth throughout some open set containing , then Q P dx dy. P dx + Qdy = x y This can be expressed in a dierent way using forms and exterior derivatives. For the 1-form = P dx + Qdy (using subscripts to denote partial derivatives) d = = = = dP dx + dQ dy (Px dx + Py dy) dx + (Qx dx + Qy dy) dy Px dx dx + Py dy dx + Qx dx dy + Qy dy dy Py dx dy + Qx dx dy.

We may thus restate Greens Theorem: Theorem 13 (Greens Theorem, Second Version). Let R2 be an open, connected, and bounded set whose boundary is piece-wise smooth and positivelyoriented. If is a smooth 1-form on a neighborhood of , =

d.

Greens theorem is a special case of Stokes theorem, which says more generally that for an oriented k-manifold M with boundary M having the induced orientation, the integral of a k 1 form on the boundary equals the integral of its exterior derivative over the manifold. Stating it more precisely would require us to extend our denitions of vector, form, smooth dierential form, and exterior derivative to functions dened on manifolds. This is beyond the scope of this course. We now return to the complex setting. Think of as a connected, open, bounded subset of C with piece-wise smooth boundary. Consider = f dz for f C 1 (). Then = df dz f f = dx + dy (dx + idy) x y f f = i dx dy dx dy x y f = 2i dx dy z f = d dz. z z Greens Theorem and this calculation thus give the following: d(f dz) Corollary 14 (Cauchy Integral Theorem). If and satisfy the same hypotheses as in Greens Theorem and if f is analytic in a neighborhood of , then f (z) dz = 0.

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

Exercise 9. Prove the identity 2idx dy = d dz used above. z Exercise 10. Let C denote the positively-oriented unit circle. For each n Z, evaluate (with justications) C z n dz. Look up the denition of a simple closed curve in C. What happens if C is replaced by a simple, closed, positively-oriented curve having the origin in its interior? We can now state the Cauchy Integral Formula. Theorem 15 (Cauchy Integral Formula). If f C 1 (), (5) 2if () =
f z

f (z) dz + z

dz d. z

Exercise 11. Fill in the details of Hrmanders proof of this theorem. In particular, o include complete justication of the statements
2 0

lim

f ( + ei ) d = 2f ()
0 f z f z

and
0

lim

dz d = z

dz d. z

2.5. Hrmanders Theorem 1.2.2. o Theorem 16. Let be a measure with compact support K in C. The integral 1 (6) f () = d(z) z denes an analytic C function on C \ K. Furthermore, in any open set where d = (2i)1 dz d for C k (), we have f C k () with f = if k 1. z z To summarize, this theorem tells us that (1) for not in the support of , integrating against 1/(z ) produces an analytic function and (2) for in the support of , if equals (2i)1 dz d, then f has the same degree of smoothness z as and satises f = . Understanding the theorem and its proof requires us to understand what a measure is and how to dierentiate a function dened as an integral. Measures. The theory of measure and integration is a course in itself. In this section, we give a denition of measure which should be enough to allow us to proceed. Denition 17. Let X be a compact subset of Rn and let C(X) denote the vector space of complex-valued continuous functions on X, equipped with the sup-norm ||f || := supxX |f (x)|. A complex measure on X is a continuous complex-valued linear functional on C(X). If is a complex measure on X, we could denote its value on an f C(X) by (f ), but it is more traditional to denote it by f (x) d(x). The following exercise helps to explain why such notation is used. Exercise 12. Suppose is itself a continuous function on the compact subset X of Rn . Show that f f (x)(x) dx denes a complex measure on X. A common notation for this measure would be dx.

JENNIFER HALFPAP

In Theorem 1.2.2, Hrmander assumes that is compactly supported, meaning o that there is a compact set K such that f d = K f d. When d = dz d z for continuous, this just means has compact support. Dierentiating functions dened by integrals. This is another common situation in analysis arising in this book for the rst time in the proof of Theorem 1.2.2. We have a function dened by an integral: 1 (7) f () := d(z), z where has compact support K. We are interested in whether f is dierentiable or analytic as a function of on C \ K. Since for any in C \ K, z does not vanish for any z in K, viewed as a function of , our integrand has the desired properties. Is the following legitimate? 1 f d(z) = 0 d(z) = 0 = z Fortunately, in many situations it is, though of course some justication is required. We discuss here several common arguments that may establish the legitimacy of dierentiating under the integral sign. The most obvious approach uses the denition of the derivative. For simplicity, suppose f : R2 R. Dene a new function F : R R by F (t) := f (x, t) dx. If we wish to show that, under some hypotheses on f , F (t) = f (x, t) dx, we must t show that for every > 0, there exists > 0 such that for all 0 < |h| < , F (t + h) F (t) f (x, t) dx < . h t Furthermore, the left-hand-side of this inequality f (x, t + h) f (x, t) f = (x, t) dx h t = 1 h
t+h t

f f (x, s) (x, t) ds t t

dx .

Exercise 13. State hypotheses on f under which the above argument can be completed to show that F (t) = f (x, t) dx. Give the complete argument in this situt ation. Another approach makes use of limit theorems. After all, we are trying to determine whether f (x, t + h) f (x, t) F (t + h) F (t) lim = lim dx h0 h0 h h f (x, t + h) f (x, t) = lim dx. h0 h Exercise 14. Many theorems exist giving hypotheses under which the limit of the integrals is the integral of the limit. The simplest such is usually encountered in an undergraduate analysis course. It says that the conclusion follows if fn f uniformly. State the denition of uniform convergence for a sequence of functions on a set X, and then give a precise statement and proof of this theorem. Another more sophisticated limit theorem is the Dominated Convergence Theorem:

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

Theorem 18. Let be a complex measure and let {fn } and f be integrable. Suppose for (almost) every x, limn fn (x) = f (x) and that there exists a function g with |g| d < such that |fn (x)| |g(x)| for all n and for (almost) every x. Then limn fn (x) d = f d. In other words, this theorem says that the limit of a sequence of integrals is the integral of the limit if the integrands converge pointwise (almost everywhere) to the limit and if there is a single integrable function dominating all the functions in the sequence. We use the Dominated Convergence Theorem to prove the following theorem on the continuity and dierentiability of functions dened by integrals. Theorem 19 ([Fol99], Theorem 2.27). Suppose f : X (a, b) C ( < a < b < ) and that f (, t) : X C is integrable for all t (a, b). Consider F (t) := f (x, t) d(x). X (a) Suppose there exists g : X C such that X |g(x)| d(x) < and for all x, t, |f (x, t)| |g(x)|. Then if limtt0 f (x, t) = f (x, t0 ) for every x, limtt0 F (t) = F (t0 ). In particular, continuity of f (x, ) for each x implies continuity of F . (b) Suppose f exists and there exists g : X C such that X |g(x)| d(x) < t and for all x, t, |f /t(x, t)| |g(x)|. Then F is dierentiable and F (t) = f d(x). t Proof. For part (a), let {tn } be any sequence in [a, b] such that tn t0 . Set gn (x) := f (x, tn ). Then each gn is integrable in x, gn (x) f (x, t0 ) for every x, and |gn (x)| |g(x)| for all x. Thus by the Dominated Convergence Theorem,
n

lim F (tn )

= = =

lim lim

f (x, tn ) d(x)
X

gn (x) d(x)
x

f (x, t0 ) d(x)
X

= F (t0 ). Next, consider part (b). Fix t. Let {hn } be a sequence of real numbers such that hn 0. Set f (x, t + hn ) f (x, t) . gn (x) := hn Then each gn is integrable in x, limn gn (x) = f (x, t) for all x, and |gn (x)| t |g(x)| for all n and x. Thus by the Dominated Convergence Theorem, F (t + hn ) F (t) n hn lim = = =
X n

lim lim

f (x, t + hn ) f (x, t) d(x) hn gn (x) d(x)

f (x, t) d(x). t

Since this is true for all sequences hn 0, F (t) exists and equals the integral of the derivative.

10

JENNIFER HALFPAP

Exercise 15. Return to Hrmanders Theorem 1.2.2. If = t + is, show that f o t and f can be obtained by dierentiating under the integral sign and that f = 0 on s C\K. (If the presence of the measure makes you uncomfortable, assume throughout that d = (2i)1 dz d.) z Completing the Proof of Theorem 1.2.2. The above discussion and exercise establish the rst statement of the Theorem, that f () = (z)1 d(z) is C and analytic on C \ K. We thus consider the second assertion. Furthermore, we treat only the case = R2 , so that for all z, d(z) = (2i)1 (z)dz d for in C k (R2 ) with compact support K. Then z (z) 1 dz d z 2i z 1 (z + ) = dz d. z 2i z For every = t+is, the integrand is the product of a compactly-supported function and a locally-integrable function and is thus integrable. Since C k with compact support K, the integrand is a continuous function of t and s with the integrable upper bound z 1 ||||K (z). By Theorem 19, f is continuous. If k 1, since any derivative of up to order k is continuous and compactly supported, any derivative of the integrand in t and s up to order k is bounded by an integrable function of z alone. It follows from Theorem 19 again that f C k with derivatives of f obtained by dierentiating under the integral sign. Thus if k 1, f () = f () = = = 1 2i 1 2i 1 2i
(z

+ ) + )

z
z (z

dz d z dz d z

z
z (z)

dz d. z

The last integral is over all of R2 , but since has compact support K, we obtain the same value if we integrate instead over an open disc B(0, R) large enough that it contains K. Since is identically zero on B(0, R), f () = = 1 2i 1 2i
z (z) B(0,R)

dz d z
z (z) B(0,R)

B(0,R)

(z) dz + z

dz d z

= (), where for the last equality we have used the Cauchy Integral Formula. Theorem 1.2.2 is thus established when = R2 . 2.6. Consequences of the Cauchy Integral Formula. It is not immediately obvious that the condition that an f in C 1 () is also analytic is a particularly strong one. After all, we have seen that this is merely equivalent to complex dif(z ferentiability of f , i.e., the existence of limzz0 f (z)f0 0 ) for every z0 . Just zz

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

11

as real-valued functions can be once-dierentiable but not twice-dierentiable, it seems there must exist functions that are once complex-dierentiable but not twice complex-dierentiable. This is, in fact, not the case. It turns out that the condition of complex differentiability is quite strong; analytic functions are remarkably well-behaved. As evidence, we establish a number of consequences of Hrmanders Theorems 1.2.1 o and 1.2.2. Corollary 20. If f A(), f C () and f A(). Proof. Fix . There exists r > 0 and 0 such that B(0 , r) and B(0 , r) . By the Cauchy Integral Formula, f () = = 1 2i
B(0 ,r)

f (z) dz z

1 (2i)1 f (z)B(0 ,r) (z)dz d. z z

Since d(z) := (2i)1 f (z)B(0 ,r) (z)dz d is a compactly-supported measure z (supported on B(0 , r)), by Theorem 1.2.2, f is C and analytic on C \ B(0 , r), in particular at . Consider g := f . Then g C 1 (B(0 , r)) and g 2f f = = =0 for all B(0 , r). Thus f is analytic at and the result follows. Thus Hrmander uses his quite general Theorem 1.2.2 to conclude that an anao lytic f is in fact innitely-dierentiable and that all of its complex derivatives are analytic. One can obtain the result more directly: Exercise 16 (Cauchy Integral Formula for Derivatives). Let f be analytic on . For and B(, R) , show without appealing to Theorem 1.2.2 that for any j N, j! f (z) (8) f (j) () = dz. 2i B(,R) (z )j+1 The next exercise contains number of familiar and beautiful consequences of the above exercise. Of course any undergraduate text in complex analysis will have the proofs; try to prove them on your own. Exercise 17. Let f : C be analytic. Suppose 0 and that B(0 , R) . (1) ( Cauchy Estimates) j! (9) |f (j) (0 )| j sup |f ()|. R |0 |R (2) (Liouvilles Theorem) If f is bounded and entire, f is constant. (3) (Fundamental Theorem of Alegebra) If f is a non-constant polynomial over C, there exists z0 C such that f (z0 ) = 0. It is also natural to ask for what notion of limit is the limit of a sequence of analytic functions analytic? We will prove the following: Proposition 21. If fn A() and fn f uniformly on compact subsets of , then f A().

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JENNIFER HALFPAP

Exercise 18. You may wish to consult an undergraduate analysis text such as [Str00]. (1) Let {fn } be a sequence of continuous functions from [a, b] to R. For what mode of convergence is the limit function f guaranteed to be continuous? State such a theorem and give an example showing that if the hypothesis is violated, the conclusion may fail. (2) Let {fn } be a sequence of dierentiable functions from [a, b] to R. Suppose fn (x) f (x) for all x. Under what additional hypotheses is f dierentiable with f (x) = limn fn (x)? State such a theorem and give an example showing that if the hypothesis is violated, the conclusion may fail. The proof of the proposition requires the next theorem on the size of derivatives of an analytic function. Theorem 22 (Hrmanders Theorem 1.2.4). For every compact subset K of o and every open neighborhood of K in , there exist constants Cj such that for all f A(), (10) sup |f (j) (z)| Cj
zK

|f (z)| dx dy.

Proof. Fix a compact subset K and a bounded open neighborhood of K with . Let C0 () denote the set of all innitely-dierentiable functions with compact support contained in . Let C0 () with the additional property that 1 on a neighborhood of K. Consider f A() and dene g := f . We want to apply the Cauchy Integral Formula to g on . Since g(z) 0 on and g = f , z z g() = f ()() = 1 2i f (z) (z) z dz d. z z

Since is a smooth function with compact support, its rst partial derivatives are bounded functions. Thus there exists M satisfying |/ z | M on . Further more, since / z 0 on , for K there exists d > 0 such that |z | d on the support of the integrand. Thus for K |f ()| = |g()| =
z (z)

f (z) M d

dxdy

The result follows for j = 0.

|f (z)| dxdy.

Exercise 19. Finish the proof by rst establishing that for j N and K, f (j) () = We now prove Proposition 21. aj 2i f (z) (z) z dz d. z (z )j+1

 THE HORMANDER COMPANION

13

Proof. Fix a compact set K in and an open neighborhood of K with compact closure in . (This is expressed succinctly as K .) Applying the previous theorem to fn fm gives
zK

sup |fn (z) fm (z)| C1

|fn (z) fm (z)| dxdy.

Since the sequence {fn } is uniformly convergent, it is uniformly Cauchy, and hence by the Dominated Convergence Theorem, the right-hand side of the above inequality tends to zero. The sequence {fn /z} is thus uniformly convergent on K. Since the fn are analytic, 1 fn fn fn = +i = 0, z 2 x y i.e., fn = i fn . Thus fn = i fn = fn and the uniform convergence of x y z y x {fn /z} on K implies the uniform convergence of the sequences {fn /x} and {fn /y}. We now invoke the real-variable result to conclude that f = limn fn x x 1 and f = limn fn , so that 2 ( f + i f ) = limn 1 ( fn + i fn ) = 0. y y x y 2 x y References
[Fol99] Gerald Folland. Real Analysis: Modern Techniques and Their Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999. [GP74] Victor Guillemin and Alan Pollack. Dierential Topology. Prentice Hall, 1974. [Hr90] Lars Hrmander. An Introduction to Complex Analysis in Several Variables, third edition. o o North Holland, 1990. [Str00] Robert Strichartz. The Way of Analysis. Jones and Bartlett, 2000.