ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

THERMODYNAMICS
Conservation of Energy
The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. If a system undergoes a process by heat and work transfer, then the net heat supplied, Q, plus the net work input, W, is equal to the change of internal energy of the working fluid, i.e.

where U1 and U2 are internal energy of the system at initial and final states, respectively. The special case of the equation applied to a steady-flow system is known as steady-flow energy equation. Applying this general principle to a thermodynamic cycle, when the system undergoes a complete cycle, i.e. U1 = U2, results in:

where: Q= The algebraic sum of the heat supplied to (+) or rejected from (-) the system. W= The algebraic sum of the work done by surroundings on the system (+) or by the system on surroundings (-). Applying the rule to the power plant shown in figure below,

gives: Q = Qin - Qout W = Win - Wout

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ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

Qin + Win - Qout - Wout = 0 where, Qin = Heat supplied to the system through boiler, Win = Feed-pump work, Qout = Heat rejected from the system by condenser, Wout = Turbine work.

Heat Engine
Heat engine is defined as a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy or more exactly a system which operates continuously and only heat and work may pass across its boundaries. The operation of a heat engine can best be represented by a thermodynamic cycle. Some examples are: Otto, Diesel, Brayton, Stirling and Rankine cycles. Unlike other energy conversion devices that may have theoretical or actual efficiency approaching 100%, the efficiency of a heat engine is limited to below 100% and depends on the maximum and minimum temperatures at which heat is transferred into and out of the working substance.

Forward Heat Engine

LTER= Low Temperature Energy Reservoir HTER= High Temperature Energy Reservoir A forward heat engine has a positive work output such as Rankine or Brayton cycle. Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the cycle gives: Q1 - Q2 - W = 0 The second law of thermodynamics states that the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle), i.e. , has an upper limit

It can be shown that: Q1 > W which means that it is impossible to convert the whole heat input to work and Q2 > 0 which means that a minimum of heat supply to the cold reservoir is necessary.

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ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

Reverse Heat Engine

LTER= Low Temperature Energy Reservoir HTER= High Temperature Energy Reservoir A reverse heat engine has a positive work input such as heat pump and refrigerator. Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the cycle gives: - Q1 + Q2 + W = 0 In case of a reverse heat engine the second law of thermodynamics is as follows: It is impossible to transfer heat from a cooler body to a hotter body without any work input i.e. W > 0 which means that the coefficient of performance for a heat pump is greater than unity.

Essentials of a Heat Engine

Heat Source a heat engine converts energy (in the form of heat) to mechanical work and therefore must have an energy source in terms of heat. Working Substance in order to convert heat to work, a substance is required that expands when heated. It then able to move a force through a distance and provides work. Gases (or vapours) do this most effectively, thus heat engines use them as working substances. In some cases a phase change may occur for example water-steam-water in steam engines. A solid substance is also possible for example the bimetal rod, which rotates when exposed to sunlight. Working substance may also be known as working fluid. Mechanical Work (or Power) Output usually in the form of rotating shaft power but linear power output is also used. Working Cycle a heat engine cannot operate continuously unless the working substance goes through a series of processes linked together in such a way that the system returns to its original condition and there is a nett work output. Thus the process must form a loop on a p-V (pressure volume) diagram that has a positive area. These series of processes are known as working cycle. Heat Sink at least one process in the working cycle must be one in which heat is rejected to the surroundings. Because heat will flow only across a temperature difference, this means that the engine requires a heat sink that is able to absorb the rejected heat and is at a lower temperature than the

THERMODYNAMICS NOTES (ABR)

ENGINEERING SCIENCE LGD 10703

source. On earth, the heat sink for heat engines is the atmosphere, from which the energy radiates out into space. Usually atmospheric air provides the immediate heat sink but in other cases lakes or the ocean may be used for better initial heat transfer.

Calculation Example
1. A heat engine uses fuel of energy content 43.1 MJ/kg and produces 17.4 kW of useful power. The heat rejection rate through the exhaust and the cooling systems is 44.8 kW. Determine: a) the efficiency of the engine b) the usage rate of rate in kg/h (kilogram per hour) 2. Discuss the following devices with regard to the three criteria: heat input, work output and continuous or cyclic operation and hence whether they are heat engines or not. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) a shell firing cannon an aircraft jet engine a steam turbine an electric motor a solar powered motor car drive mechanism a hot water heater a bimetal rod, which rotates when exposed to sunlight

Answer Question 1 a) Rate of heat supplied QS = Rate of heat rejection QR + Power output P = 44.8 + 17.4 kW = 62.2 kW Efficiency = output power/ rate of heat supplied = 17.4/62.2 = 0.28 = 28% b) Rate of heat supplied QS = mass flow rate of fuel mF x fuel energy E Mass flow rate of fuel mF = 62.2 x 103/ 43.1 x 106 = 1.443 x 10-3 kg/s Thus Fuel per hour = 1.443 x 10-3 x 3600 = 5.2 kg/h Answer Question 2 a) No no working cycle b) Yes work output occurs when engine moves forward because of thrust developed c) No if no heat source is used but Yes if boiler is used to generate steam as heat source (total system including boiler is a heat engine) d) No electrical energy input is not heat e) Yes there is a mechanical power output continues to operate as long as the heat solar generated by solar energy is remain f) No since no work output g) Yes it satisfies three criteria and the work output occurs due to expansion of a solid not fluid

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