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Endocrine Outline I. General functions of endocrine system A. 2nd major pathway B. diffused system C.

regulated by hormones (chemical signals) II. Endocrine glands: true endocrine glands and only secret hormones A. pituitary (hyopohysis) B. pineal gland (back of brain) C. thyroid gland D. parathyroid E. adrenal glands III. Other endocrine glands A. hypothalmus B. thymus C. pancreas D. gonads E. kidneys F. heart G. adipose tissue H. stomach and intestines I. placenta IV. General characteristics of hormones: secreted by endocrine cells, chemical signal, circulates in bodily fluids, regulates behavior of other cells (target cells) A. Endocrine: circulatory hormones that enter blood vessels and circulate across entire body Autocrine: effects itself. Has receptors for itself. Self regulatory. Paracrine: endocrine and target cells are near each other B. Water-soluble hormones: polar and hydrophilic 1. Types a. polar and hydrophilic b. biogenic amines or proteins (moves and circulates easy) c. cant get across membranerequires a membrane receptor on target cell d. once the hormone binds to the receptor it can open or close a nearby ion channel and change the cell metabolism via a 2nd messenger. C. Lipid-soluble hormones: non-polar and hydrophobic 1. Type of lipid soluble hormone a. steroid: derived from cholesterol, sex hormone and some adrenal hormones b. fatty acid bases: prostaglandins c. biogenic amines: modified amino acids, proteins 2. Actions a. need a transport protein to circulate in bodily fluids. b. no membrane receptor on target cell. Hormone diffuses across the membrane. Binds to internal receptor inside target cell often in the nucleus- regulate genetic expression . D. Mechanisms of hormones 1. Open or close ion channels and this will change the membrane potential (ex: more sodium inside is polarization). 2. Change behavior of enzymes inside target cell: changees cell metabolism or secretion of a cell 3. Change the genetic expression of the target cells: when expressed it is turned on and when suppressed it is turned off. E. Regulation of hormone secretion 1. Humoral: local control; endocrine can detect changes in local environment 2. Neural: regulated by autonomic system; controls secretion 3. Hormonal: once endocrine organ/hormone controls another endocrine organ or hormone. Ex. Hypothalmus controls the pituitary which controls they thyroid which secretes hormone. V. Pituitary gland (hypophysis) A. Anterior pituitary (adenohympohysis): contolled by the hypothalamus via hormonal regulation. 1. Somatropin/growth hormone: this stimulates the growth/development in the body. Growth hormone reacts with other hormones in the body. a. gigantism: greater muscle mass, excessive levels during childhood, over 6 foot, excessive soft tissue growth therefore greater muscle mass. b. acromegaly: excessive growth hormone in adulthood, everything was in normal limits in childhood, but then during adulthood things change, disfigured and bones dont grow, but thicken if diagnosed early, can treat at early stages. c. dwardfism: low levels during childhood, small skeleton, small stature, juvenile facial characteristics, lack of sexual characteristics. 2. Thyroid stimulating hormone/thyrotrophic a. released/secreted into the blood. Targets thyroid which stimulates thyroid to release hormones. 3. Gonadotropins: targets gonas; ovary in females and testes in males; stimulates production of sex cells and secretion of sex

hormones a. follicle stimulating hormones b. luteininzing hormone 4. Prolactin: stimulates milk production and targets mammilary glands 5. Adrenocorticotropic: targets adrenal cortex and stimulates the release of hormones ex: cortisol. B. Posterior pituitary (neurophypophysis): composed of neural tissue and is regulated by hypothalamus via neural control. Stored and secretes hormones that are synthesized in the hypothalamus. 1. Antidiuretic hormone: releases from posterior pituitary gland and released in response to increase solutes concentration. . a. targets kidneys in which kidneys retain water. b. released when body becomes dehydrated and tells the body to retain water. c. also targets sweat and skin glands to decrease sweating. d. also targets vessels which constrict increase blood pressure. e. ADH: decrease in urine output; targets kidneys, skin and vessels- maintain blood pressure. f. diabetes insipidus: lack of ADH or kidneys dont respond. Increase in urine, dilute, lots of water results in dehydration, excessive thirst. Mellitus is a problem with glucose and insulin. 2. Oxytocin a. release in response to stress or labor and delivery. Targets smooth muscle. Increases contractions in uterus which aid in labor and delivery. C. Regulation of the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis: anterior pituitary is under control from the hypothalamus via hormonal regulation. The hypothalamus secretes releasing hormone that targets the anterior pituitary into a local blood supply called the hypophyscal portal system. The posterior pituitary is under control from the hypothalamus via neural control. It stores and secrets hormones that are synthesized and produced in hypothalamus. VI. Pineal gland A. this gland is located under the posterior diencephalon and is under neural control. Secretes melatonin. Melatonin is released when atmospheric light levels decline (evening time). Targets brain and helps induce sleep. VII. Thyroid gland A. Follicles, follicular cells, parafollicular cells 1. Located in the cervical area, wrapped around top of the trachea. Has 2 connection lobes with no separate function. Composed of structures called follicles. 2. Follicular cells secret thyroglobulin. 3. Parafollicular cells are found in the spaced of the follicles. 4. Thyroid has 2 versions of the thyroid hormone, T3 and T4. Both are under hormonal control via thyroid hormone from the anterior pituitary. 5. Production of T3 and T4 a. hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituatry to release TSH. b. TSH targets follicular cells in the thyroid c. follicular cells absorb iodine ions from the blood d. follicular cells secret iodine into the lumen e. iodine starts combining TGB to form the active form of the hormone T3 or T4. The active form is released into the blood. f. thyroid hormones are both secrete by follicular cells into the blood and target many tissues in the body. f. T3 and T4 increase metabolism in target tissue and in children helps regulate growth and development . B. Calcitonin: when calcium levels in the blood get too high, it is detected directly by parafollicular cells-- humoral regulation. Calcitonin is released into the blood and targets the bones and kidneys. Targets bones in order to increase bone deposition and removes calcium from the blood. Targets kidneys to increase calcium secretion and secret calcium into the urine. C. Hyperthyroidism 1. Abrnormalites of T3 and T4 2. An increase in T3 and T4 3. In children, it will cause an increase in skeletal growth, long but narrow bones. Kids tend to have lots of energy. In adults, an increase in basal metabolic rate, weight loss, hyperactive which may lead to anxiety, lack of sleep, etc. 4. Sometimes, but not always, a goiter will develop. This is an enlarged thyroid. 5. Increase in adipose tissue behind the eye and causes the eye to buldge out. 6. Graves disease-most common form of hyperthyroidism D. Hypothyroidism 1. Lack of TSH 2. Lack of iodine in the diet 3. Problem with thyroid 4. Thyroid gets stimulated but cannot release the active form. Just has the precursor. 5. Can be treated by giving T3 and T4 or iodine treatment. 6. In children this leased to mental retardation and stunted growth. In adults, it leads to a decrease in BMR, lethargy, low body temp, weight gain, sleepy, and foggy and mentally confused. Skin is dry and hair becomes brittle. VIII. Parathyroid gland A. Embedded in the back of the thyroid B. Has 4 lobes/glands C. secrete parathyroid hormone which helps regulate calcium if calcium levels are too low. Under humoral regulation. D. PTH released into the blood and targets;

1. Bone: increase bone reasorption 2. Kidneys: retain calcium in the blood and have less calcium in the urine 3. Targets intestine 4. These all increase calcium levels back to normal . IX. Thymus A. deep to sternum B. large in children C. small and atrophies in adults by the time they reach 30 or so. Slowly replaced by adipose. D. mature t cells migrate out of the thymus, into other tissues and then atrophies. E. left with adipose as an adult F. endocrine organ because it secretes hormone thymosin (targets t-cells and stimulates growth) X. Adrenal glands A. adrenal cortex: regulated by the pituitary by hormonal regulationACTH 1. Zona glomerulosa a. most superficial layer b. primarily secretes miner corticoids c. most important one to know- aldosterone i. targets kidneys to regulate Na balance and helps body retain Na when levels are getting low. ii. Targets vascular system to maintain BP. 2. Zona fasicualta a. middle layer b. secrets glucocorticoids - cortisol c. regulates cellular metabolism d. cortical-stree hormone i. enhances protein degradation ii. Enhance breakdown of lipids iii. Low levels are good 3. Zona reticularis a. deep layer by the medulla b. secrets gonadcorticoids- androgens c. sex hormones similar to testosterone. Both gonads produce it. Helps maintain muscle mass and growth, helps libido and helps increase metabolism. 4. Disorders of the adrenal cortex a. Addisons disease AKA adrenal insufficiency: hyposecretion of cortisol and aldosterone; levels are too low. i. excessive melanin production in the skin that results in patchy distribution in pigment. ii. Results in bronzing/tanned aspect iii. Lethargy, iv. hypoglycemic, v. low bp and cardiac problems due to an ion inbalance. b. Cushings syndrome: i. hypersecretion of glucocorticoidsincrease level of cortisol ii. Redistribution of adipose deposits increase abdominal fat iii. Increase shoulder and facial deposits iv. Decrease in leg/arm deposits v. easily bruised, flush/reddish face, hygerglycemia (increase glucose) vi. Hypertension- high bp c. congenital adrenogenital syndrome i. due to over reactive adrenal glands. Due to hypersecretion of androgens. ii. In females it can lead to male characteristics (2nd characteristics such as facial hair, increase muscle mass, etc.) iii. Childhood in males they develop precocious sexual maturation. Ex: 6 yr. old boy who develops testes soon. Iv. This can be treated by blocking hormones. B. Adrenal medulla 1. Nervous tissue (modified ganglionic neurons); under neural regulation via autonomic nervous system. Stimulates stress (adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%). 2. E & N mimic the sympathetic response by the following: a. increase in heart rate and bp b. increase sweaty c. pupils dilate d. decrease digestive function e. increase in glucose f. increase in ventilation g. vascular changes in blood flow XI. Pancreas A. Characteristics 1. Exocrine function in that it releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine.

2. Endocrine function in that endocrine cells of the pancreas- islet cells secrete into bodily fluids. B. Islets of langerhans: under humoral regulation and some hormonal regulation. There are 3 types of cells within each IOL. 1. Alpha cell a. secrete glucagon when blood glucose levels are too low. Targets the following: i. liver: converts glycogen into glucose. Produces new glucose - gluconeogenesis ii. Skeletal muscle: converts glycogen into glucose iii. Alpha cells detect decrease in glucose concentration (humoral regulation) and has an effect to increase glucose concentration to normal range. 2. Beta cell a. secretes insulin when glucose levels are too high. Released when glucose concentration in the blood is too high. Targets the following: i. liver and skeletal muscle will convert absorbed glucose into glycogen and liver will also form lipids when increase in insulin. iii. Decrease in glucose concentration from blood. Beta cells detect increase in glucose concentrationhumoral regulation. 3. Delta cell a. secrete somatostatin. Stating is an inhibitory /lowering effect inhibitory growth hormone b. interacts with many other hormones, including hGH, to control growth rates during developments. Regulated by hormone---- hormonal regulation. C. DM a. type 1 i. juvenile onset ii. Usually diagnosed in childhood iii. Autoimmune disorder iv. Immune system destroy beta cells. Block activity and destroys beta cells in pancreas. This leads to a decrease in insulin which leads to an increase in glucose and leads to hyperglycemia. Treatment is insulin injections and pump. b. type 2 i. adult onset ii. Associated with obesity iii. Cells not responding to insulin iv. Decrease in sensitivity to insulin v. increase in concentration of glucose vi. Treatment is diet and exercise c. sxs i. increase glucose concentration ii. Glucose in urine iii. Increase urine output iv. Increase thirst v. dehydration d. long term effects i. increase in viscosity of the blood ii. heart works harder to circulate blood. Increase in cardiac output leads to increase in cardiac problems and disorders. iii. visual decline iv. poor wound heavily v. strokes v. heart attacks XII. Adipose tissue A. Adipose hormones 1. Many are associated with metabolic regulation 2. Immune function-inflammation-lipid metabolism and targets many tissues 2. Hormones a. leptin: influences appetite and insulin sensitivity b. adiponectin: influences vascular health and insulin

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